Electroencephalographic signatures of the binge drinking pattern during adolescence and young adulthood: A PRISMA-driven systematic review

Trying to forget alcohol: Brain mechanisms underlying memory suppression in young binge drinkers

People are able to voluntarily suppress unwanted thoughts or memories, a phenomenon known as suppression-induced forgetting or memory suppression. Despite harmful alcohol use, such as binge drinking, has been linked to impaired inhibitory control (IC) and augmented alcohol-cue reactivity, no study to date has assessed memory inhibition abilities towards alcohol-related cues in binge drinkers (BDs). Thus, the present preregistered study aimed to evaluate the behavioral and neurofunctional mechanisms associated with memory inhibition, specifically those related to the suppression of alcohol-related memories, in young BDs. For this purpose, electroencephalographic activity was recorded in eighty-two college students aged between 18 and 24 years old from the University of Minho (50% females; 40 non/low-drinkers [N/LDS] and 42 BDs) while they performed the Think/No-Think Alcohol task. Brain functional connectivity (FC) was calculated using the phase locking value and, subsequently, a dynamic seed-based analysis was conducted to explore the FC patterns between IC and memory networks. Comparatively to N/LDs, BDs exhibited decreased alpha-band FC between the anterior cingulate cortex and the left fusiform gyrus during attempts to suppress non-alcohol memories, accompanied by unsuccessful forgetting of those memories. Conversely, BDs displayed augmented gamma-band FC between the IC network and memory regions -i.e., hippocampus, parahippocampus and fusiform gyrus- during suppression of alcohol-related memories. Inhibitory abnormalities in BDs may lead to hypoconnectivity between IC and memory networks and deficient suppression of non-alcohol-related memories. However, while suppressing highly salient and reward-predicting stimuli, such as alcohol-related memories, BDs display a hyperconnectivity pattern between IC and memory networks, likely due to their augmented attention towards intrusive alcoholic memories and the attempts to compensate for potential underlying IC deficits. These findings hold important implications for alcohol research and treatment, as they open up new avenues for reducing alcohol use by shifting the focus to empowering suppression/control over alcohol-related memories. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: [http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov], identifier [NCT05237414].

Sex-related differences in young binge drinkers on the neurophysiological response to stress in virtual reality

Background

Stress is one of the main environmental factors involved in the onset of different psychopathologies. In youth, stressful life events can trigger inappropriate and health-damaging behaviors, such as binge drinking. This behavior, in turn, can lead to long-lasting changes in the neurophysiological response to stress and the development of psychological disorders late in life, e.g., alcohol use disorder. Our aim was to analyze the pattern of neurophysiological responses triggered with the exposition to a stressful virtual environment in young binge drinkers.

Methods

AUDIT-3 (third question from the full AUDIT) was used to detect binge drinking (BD) in our young sample (age 18-25 years). According to the score, participants were divided into control (CO) and BD group. Next, a standardized virtual reality (VR) scenario (Richie's Plank) was used for triggering the stress response while measuring the following neurophysiological variables: brain electrical activity by electroencephalogram (EEG) and cortisol levels through saliva samples both measurements registered before and after the stressful situation. Besides, heart rate (HR) with a pulsometer and electrodermal response (EDA) through electrodes placed on fingers were analyzed before, during and after the VR task.

Results

Regarding the behavior assessed during the VR task, BD group spent significantly less amount of time walking forward the table and a tendency toward more time walking backwards. There was no statistically significant difference between the BD and the CO group regarding time looking down, but when we controlled the variable sex, the BD women group displayed higher amount of time looking down than the rest of the groups. Neurophysiological measurements revealed that there was not any statistically significant difference between groups in any of the EEG registered measures, EDA response and cortisol levels. Sex-related differences were found in HR response to VR scenario, in which BD women displayed the highest peak of response to the stressor. Also, the change in heartbeat was higher in BD women than men.

Conclusion

Unveiling the neurophysiological alterations associated with BD can help us to prevent and detect early onset of alcohol use disorder. Also, from our data we conclude that participants' sex can modulate some stress responses, especially when unhealthy behaviors such as BD are present. Nevertheless, the moment of registration of the neurophysiological variables respect to the stressor seems to be a crucial variable.

Predictive utility of the P3 event-related potential (ERP) response to alcohol cues for ecologically assessed alcohol craving and use

Neural measures of alcohol cue incentive salience have been associated with retrospective reports of riskier alcohol use behaviour and subjective response profiles. This study tested whether the P3 event-related potential (ERP) elicited by alcohol-related cues (ACR-P3) can forecast alcohol use and craving during real-world drinking episodes. Participants (N = 262; Mage  = 19.53; 56% female) completed a laboratory task in which they viewed images of everyday objects (Neutral), non-alcohol drinks (NonAlc) and alcohol beverages (Alc) while EEG was recorded and then completed a 21-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol in which they recorded alcohol craving and consumption. Anthropometrics were used to derive estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) throughout drinking episodes. Multilevel modelling indicated positive associations between P3 amplitudes elicited by all stimuli and within-episode alcohol use measures (e.g., eBAC, cumulative drinks). Focal follow-up analyses indicated a positive association between AlcP3 amplitude and eBAC within episodes: Larger AlcP3 was associated with a steeper rise in eBAC. This association was robust to controlling for the association between NonAlcP3 and eBAC. AlcP3 also was positively associated with episode-level measures (e.g., max drinks, max eBAC). There were no associations between any P3 variables and EMA-based craving measures. Thus, individual differences in neural measures of alcohol cue incentive salience appear to predict the speed and intensity of alcohol consumption but not reports of craving during real-world alcohol use episodes.

Consequences of adolescent drug use

Substance use in adolescence is a known risk factor for the development of neuropsychiatric and substance use disorders in adulthood. This is in part due to the fact that critical aspects of brain development occur during adolescence, which can be altered by drug use. Despite concerted efforts to educate youth about the potential negative consequences of substance use, initiation remains common amongst adolescents world-wide. Additionally, though there has been substantial research on the topic, many questions remain about the predictors and the consequences of adolescent drug use. In the following review, we will highlight some of the most recent literature on the neurobiological and behavioral effects of adolescent drug use in rodents, non-human primates, and humans, with a specific focus on alcohol, cannabis, nicotine, and the interactions between these substances. Overall, consumption of these substances during adolescence can produce long-lasting changes across a variety of structures and networks which can have enduring effects on behavior, emotion, and cognition.

Uncontrolled eating and sensation-seeking partially explain the prediction of future binge drinking from adolescent brain structure

Binge drinking behavior in early adulthood can be predicted from brain structure during early adolescence with an accuracy of above 70%. We investigated whether this accurate prospective prediction of alcohol misuse behavior can be explained by psychometric variables such as personality traits or mental health comorbidities in a data-driven approach. We analyzed a subset of adolescents who did not have any prior binge drinking experience at age 14 (IMAGEN dataset, n = 555, 52.61% female). Participants underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging at age 14, binge drinking assessments at ages 14 and 22, and psychometric questionnaire assessments at ages 14 and 22. We derived structural brain features from T1-weighted magnetic resonance and diffusion tensor imaging. Using Machine Learning (ML), we predicted binge drinking (age 22) from brain structure (age 14) and used counