Dissociable brain mechanisms for processing social exclusion and rule violation

Let me in: The neural correlates of inclusion motivation in loneliness

BACKGROUND

While it is well-established that humans possess an innate need for social belonging, the neural mechanisms underlying motivation for connection are still largely unknown. We propose that inclusion motivation - measured through the effort that individuals are willing to invest to be included in social interactions - may serve as one of the basic building blocks of social behavior and may change in lonely individuals.

METHODS

Following the screening of 303 participants, we scanned 30 low- and 28 high-loneliness individuals with functional magnetic resonance imaging while they performed the Active Inclusion Task (AIT). The AIT assesses the participants' levels of effort invested in influencing their inclusion during classic Cyberball conditions of fair play and exclusion.

RESULTS

High- compared to low-loneliness individuals showed higher urgency for inclusion, specifically during fair play, which correlated with higher activity in the right thalamus. Furthermore, in high-loneliness individuals, we found increased functional connectivity between the thalamus and the temporoparietal junction, putamen, and insula.

LIMITATIONS

Participants interacted with computerized avatars, reducing ecological validity. Additionally, although increasing inclusion in the task required action, the physical demand was not high. Additional limitations are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Inclusion motivation in loneliness is heightened during fair but not exclusionary interactions, and is linked to activity in brain regions implicated in appetitive behavior and social cognition. The findings indicate that lonely individuals may view threat in inclusionary interactions, prompting them to take action to regain connection. This suggests that inclusion motivation may help explain social difficulties in loneliness.

One step too far: social cerebellum in norm-violating navigation

Social norms are pivotal in guiding social interactions. The current study investigated the potential contribution of the posterior cerebellum, a critical region involved in perceiving and comprehending the sequential dynamics of social actions, in detecting actions that either conform to or deviate from social norms. Participants engaged in a goal-directed task in which they observed others navigating towards a goal. The trajectories demonstrated either norm-violating (trespassing forbidden zones) or norm-following behaviors (avoiding forbidden zones). Results revealed that observing social norm-violating behaviors engaged the bilateral posterior cerebellar Crus 2 and the right temporoparietal junction (TPJ) from the mentalizing network, and the parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) to a greater extent than observing norm-following behaviors. These mentalizing regions were also activated when comparing social sequences against non-social and non-sequential control conditions. Reproducing norm-violating social trajectories observed earlier, activated the left cerebellar Crus 2 and the right PHG compared to reproducing norm-following trajectories. These findings illuminate the neural mechanisms in the cerebellum associated with detecting norm transgressions during social navigation, emphasizing the role of the posterior cerebellum in detecting and signaling deviations from anticipated sequences.

Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in patients with borderline personality disorder: an fMRI study

BACKGROUND

Interpersonal difficulties of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) are closely related to rejection sensitivity. The aim of the present study was to gain further insight into the experience and cerebral processing of social interactions in patients with BPD by using fMRI during experimentally induced experiences of social exclusion, inclusion, and overinclusion.

METHODS

The study involved 30 participants diagnosed with BPD (29 female and 1 male; age: M = 24.22, SD = 5.22) and 30 healthy controls (29 female and 1 male; age: M = 24.66, SD = 5.28) with no current or lifetime psychiatric diagnoses. In the fMRI session, all participants were asked to complete a Cyberball task that consisted of an alternating sequence of inclusion, exclusion, and overinclusion conditions.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy controls, participants with BPD reported higher levels of inner tension and more unpleasant emotions across all experimental conditions. At the neural level, the participants with BPD showed lower recruitment of the left hippocampus in response to social exclusion (relative to the inclusion condition) than the healthy controls did. Lower recruitment of the left hippocampus in this contrast was associated with childhood maltreatment in patients with BPD. However, this difference was no longer significant when we added the covariate of hippocampal volume to the analysis. During social overinclusion (relative to the inclusion condition), we observed no significant differences in a group comparison of neural activation.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study suggest that patients with BPD experience more discomfort than do healthy controls during social interactions. Compared to healthy participants, patients with BPD reported more inner tension and unpleasant emotions, irrespective of the extent to which others included them in social interactions. At a neural level, the participants with BPD showed a lower recruitment of the left hippocampus in response to social exclusion than the healthy controls did. The reduced activation of this neural structure could be related to a history of childhood maltreatment and smaller hippocampal volume in patients with BPD.

Thumbs up or thumbs down: neural processing of social feedback and links to social motivation in adolescent girls

Adolescence is a period of rapid biological and psychological development, characterized by increasing emotional reactivity and risk-taking, especially in peer contexts. Theories of adolescent neural development suggest that the balance in sensitivity across neural threat, reward and regulatory systems contributes to these changes. Building on previous research, this study used a novel social feedback task to explore activation and functional connectivity in the context of social threat and reward in a sample of mid-adolescent girls (n = 86, Mage = 16.32). When receiving negative peer feedback, adolescents showed elevated activation in, and amygdala connectivity with, social processing regions [e.g. medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ)]. When receiving positive feedback, adolescents showed elevated activation in social and reward (e.g. mPFC and ventromedial prefrontal cortex) processing regions and less striatum-cerebellum connectivity. To understand the psychological implications of neural activation and co-activation, we examined associations between neural processing of threat and reward and self-reported social goals. Avoidance goals predicted elevated amygdala and striatum connectivity with social processing regions [e.g. medial temporal gyrus (MTG)], whereas approach goals predicted deactivation in social processing regions (e.g. MTG/TPJ and precuneus), highlighting the importance of considering individual differences in sensitivity to social threat and reward in adolescence.

Stressor-Specific Sex Differences in Amygdala-Frontal Cortex Networks

Females and males differ in stress reactivity, coping, and the prevalence rates of stress-related disorders. According to a neurocognitive framework of stress coping, the functional connectivity between the amygdala and frontal regions (including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC), and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)) plays a key role in how people deal with stress. In the current study, we investigated the effects of sex and stressor type in a within-subject counterbalanced design on the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of the amygdala and these frontal regions in 77 healthy participants (40 females). Both stressor types led to changes in subjective ratings, with decreasing positive affect and increasing negative affect and anger. Females showed higher amygdala-vACC and amygdala-mPFC rsFC for social exclusion than for achievement stress, and compared to males. Whereas a higher amygdala-vACC rsFC indicates the activation of emotion processing and coping, a higher amygdala-mPFC rsFC indicates feelings of reward and social gain, highlighting the positive effects of social affiliation. Thus, for females, feeling socially affiliated might be more fundamental than for males. Our data indicate interactions of sex and stressor in amygdala-frontal coupling, which translationally contributes to a better understanding of the sex differences in prevalence rates and stress coping.

A Functional Neuroimaging Investigation of Moral Foundations Theory

Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) posits that the human mind contains modules (or "foundations") that are functionally specialized to moralize unique dimensions of the social world: Authority, Loyalty, Purity, Harm, Fairness, and Liberty. Despite this strong claim about cognitive architecture, it is unclear whether neural activity during moral reasoning exhibits this modular structure. Here, we use spatiotemporal partial least squares correlation (PLSC) analyses of fMRI data collected during judgments of foundation-specific violations to investigate whether MFT's cognitive modularity claim extends to the neural level. A mean-centered PLSC analysis returned two latent variables that differentiated between social norm and moral foundation violations, functionally segregated Purity, Loyalty, Physical Harm, and Fairness from the other foundations, and suggested that Authority has a different neural basis than other binding foundations. Non-rotated PLSC analyses confirmed that neural activity distinguished social norm from moral foundation violations, and distinguished individualizing and binding moral foundations if Authority is dropped from the binding foundations. Purity violations were persistently associated with amygdala activity, whereas moral foundation violations more broadly tended to engage the default network. Our results constitute partial evidence for neural modularity and motivate further research on the novel groupings identified by the PLSC analyses.

Differential neural sensitivity to social inclusion and exclusion in adolescents in foster care

OBJECTIVES

Adolescents in foster care may exhibit differential patterns of brain functioning that contribute to their pervasive socioemotional challenges. However, there has been limited investigation of implicated neural processes, particularly in the social domain. Thus, the current study investigated neural responses to exclusionary and inclusionary peer interactions in adolescents in foster-care.

METHODS

Participants comprised adolescents aged 11-18 years in foster care (N = 69) and a community sample (N = 69). They completed an fMRI adaptation of Cyberball, a virtual ball-throwing paradigm, that included periods of exclusion and over-inclusion. To investigate neural sensitivity to peer social experiences, we quantified neural responses that scaled with consecutive inclusionary and exclusionary interactions (using parametric modulators).

RESULTS

Relative to the community sample, adolescents in foster care exhibited increasing response to consecutive exclusionary events in lateral prefrontal regions and decreasing response to consecutive inclusionary events in the intraparietal sulcus and temporo-occipital cortex. Further, exploratory analyses revealed that dorsolateral prefrontal activation to exclusion was related to externalizing problems, particularly in the foster care sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight greater neural sensitivity to exclusionary, and lesser sensitivity to inclusionary, peer interactions in adolescents in foster care. Engagement of prefrontal clusters may reflect greater salience and emotion regulatory processes during exclusion, while parietal and temporal clusters may reflect reduced attention and behavioural engagement during inclusion. Thus foster care involvement is associated with broad changes in neural responses during peer interactions, and further these potentially relate to externalizing problems that have been identified in this vulnerable population.

Neural Response to Social Exclusion Moderates the Link Between Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms and Substance Use

BACKGROUND

Substance use (SU) typically increases from middle to late adolescence. Anxiety is one factor associated with greater SU, although variability in who uses substances remains. Some models suggest that brain-based susceptibility markers could reveal which adolescents are at a higher risk for psychopathology, but it is unknown whether these individual differences attenuate or accentuate the association between anxiety and elevated SU even if normative. This study addressed this gap by testing whether neural response to social exclusion moderates the association between anxiety symptoms and increased SU from middle to late adolescence.

METHODS

Participants were 181 Mexican-origin adolescents (48% female; 16-17 years old) who completed a social exclusion task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan and filled out questionnaires about their SU and anxiety symptoms. Analyses focused on neural response to social exclusion versus inclusion within 3 regions of interest and change in SU across 2 years.

RESULTS

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex response to social exclusion, but not subgenual anterior cingulate cortex or anterior insula, moderated the relation between anxiety symptoms and SU, such that higher anxiety symptoms predicted a greater relative increase in SU only for those youth with a lower dorsal anterior cingulate cortex response to exclusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Blunted dorsal anterior cingulate cortex response to social exclusion may serve as a neural susceptibility marker of altered conflict monitoring or emotion regulation in middle adolescence that, in combination with high levels of anxious feelings, elevates the risk for onset of and/or increased SU by late adolescence. These findings have implications for designing targeted interventions to mitigate SU among adolescents.

Aberrant Neural Response to Social Exclusion Without Significantly Greater Distress in Youth With Bipolar Disorder: Preliminary Findings

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the effects of social exclusion on youth with bipolar disorder (BD). Understanding these effects and the functional neural correlates of social exclusion in youth with BD may establish differences from healthy youth and help identify areas of intervention.

METHODS

We investigated brain function in 19 youth with BD and 14 age and gender matched healthy control (HC) participants while performing Cyberball, an fMRI social exclusion task. Whole brain activation, region-of-interest, and functional connectivity were compared between groups and examined with behavioral measures.

RESULTS

Compared with the HC group, youth with BD exhibited greater activation in the left fusiform gyrus (FFG) during social exclusion. Functional connectivity between the left FFG and the posterior cingulate/precuneus was significantly greater in the HC compared with the BD group. For the HC group only, age and subjective distress during Cyberball significantly predicted mean FFG activation. No significant differences in distress during social exclusion were found between groups.

CONCLUSION

Although preliminary due to small sample size, these data suggest that youth with BD process social exclusion in a manner that focuses on basic visual information while healthy youth make use of past experiences to interpret current social encounters. This difference may account for the social cognitive issues experienced by youth with BD, which can lead to more severe anxiety and mood symptoms.

Do Histories of Painful Life Experiences Affect the Expression of Empathy Among Young Adults? An Electroencephalography Study

Previous research suggests that prior experience of pain affects the expression of empathy. However, most of these studies attended to physical pain despite evidence indicating that other forms of pain may also affect brain activity and emotional states in similar ways. To address this limitation, we compared empathic responses of 33 participants, some of whom had experienced a personal loss, across three conditions: observing strangers in physical pain, psychological pain, and a non-painful condition. We also examined the effect of presence of prior painful experience on empathic reactions. In addition, we examined the stimulation type, prior experience, and ERPs in the early Late Positive Potential (300-550 ms), late Late Positive Potential (550-800 ms), and very late Late Positive Potential (VLLPP; 800-1,050 ms) time windows. Behavioral data indicated that participants who had personally experienced a loss scored significantly higher on perspective taking in the psychological-pain condition. ERP results also indicated significantly lower intensity in Fp2, an electrode in the prefrontal region, within VLLPP time window for participants experiencing a loss in the psychological-pain condition. The results of both behavioral and ERP analysis indicated that prior experience of psychological pain is related to cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy. The implication of these findings for research on empathy, for the study of psychological pain, and the moderating influence of prior painful experiences are discussed.

Feeling left out or just surprised? Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in adolescence

Social belonging is an important human drive that influences mood and behavior. Neural responses to social exclusion are well-characterized, but the specificity of these responses to processing rejection-related affective distress is unknown. The present study compares neural responses to exclusion and overinclusion, a condition that similarly violates fairness expectations but does not involve rejection, with a focus on implications for models of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and anterior insula (AI) function. In an fMRI adaptation of the Cyberball paradigm with adolescents aged 11.1-17.7 years (N = 69), we employed parametric modulators to examine scaling of neural signal with cumulative exclusion and inclusion events, an approach that overcomes arbitrary definitions of condition onsets/offsets imposed on fluid, continuous gameplay. We identified positive scaling of dACC and posterior insula response with cumulative exclusion events, but these same regions exhibited trending signal decreases with cumulative inclusion events. Furthermore, areas within the dACC and insula also responded to context incongruency (throws to the participant in the exclusion run; throws between computer players in the overinclusion run). These findings caution against interpretations that responses in these regions uniquely reflect the affective distress of exclusion within social interaction paradigms. We further identified that the left ventrolateral PFC, rostromedial PFC, and left intraparietal sulcus responded similarly to cumulative exclusion and inclusion. These findings shed light on which neural regions exhibit patterns of differential sensitivity to exclusion or overinclusion, as well as those that are more broadly engaged by both types of social interaction.

Pelvic Pain Alters Functional Connectivity Between Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Hippocampus in Both Humans and a Rat Model

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and hippocampus (HIPP) are two key brain regions associated with pain and pain-related affective processing. However, whether and how pelvic pain alters the neural activity and connectivity of the ACC and HIPP under baseline and during social pain, and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms, remain unclear. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) combined with electrophysiology and biochemistry, we show that pelvic pain, particularly, primary dysmenorrhea (PDM), causes an increase in the functional connectivity between ACC and HIPP in resting-state fMRI, and a smaller reduction in connectivity during social exclusion in PDM females with periovulatory phase. Similarly, model rats demonstrate significantly increased ACC-HIPP synchronization in the gamma band, associating with reduced modulation by ACC-theta on HIPP-gamma and increased levels of receptor proteins and excitation. This study brings together human fMRI and animal research and enables improved therapeutic strategies for ameliorating pain and pain-related affective processing.

Neurobiobehavioral responses to virtual social rejection in females-exploring the influence of oxytocin

In recent years, especially adolescents and young adults interact frequently via social media and digital communication. Mimicking an online communication platform where participants could initiate short conversations with two computerized interlocutors, the Verbal Interaction Social Threat Task (VISTTA) was used to induce feelings of social rejection. Motivational and physiological reactions were investigated in 43 healthy young women undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), of which 22 received 24 international units (IU) intranasal oxytocin and 21 received placebo. Replicating previous findings, social rejection entailed a lower willingness to cooperate with the two peers. Increased activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and bilateral insula/inferior frontal gyrus was observed when receiving negative feedback from others, and in the precuneus when subsequently rating one's willingness to cooperate with them in the future. Oxytocin did not seem to alter responses to social rejection. The current findings provide validation of the VISTTA for examining consequences of rejection in a virtual social interaction that bears a strong resemblance to online communication platforms.

Effects of the antibiotic rifaximin on cortical functional connectivity are mediated through insular cortex

It is well-known that antibiotics affect commensal gut bacteria; however, only recently evidence accumulated that gut microbiota (GM) can influence the central nervous system functions. Preclinical animal studies have repeatedly highlighted the effects of antibiotics on brain activity; however, translational studies in humans are still missing. Here, we present a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigating the effects of 7 days intake of Rifaximin (non-absorbable antibiotic) on functional brain connectivity (fc) using magnetoencephalography. Sixteen healthy volunteers were tested before and after the treatment, during resting state (rs), and during a social stressor paradigm (Cyberball game—CBG), designed to elicit feelings of exclusion. Results confirm the hypothesis of an involvement of the insular cortex as a common node of different functional networks, thus suggesting its potential role as a central mediator of cortical fc alterations, following modifications of GM. Also, the Rifaximin group displayed lower connectivity in slow and fast beta bands (15 and 25 Hz) during rest, and higher connectivity in theta (7 Hz) during the inclusion condition of the CBG, compared with controls. Altogether these results indicate a modulation of Rifaximin on frequency-specific functional connectivity that could involve cognitive flexibility and memory processing.

The brain under stress-A systematic review and activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of changes in BOLD signal associated with acute stress exposure

Psychosocial stress is an omnipresent phenomenon whose neural correlates in humans are still poorly understood. Several paradigms have been developed to induce acute stress in fMRI settings, but it is unclear whether there is a global brain activation pattern related to psychosocial stress. To integrate the different neuronal activation patterns, we conducted an activation likelihood estimation analysis on 31 studies totaling 1279 participants. Studies used the ScanSTRESS, Montreal Imaging Stress Test, aversive viewing paradigm (AVP), Social-Evaluative Threat or Cyberball. The analysis revealed bilateral activation clusters comprising the claustrum, insula and inferior frontal gyrus. This indicates that exposure to psychosocial stress leads to activations in brain areas involved in affective processing and the endocrine stress response. Furthermore, in a systematic review, Cyberball and AVP presented themselves as outliers due to increased activation in motor areas and lack of induction of stress related activity changes, respectively. As different paradigms emphasize different dimensions of psychosocial stress such as social evaluation or performance pressure, future research is needed to identify differences between the paradigms.

Social exclusion reliably engages the default network: A meta-analysis of Cyberball

Social exclusion refers to the experience of being disregarded or rejected by others and has wide-ranging negative consequences for well-being and cognition. Cyberball, a game where a ball is virtually tossed between players, then leads to the exclusion of the research participant, is a common method used to examine the experience of social exclusion. The neural correlates of social exclusion remain a topic of debate, particularly with regards to the role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the concept of social pain. Here we conducted a quantitative meta-analysis using activation likelihood estimation (ALE) to identify brain activity reliably engaged by social exclusion during Cyberball task performance (Studies = 53; total N = 1,817 participants). Results revealed consistent recruitment in ventral anterior cingulate and posterior cingulate cortex, inferior and superior frontal gyri, posterior insula, and occipital pole. No reliable activity was observed in dACC. Using a probabilistic atlas to define dACC, fewer than 15% of studies reported peak coordinates in dACC. Meta-analytic connectivity mapping suggests patterns of co-activation are consistent with the topography of the default network. Reverse inference for cognition associated with reliable Cyberball activity computed in Neurosynth revealed social exclusion to be associated with cognitive terms Social, Autobiographical, Mental States, and Theory of Mind. Taken together, these findings highlight the role of the default network in social exclusion and warns against interpretations of the dACC as a key region involved in the experience of social exclusion in humans.

The Neural Processes Interlinking Social Isolation, Social Support, and Problem Alcohol Use

BACKGROUND

Subjective feeling of social isolation, as can be measured by perceived burdensomeness (PB), is a major risk factor for alcohol misuse. Heightened PB is associated with elevated stress response and diminished cognitive control, both of which contribute to problem drinking. Here, we sought to identify the neural substrates underlying the relationship between PB and alcohol misuse.

METHODS

We employed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data collected from 61 problem drinkers to characterize the functional connectivity of the hypothalamus and ventral striatum (VS) in relation to PB. We specifically examined whether the connectivities of the hypothalamus and VS were differentially influenced by PB to produce contrasting effects on alcohol use. Finally, we evaluated how individual differences in social support modulate the inter-relationships of social isolation, neural connectivity, and the severity of problem drinking.

RESULTS

Whole-brain multiple regressions show a positive relationship between PB and hypothalamic connectivity with the hippocampus and an inverse pattern for VS connectivity with the middle frontal gyrus. Difference in strength between the 2 connectivities predicted the severity of problem drinking, suggesting an imbalance involving elevated hypothalamic and diminished prefrontal cortical modulation in socially isolated problem drinkers. A path analysis further revealed that the lack of social support was associated with a bias toward low prefrontal connectivity, which in turn increased PB and facilitated problem drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

Altered hypothalamus and VS connectivity may underlie problem drinking induced by social isolation. The current findings also highlight the important role of social support as a potential protective factor against alcohol misuse.

Cerebral responses to self-initiated action during social interactions

Social interaction involves self-initiated actions that engage subjective awareness of one's own volition. Individuals with social communication needs or social anxiety find it particularly difficult to initiate social interactions. However, extant studies have not specifically addressed how perceived exclusion may influence self-initiated actions during social interaction. As a first step to address this question, we scanned 24 healthy adults participating in a Cyberball game with two fictive players. By contrasting events of observing, receiving, and initiating ball toss during a scenario of fair game (FG) and of exclusion (EX), we examined the neural correlates of self-initiated action during social interactions. Behaviorally, participants were faster in catching but slower in tossing the ball in EX compared with FG, suggesting a burden during self-initiated actions during social exclusion. Tossing versus receiving (or observing) engaged higher activity during EX than FG in the precuneus and angular gyrus, regions that have been widely implicated in theory of mind processing and social emotions. Across subjects these cortical activities correlated positively with the difference between EX and FG in the percentage of trials where participants tossed the ball back to the same player (r = 0.69, p < 0.001). Together, the results suggested that, in healthy adults, social exclusion encumbered and engaged higher posterior cortical activations during self-initiated actions. The findings may facilitate future research of neural markers of social behavioral disorders.

Negative affect moderates the effect of social rejection on frontal and anterior cingulate cortex activation in borderline personality disorder

Patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) have a heightened sensitivity to social exclusion. Experimental manipulations have produced inconsistent findings and suggested that baseline negative affect (NA) might influence the experience of exclusion. We administered a standardized social exclusion protocol (Cyberball paradigm) in BPD (n = 39) and age-matched and sex-matched healthy controls (n = 29) to investigate the association of NA on social exclusion and activation in brain regions previously implicated in this paradigm. Compared with controls, patients with BPD showed higher activation during social exclusion in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and in the right precuneus. Prescan NA ratings were associated with higher brain activation in the ACC and mPFC over all conditions, and post hoc t tests revealed that differences between the groups were only significant when controlling for NA. Brain activation during exclusion was correlated with NA separately for each group. Only BPD patients showed a significant association of NA and exclusion related precuneus activation (r = .52 p = .001). Additionally, BPD patients experienced less feelings of belonging compared with a healthy control (HC) group during inclusion and exclusion, although they estimated their ball possessions significantly higher than did the HC. These findings suggest that baseline NA has a crucial impact on Cyberball-related brain activation. The results underscore the importance of considering levels of NA in social exclusion protocols for participants high in this trait.

A Pilot Study of Cardiovascular Reactivity in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

In preparation for a larger case-control study of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and anxiety, we conducted a pilot study using a noninvasive electrocardiographic device to measure cardiovascular reactivity in 10 children (age range 9-14) with ASD. The 45-minute procedure included 6 conditions: baseline rest, an interview about school, interim rest, an unfair computerized ball-toss game followed by a fair version of the game, and a final rest. Data were successfully collected for 95% of all conditions. Omnibus Skillings-Mack tests suggested that heart rate variability variables including mean heart rate, mean RR interval, and root mean square of successive differences showed statistically significant variation across conditions. The procedure appears feasible and may be an informative biomarker of anxiety in ASD.

The Effects of Brief Social Exclusion on Pain Perception and Pain Memory in Adolescents

PURPOSE

Peer relationship problems are associated with pain complaints; however, experimental data linking the two are lacking. The purpose of this study was to determine whether brief social exclusion influences pain processing in healthy adolescents.

METHODS

A total of 40 adolescents were randomly assigned to a social exclusion or social inclusion/control condition; they then completed a cold pressor task and provided pain ratings. Two weeks later, participants provided ratings for their memory for pain during the cold pressor (n_analyzed = 33).

RESULTS

Social exclusion had no immediate effect on pain ratings; however, adolescents assigned to the exclusion condition recalled the pain as being less intense compared with adolescents in the inclusion/control condition.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy adolescents, brief social exclusion may represent an emotionally salient event that inhibits subsequent rumination or focus on physical pain. Findings should be replicated, and future studies should include youth with chronic pain and/or personal histories of peer victimization.

Social exclusion influences conditioned fear acquisition and generalization: A mediating effect from the medial prefrontal cortex

Fear acquisition and generalization play key roles in promoting the survival of mammals and contribute to anxiety disorders. While previous research has provided much evidence for the repercussions of social exclusion on mental health, how social exclusion affects fear acquisition and generalization has received scant attention. In our study, participants were divided into two groups according to two Cyberball paradigm conditions (exclusion/inclusion). Both groups underwent a Pavlovian conditioning paradigm, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and skin conductance response (SCR) assessments. We aimed to determine the effects of social exclusion on fear acquisition and generalization and whether modulation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) mediates this relationship. Our results showed that socially excluded participants featured significantly higher and lower shock risk scores to safety stimuli (conditioned stimulus, CS-) and threatening stimuli (CS+), respectively, than did socially included subjects during fear acquisition. The exclusion group had increased skin conductance responses (SCRs) to CS and exhibited heightened shock risk and increased SCRs to generalized stimuli compared with the inclusion group. The fNIRS results demonstrated that the CS ​+ ​evoked larger oxy-Hb changes in the mPFC in the inclusion group than in the exclusion group during fear acquisition. Furthermore, the oxy-Hb of left mPFC of CS ​+ ​mediated the effect on the association between social exclusion and perceived risk of CS+ in the fear acquisition. Our results indicate that social exclusion impairs fear acquisition and generalization via the mediation of the mPFC and that social exclusion increases susceptibility to anxiety disorders through bias processing of fear discrimination in fear acquisition and generalization. By studying the role of social relationship in fear acquisition and generalization, our research provides new insights into the pathological mechanisms of anxiety disorder.

Performance and Material-Dependent Holistic Representation of Unconscious Thought: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study

Psychological research has demonstrated that humans can think unconsciously. Unconscious thought (UT) refers to cognitive or affective decision-related processes that occur beyond conscious awareness. UT processes are considered more effective in complex decision-making than conscious thought (CT). In addition, holistic representation plays a key role in UT and consists of a multimodal, value-related cognitive process. While the neural correlates of UT have recently been investigated, the holistic representation hypothesis of UT has not been confirmed. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to further evaluate this hypothesis by utilizing two UT tasks (person and consumer-product evaluations) in conjunction with an improved functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experimental protocol. Participants evaluated four alternatives with 12 attributes each. In the UT condition, once the decision information had been presented, the participants completed a 1-back task for 120 s and evaluated each alternative, as well as an independent 1-back task in the absence of any decision information. We then performed regression analysis of the UT performance in both tasks. Our results revealed a positive correlation between performance in the UT task and the use of the anterior part of the precuneus/paracentral lobule in the person evaluation task and between performance and the posterior part of the precuneus, postcentral gyrus, middle occipital gyrus, and superior parietal lobule in the consumer-product evaluation task. The involvement of the precuneus area in both tasks was indicative of a multimodal, value-related process and is consistent with the features of holistic representation, supporting a central role for holistic representation in UT. Furthermore, the involvement of different precuneus subregions in the two UT tasks may reflect the task dependency of the key representation critical for advantageous UT.

Effects of social exclusion and physical pain in chronic opioid maintenance treatment: fMRI correlates

Opioids interact with systems processing pain and social stimuli. Both systems are crucial for responding to strains of everyday life and both are linked to relapse risk in opioid-dependent patients. The investigation of those systems seems essential to better understand opioid addiction as a whole. 17 patients on opioid maintenance treatment (OMT) and 21 healthy individuals underwent a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) social ball-tossing (Cyberball) paradigm simulating social inclusion and exclusion. In addition, painful and non-painful temperature stimuli were applied, in order to test pain sensitivity. Patients on OMT showed reduced pain sensitivity. Subjective pain was higher after social exclusion compared to social inclusion trials. In comparison to healthy controls, OMT patients felt less included and more excluded during inclusion and control conditions, and equally excluded during the social exclusion condition. Feelings of exclusion during the inclusion trials were associated with higher scores on the childhood trauma questionnaire. Across all conditions, OMT patients demonstrated decreased fMRI activation in the bilateral superior and middle occipital and bilateral cunei, the lingual gyri, as well as in the left fusiform gyrus (whole brain FWE-corrected). Comparing social exclusion and inclusion conditions, healthy individuals showed significant activation in brain areas related to social feedback and emotion processing, such as the anterior cingulate cortex, the insula and fusiform gyrus, whereas OMT patients showed no difference across conditions. As negative social affect is a potential trigger for relapse, patients might benefit from therapeutic strategies that enhance social integration.

Are you laughing at me? Neural correlates of social intent attribution to auditory and visual laughter

Laughter is a multifaceted signal, which can convey social acceptance facilitating social bonding as well as social rejection inflicting social pain. In the current study, we addressed the neural correlates of social intent attribution to auditory or visual laughter within an fMRI study to identify brain areas showing linear increases of activation with social intent ratings. Negative social intent attributions were associated with activation increases within the medial prefrontal cortex/anterior cingulate cortex (mPFC/ACC). Interestingly, negative social intent attributions of auditory laughter were represented more rostral than visual laughter within this area. Our findings corroborate the role of the mPFC/ACC as key node for processing “social pain” with distinct modality‐specific subregions. Other brain areas that showed an increase of activation included bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and right superior/middle temporal gyrus (STG/MTG) for visually presented laughter and bilateral STG for auditory presented laughter with no overlap across modalities. Similarly, positive social intent attributions were linked to hemodynamic responses within the right inferior parietal lobe and right middle frontal gyrus, but there was no overlap of activity for visual and auditory laughter. Our findings demonstrate that social intent attribution to auditory and visual laughter is located in neighboring, but spatially distinct neural structures.

The effects of age on cerebral responses to self-initiated actions during social interactions: An exploratory study

Self-initiated action is critical to social interaction and individuals with social anxiety find it particularly difficult to initiate social interactions. We showed earlier that social exclusion encumbered self-initiated actions in the Cyberball task in young adults. Here, we examined whether the behavioral performance and regional responses during self-initiated actions vary with age in 53 participants (21-74 years; 27 men). Behaviorally, participants were slower in tossing the ball during exclusion (EX) than during fair game (FG) sessions in both men and women. In women but not in men the reaction time (RT) burden (RT_EX - RT_FG; RT prolonged during social exclusion) of ball toss was positively correlated with age despite no observed sex difference in Social Interaction Anxiety Scale scores. The pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, thalamus, left occipital cortex (OC) and left insula/orbitofrontal cortex responded to ball toss in EX vs. FG in negative correlation with age in women but not in men. Further, the activation of left OC fully mediated the relationship between age and RT burden in women. Thus, older women are more encumbered in self-initiated action during social exclusion, although this behavioral burden is not reflected in subjective reports of social anxiety. Age-related diminution in OC activities may reflect the neural processes underlying the difficulty in initiating social interactions in women. Together, the findings identified age-sensitive behavioral and neural processes of self-initiated action in the Cyberball task and suggest the importance of considering age and sex differences in studies of social interaction.

One-Month Stability of Cyberball Post-Exclusion Ostracism Distress in Adolescents

We examined one-month reliability, internal consistency, and validity of ostracism distress (Need Threat Scale) to simulated social exclusion during Cyberball. Thirty adolescents (13-18 yrs.) completed the Cyberball task, ostracism distress ratings, and measures of related clinical symptoms, repeated over one month. Need Threat Scale ratings of ostracism distress showed adequate test-retest reliability and internal consistency at both occasions. Construct validity was demonstrated via relationships with closely related constructs of anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and emotion dysregulation, and weaker associations with more distal constructs of state paranoia and subclinical psychosis-like experiences. While ratings of ostracism distress and anxiety were significantly attenuated at retest, most participants continued to experience post-Cyberball ostracism distress at one-month follow-up, which indicates that the social exclusion induction of Cyberball persisted despite participants' familiarity with the paradigm. Overall, results suggest that the primary construct of ostracism distress is preserved over repeated administration of Cyberball, with reliability sufficient for usage in longitudinal research. These findings have important implications for translating this laboratory simulation of social distress into developmental and clinical intervention studies.

Social anxiety, posterior insula activation, and autonomic response during self-initiated action in a Cyberball game

BACKGROUND

An earlier study characterized the neural correlates of self-initiated actions in a Cyberball game in healthy individuals. It remains unclear how social anxiety may influence these neural processes.

METHODS

We examined regional activations to self-initiated actions in 25 adults with low and 25 with high social anxiety (LA and HA, respectively). Skin conductance was recorded concurrently with fMRI. We followed published routines in the analyses of imaging and skin conductance data.

RESULTS

We hypothesized that HA as compared to LA individuals would demonstrate increased cortical limbic activations during self-initiated actions (tossing or T > receiving or R trials, to control for motor activities) in social exclusion (EX) vs. fair game (FG) scenario. At a corrected threshold, HA as compared with LA group showed increases in bilateral posterior insula activation during T vs. R trials in EX as compared to FG. Further, HA as compared to LA showed higher skin conductance response to tossing trials during EX as compared to FG.

LIMITATIONS

With a limited sample size, we did not examine potential sex effects. Further, we cannot rule out the effects of depression on the findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, the results suggest that individuals with more severe social anxiety engaged the somatosensory insula to a greater extent and exhibited higher physiological arousal when initiating ball toss during social exclusion in the Cyberball game. Posterior insula response to self-initiated action may represent a biomarker of social anxiety. It remains to be investigated whether interventions to decrease physiological arousal may alleviate social anxiety.

Linking resting-state networks and social cognition in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

Individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder show alterations in functional neural connectivity during rest. However, resting-state network (RSN) disruptions have not been systematically compared between the two disorders. Further, the impact of RSN disruptions on social cognition, a key determinant of functional outcome, has not been studied. Forty-eight individuals with schizophrenia, 46 with bipolar disorder, and 48 healthy controls completed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. An atlas-based approach was used to examine functional connectivity within nine RSNs across the cortex. RSN connectivity was assessed via nonparametric permutation testing, and associations with performance on emotion perception, mentalizing, and emotion management tasks were examined. Group differences were observed in the medial and lateral visual networks and the sensorimotor network. Individuals with schizophrenia demonstrated reduced connectivity relative to healthy controls in all three networks. Individuals with bipolar disorder demonstrated reduced connectivity relative to controls in the medial visual network and connectivity within this network was significantly positively correlated with emotion management. In healthy controls, connectivity within the medial and lateral visual networks positively correlated with mentalizing. No significant correlations were found for either visual network in schizophrenia. Results highlight the role of altered early visual processing in social cognitive deficits in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. However, individuals with bipolar disorder appear to compensate for disrupted visual network connectivity on social cognitive tasks, whereas those with schizophrenia do not. The current study adds clarity on the neurophysiology underlying social cognitive deficits that result in impaired functioning in serious mental illness.

Functional connectivity across social inclusion and exclusion is related to peer victimization and depressive symptoms in young adults

BACKGROUND

Peer victimization is associated with increased risk for depression, as well as increased neural response to social exclusion in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala. Altered functional connectivity (FxC) of fronto-limbic circuitry is associated with risk for various affective disorders. The present study examined the relationship between fronto-limbic FxC during social exclusion, prior peer victimization experience and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Three mutually exclusive groups were formed: peer victimized (with a history of peer victimization), defenders (history of defending peers), and controls (no prior peer victimization experience) (n = 15/group; M_age = 17.7 years). Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging data were collected while participants completed the Cyberball paradigm (simulating the experience of social exclusion). FxC between the Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC), ACC, right insula and left amygdala, was compared between groups and examined in relation to depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Prior peer victimization experience was associated with differences in fronto-limbic FxC across social inclusion and exclusion. Defenders displayed distinct shifts in FxC across the transition from being included to excluded. Peer victimized individuals exhibited a unique pattern of amygdala-specific FxC during inclusive interaction with peers, and in the continuous FxC across inclusion and exclusion. FxC of the MPFC-amygdala across inclusion and exclusion moderated the relationship between peer victimization and depressive symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

Small sample size and cross-sectional design limit interpretation of the findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Peer victimized individuals who exhibit continuous positive FxC of the MPFC-left amygdala across inclusion and exclusion may be at greater risk for depressive symptoms.

Brain activity mediates the relation between emotional but not instrumental support and trait loneliness

Loneliness results from lacking satisfied social connections. However, little is known how trait loneliness, which is a stable personal characteristic, is influenced by different types of social support (i.e. emotional and instrumental support) through the brain activity associated with loneliness. To explore these questions, data of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (R-fMRI) of 92 healthy participants were analyzed. We identified loneliness-related brain regions by correlating participants’ loneliness scores with amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) of R-fMRI data. We then conducted mediation analyses to test whether the negative relation between each type of social support and loneliness was explained via the neural activity in the loneliness-related brain regions. The results showed that loneliness was positively related to the mean ALFF value within right inferior temporal gyrus (ITG). In addition, the negative relation between emotional support and loneliness was explained by a decrease in the spontaneous neural activity within right ITG but this pattern was not observed for instrumental support. These results suggest the importance of social information processing on trait loneliness and highlight the need to differentiate the functions of different types of social support on mental health from a neural perspective.

Neural Correlates of Empathy for Physical and Psychological Pain

Abstract. Empathy is known as the ability to share and understand someone else’s feelings. Previous research has either addressed the neural correlates of empathy for pain or social exclusion, but no study has examined empathy for physical and psychological (social) pain simultaneously. Forty-seven participants completed our novel “Social Interaction Empathy Task” during electroencephalogram (EEG) recording. Participants had to observe and rate the intensity of physical and psychological pain in social interactions from a first- and third-person perspective. At the behavioral level, subjects did not differentiate between the perspectives and rated physically painful scenarios as more painful than psychologically painful and neutral interactions. Psychologically painful pictures were also rated as more painful than neutral pictures. Analysis of event-related potentials (ERPs) revealed an early and a late response with a higher ERP response to physical and psychological pain compared to neutral interactions. Moreover, a significant difference emerged between the two dimensions of painful interactions. Furthermore, we found that the activity over frontal regions for discrimination of painful interactions was lateralized to the right hemisphere. Moreover, we detected significant correlations with the self-rated perspective taking ability. This suggests the psychological and physical pain qualities are processed differently but both are related to empathic traits. We further suggest that the right hemisphere may be specifically involved in the processing of empathy-related tasks.

Interpretation of Social Interactions: Functional Imaging of Cognitive-Semiotic Categories During Naturalistic Viewing

Social interactions arise from patterns of communicative signs, whose perception and interpretation require a multitude of cognitive functions. The semiotic framework of Peirce's Universal Categories (UCs) laid ground for a novel cognitive-semiotic typology of social interactions. During functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 16 volunteers watched a movie narrative encompassing verbal and non-verbal social interactions. Three types of non-verbal interactions were coded ("unresolved," "non-habitual," and "habitual") based on a typology reflecting Peirce's UCs. As expected, the auditory cortex responded to verbal interactions, but non-verbal interactions modulated temporal areas as well. Conceivably, when speech was lacking, ambiguous visual information (unresolved interactions) primed auditory processing in contrast to learned behavioral patterns (habitual interactions). The latter recruited a parahippocampal-occipital network supporting conceptual processing and associative memory retrieval. Requesting semiotic contextualization, non-habitual interactions activated visuo-spatial and contextual rule-learning areas such as the temporo-parietal junction and right lateral prefrontal cortex. In summary, the cognitive-semiotic typology reflected distinct sensory and association networks underlying the interpretation of observed non-verbal social interactions.

Immediate and delayed neuroendocrine responses to social exclusion in males and females

Social exclusion is a complex phenomenon, with wide-ranging immediate and delayed effects on well-being, hormone levels, brain activation and motivational behavior. Building upon previous work, the current fMRI study investigated affective, endocrine and neural responses to social exclusion in a more naturalistic Cyberball task in 40 males and 40 females. As expected, social exclusion elicited well-documented affective and neural responses, i.e., increased anger and distress, as well as increased exclusion-related activation of the anterior insula, the posterior-medial frontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cortisol and testosterone decreased over the course of the experiment, whereas progesterone showed no changes. Hormone levels were not correlated with subjective affect, but they were related to exclusion-induced neural responses. Exclusion-related activation in frontal areas was associated with decreases in cortisol and increases in testosterone until recovery. Given that results were largely independent of sex, the current findings have important implications regarding between-sex vs. within-sex variations and the conceptualization of state vs. trait neuroendocrine functions in social neuroscience.

Social priming modulates the neural response to ostracism: a new exploratory approach

The present study sought to evaluate whether social priming modulates neural responses to ostracism, such that making arbitrary interpersonal decisions increases the experience of social exclusion more than making arbitrary physical decisions. This exploratory event-related potential (ERP) study utilized the Lunchroom task, in which adults (N = 28) first selected one of two options that included either interpersonal or physical descriptors. Participants then received ostracism outcome feedback within a lunchroom scenario in which they were either excluded (e.g. sitting alone) or included (e.g. surrounded by others). While the N2 component was sensitive to priming decision condition, only the P3 component discriminated between ostracism decisions. Further inspection of the neural sources indicated that the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex, and superior temporal gyrus were more engaged for exclusion than inclusion conditions during both N2 and P3 temporal windows. Evaluation of temporal source dynamics suggest that the effects of ostracism are predominant between 250-500 ms and were larger following interpersonal than physical decisions. These results suggest that being ostracized evokes a larger neural response that is modulated following priming of the social brain.

Neural Temporal Dynamics of Social Exclusion Elicited by Averted Gaze: An Event-Related Potentials Study

Eye gaze plays a fundamental role in social communication. The averted eye gaze during social interaction, as the most common form of silent treatment, conveys a signal of social exclusion. In the present study, we examined the time course of brain response to social exclusion by using a modified version of Eye-gaze paradigm. The event-related potentials (ERPs) data and the subjective rating data showed that the frontocentral P200 was positively correlated with negative mood of excluded events, whereas, the centroparietal late positive potential (LPP) was positively correlated with the perceived ostracism intensity. Both the P200 and LPP were more positive-going for excluded events than for included events. These findings suggest that brain responses sensitive to social exclusion can be divided into the early affective processing stage, linking to the early pre-cognitive warning system; and the late higher-order processes stage, demanding attentional resources for elaborate stimuli evaluation and categorization generally not under specific situation.

My mistake? Enhanced error processing for commanded compared to passively observed actions

We often ask other people to carry out actions for us in order to reach our goals. However, these commanded actions may sometimes go awry, and goal attainment is hindered by errors of the following person. Here, we investigated how the commanding person processes these errors of their follower. Because such errors indicate that the original goal of the command is not met, error processing for these actions should be enhanced compared to passively observing another person's actions. Participants thus either commanded another agent to perform one of four key press responses or they passively observed the agent responding. The agent could respond correctly or commit an error in either case. We compared error processing of commanded and passively observed actions using observation-related post-error slowing (oPES) as a behavioral marker and observed-error-related negativity (oN_E /oERN) and observed-error positivity (oP_E ) as electrophysiological markers. Whereas error processing, as measured via the oERN, was similarly pronounced for commanded and observed actions, commanded actions gave rise to stronger oPES and a stronger oP_E . These results suggest that enhanced monitoring is an automatic by-product of commanding another person's actions.

Neural Correlates of Social Inclusion in Borderline Personality Disorder

Humans engage in social interactions and have a fundamental need and motivation to establish and maintain social connections. Neuroimaging studies particularly focused on the neural substrates of social exclusion in healthy subjects (HC), borderline personality disorder (BPD), and major depression (MD). However, there is evidence regarding neural alterations also during social inclusion in BPD that we intended to elucidate in our study. Considering that patients with BPD often have comorbid MD, we investigated patients with BPD, and comorbid MD, patients with MD without BPD, and a sample of HC. By investigating these two clinical samples within one study design, we attempted to disentangle potential confounds arising by psychiatric disorder or medication and to relate neural alterations under social inclusion specifically to BPD. We investigated 48 females (15 BPD and MD, 16 MD, and 17 HC) aged between 18 and 40 years by fMRI (3T), using the established cyberball paradigm with social exclusion, inclusion, and passive watching conditions. Significant group-by-condition interaction effects (p < 0.05, FWE-corrected on cluster level) were observed within the dorsolateral (dlPFC) and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and the precuneus. Comparisons of estimated neural activations revealed that significant interaction effects were related to a relative increase in neural activations during social inclusion in BPD. In detail, we observed a significant increase in differential (social inclusion vs. passive watching) neural activation within the dmPFC and the PCC in BPD compared to both, MD and HC. However, significant interaction effects within the dlPFC and the TPJ could not specifically be linked to BPD considering that they did not differ significantly between the two clinical groups in post-hoc comparisons. Our study supports previous results on effects of social and inclusion in BPD, and provides further evidence regarding disorder specific neural alterations in BPD for brain regions associated with self-referential and mentalizing processes during social inclusion.

The impact of social exclusion on anticipatory attentional processing

The importance of understanding how we anticipate and prepare for social rejection is underscored by the mental and physical toll of continual social vigilance. In this study, we investigate the impact of social rejection on anticipatory attentional processes using the well-known Cyberball task, a paradigm in which participants engage in a game of catch with virtual avatars who after an initial period of fair-play (inclusion condition) then exclude the participant from the game (exclusion condition). The degree of anticipatory attention allocated by subjects towards the avatars was assessed by measuring P3b responses towards the avatars' preparatory actions (i.e. the phase preceding their exclusionary actions) using high density EEG. The results of the study show that relative to the inclusion, participants exhibit elevated levels of anticipatory attentional allocation towards the avatars during the exclusion block. This shift was however significantly moderated by participants' self-reported cognitive regulation tendencies. Participants with higher levels of self-reported cognitive reappraisal tendencies showed larger anticipatory P3b increases from the inclusion to exclusion block relative to participants with reduced levels of reappraisal tendencies. These results highlight the impact of social exclusion on anticipatory neural processing and the moderating role of cognitive reappraisal on these effects.

Reduced empathic responses for sexually objectified women: An fMRI investigation

Sexual objectification is a widespread phenomenon characterized by a focus on the individual's physical appearance over his/her mental state. This has been associated with negative social consequences, as objectified individuals are judged to be less human, competent, and moral. Moreover, behavioral responses toward the person change as a function of the degree of the perceived sexual objectification. In the present study, we investigated how behavioral and neural representations of other social pain are modulated by the degree of sexual objectification of the target. Using a within-subject fMRI design, we found reduced empathic feelings for positive (but not negative) emotions toward sexually objectified women as compared to non-objectified (personalized) women when witnessing their participation to a ball-tossing game. At the brain level, empathy for social exclusion of personalized women recruited areas coding the affective component of pain (i.e., anterior insula and cingulate cortex), the somatosensory components of pain (i.e., posterior insula and secondary somatosensory cortex) together with the mentalizing network (i.e., middle frontal cortex) to a greater extent than for the sexually objectified women. This diminished empathy is discussed in light of the gender-based violence that is afflicting the modern society.

The Relationship between Regional Gray Matter Volume of Social Exclusion Regions and Personal Self-Esteem Is Moderated by Collective Self-Esteem

According to sociometer theory, self-esteem is an internal monitor of positive social bonds to others. Social exclusion can break or threaten social bonds, which might be reflected by the brain structure of social exclusion regions. Thus, self-esteem might be influenced by structurally individual differences in these regions. It has been suggested that self-esteem can be divided into personal (PSE) and collective (CSE) self-esteem and CSE can bring individuals many benefits, such as acceptance, belonging, and social support, which could further maintain or increase their PSE. Based on this, we hypothesized that CSE might moderate the relationship between structurally individual differences in social exclusion regions and PSE. Therefore, in the present study, the moderating effect of CSE on the relationships between PSE and individual differences in regional gray matter volume (rGMV) of 10 social exclusion regions from previous meta-analysis of social exclusion were investigated using voxel-based morphometry. The results showed that CSE played a moderating role in the relationship between PSE and rGMV of the left posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Specifically, PSE was positively associated with rGMV of left PCC in lower CSE, while there was no significant relationship between PSE and rGMV of left PCC in higher CSE. Therefore, we believe that compared with a higher CSE, because of lack of acceptance, belonging, and social support from valued groups, lower CSE individuals might be more prone to be influenced by social exclusion with decreased rGMV of the left PCC, which makes them more prone to develop lower PSE.

Altered Empathy for Psychological and Physical Pain in Borderline Personality Disorder

Many patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) experience difficulties in empathizing with others and are sensitive to social exclusion. Accordingly, the authors developed a novel Social Interaction Empathy Task to examine empathy for physical and psychological pain from first- and third-person perspectives. Fifty female patients with BPD and forty-eight controls matched for age and gender were included. Alexithymia was also measured. Patients with BPD rated neutral and psychologically painful situations as more painful than healthy controls, and patients with BPD rated psychological pain as more intense in the first-person perspective than in the third-person perspective. In contrast, controls did not differentiate between the perspectives and rated physical pain as most intense. The impact of early adversity on empathy for psychological pain was mediated by alexithymia. Increased sensitivity for psychological pain in BPD correlated with symptom severity. BPD is associated with altered empathy for pain, which is related to difficulties in reflecting emotional states.

Perceiving rejection by others: Relationship between rejection sensitivity and the spontaneous neuronal activity of the brain

Rejection sensitivity (RS) can be defined as the disposition of a person to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection. Individuals with high RS are likely to suffer from mental disorders. The association between individual differences in RS and spontaneous neuronal activity at resting state has not yet been investigated. In this study, resting state data were used to investigate the relationship between RS and spontaneous neuronal activity in a large sample of healthy men (137) and women (172). The participants completed the rejection sensitivity questionnaire and underwent resting-state magnetic resonance imaging scan. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the correlation between the regional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) and rejection sensitivity scores adjusted for age and sex. Results showed that the ALFF value in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) was positively associated with RS. Furthermore, functional connectivity with the middle frontal gyrus was negatively correlated with RS when sgACC was used as the seed region. These findings suggest that the spontaneous neuronal activity of sgACC and its functional connectivity with the lateral prefrontal cortex which are involved in experiencing social exclusion and regulating negative emotions are associated with individual differences in RS.

Neural Correlates of Social Influence Among Cannabis Users

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Although peer influence is an important factor in the initiation and maintenance of cannabis use, few studies have investigated the neural correlates of peer influence among cannabis users. The current review summarizes research on the neuroscience of social influence in cannabis users, with the goal of highlighting gaps in the literature and the need for future research.

RECENT FINDINGS

Brain regions underlying peer influence may function differently in cannabis users. Compared to non-using controls, regions of the brain underlying reward, such as the striatum, show greater connectivity with frontal regions, and also show hyperactivity when participants are presented with peer information. Other subcortical regions, such as the insula, show hypoactivation during social exclusion in cannabis users, indicating that neural responses to peer interactions may be altered in cannabis users.

SUMMARY

Although neuroscience is increasingly being used to study social behavior, few studies have specifically focused on cannabis use, and therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions about social mechanisms that may differentiate cannabis users and controls. This area of research may be a promising avenue in which to explore a critical factor underlying cannabis use and addiction.

Ostracism and physiological arousal following traumatic brain injury

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the psychological and physiological effects of ostracism in adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI).

RESEARCH DESIGN

A within-subject, counterbalanced design was used. The two conditions, inclusion and ostracism, were examined across two groups (between subjects).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A group of 21 adults with TBI and 17 matched controls participated in the Cyberball paradigm. This task is a computerised task that exposes participants to a game of catch and throw. In the inclusion condition they are included fairly in the game, while in the ostracism condition they are excluded from the game following the first few throws. Skin conductance levels (SCLs) were measured throughout the game as a proxy for social stress.

MAIN OUTCOMES

Results showed that people with TBI were cognitively aware of when they are being ostracised, but that their self-reported emotional experience to social exclusion was different to that of the control group. Differences in SCLs between groups and between conditions did not reach significance nor did they correlate with behavioural responses.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are discussed in terms of the consequences of dissociation between psychological and physiological responses and the implications for motivating behaviours associated with re-inclusion.

Neural correlates of social exclusion across ages: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of functional MRI studies

Given the recent surge in functional neuroimaging studies on social exclusion, the current study employed activation likelihood estimation (ALE) based meta-analyses to identify brain regions that have consistently been implicated across different experimental paradigms used to investigate exclusion. We also examined the neural correlates underlying Cyberball, the most commonly used paradigm to study exclusion, as well as differences in exclusion-related activation between developing (7-18 years of age, from pre-adolescence up to late adolescence) and emerging adult (broadly defined as undergraduates, including late adolescence and young adulthood) samples. Results revealed involvement of the bilateral medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices, right precuneus and left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex across the different paradigms used to examine social exclusion; similar activation patterns were identified when restricting the analysis to Cyberball studies. Investigations into age-related effects revealed that ventrolateral prefrontal activations identified in the full sample were driven by (i.e. present in) developmental samples, while medial prefrontal activations were driven by emerging adult samples. In addition, the right ventral striatum was implicated in exclusion, but only in developmental samples. Subtraction analysis revealed significantly greater activation likelihood in striatal and ventrolateral prefrontal clusters in the developmental samples as compared to emerging adults, though the opposite contrast failed to identify any significant regions. Findings integrate the knowledge accrued from functional neuroimaging studies on social exclusion to date, highlighting involvement of lateral prefrontal regions implicated in regulation and midline structures involved in social cognitive and self-evaluative processes across experimental paradigms and ages, as well as limbic structures in developing samples specifically.

Differential Neural Processing of Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Adolescents with Non-Suicidal Self-Injury and Young Adults with Borderline Personality Disorder

INTRODUCTION

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a symptom of borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, NSSI often occurs independently of BPD. Altered neural processing of social exclusion has been shown in adolescents with NSSI and adults with BPD with additional alterations during social inclusion in BPD patients. Aims of this study were to investigate differences in neural processing of social inclusion and exclusion situations between adolescents with NSSI and young adults with BPD and NSSI.

METHODS

Using fMRI, neural processing of positive and negative social situations (paradigm: "Cyberball") was explored. Participants were 14 adolescents with NSSI, but without BPD (M_age = 15.4; SD = 1.9), 15 adults with BPD and NSSI (M_age = 23.3; SD = 4.1), as well as 15 healthy adolescents (M_age = 14.5; SD = 1.7), and 16 healthy adults (M_age = 23.2; SD = 4.4).

RESULTS

Behavioral results showed enhanced feelings of social exclusion in both patient groups as compared to healthy controls but only the NSSI group showed enhanced activation during social exclusion versus inclusion compared to the other groups. While both NSSI and BPD groups showed enhanced activation in the ventral anterior cingulate cortex during social exclusion as compared to their age-matched controls, enhanced activation during social inclusion as compared to a passive watching condition was mainly observed in the BPD group in the dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and the anterior insula.

DISCUSSION

While neural processing of social exclusion was pronounced in adolescents with NSSI, BPD patients also showed increased activity in a per se positive social situation. These results might point toward a higher responsiveness to social exclusion in adolescents with NSSI, which might then develop into a generalized increased sensitivity to all kinds of social situations in adults with BPD.

What they bring: baseline psychological distress differentially predicts neural response in social exclusion by children's friends and strangers in best friend dyads

Friendships play a major role in cognitive, emotional and social development in middle childhood. We employed the online Cyberball social exclusion paradigm to understand the neural correlates of dyadic social exclusion among best friends assessed simultaneously. Each child played with their friend and an unfamiliar player. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were assessed via electroencephalogram during exclusion by friend and unfamiliar peer. Data were analyzed with hierarchical linear modeling to account for nesting of children within friendship dyads. Results showed that stranger rejection was associated with larger P2 and positive slow wave ERP responses compared to exclusion by a friend. Psychological distress differentially moderated the effects of friend and stranger exclusion such that children with greater psychological distress were observed to have larger neural responses (larger P2 and slow wave) to exclusion by a stranger compared to exclusion by a friend. Conversely, children with lower levels of psychological distress had larger neural responses for exclusion by a friend than by a stranger. Psychological distress within the dyad differentially predicted the P2 and slow wave response. Findings highlight the prominent, but differential role of individual and dyadic psychological distress levels in moderating responses to social exclusion in middle childhood.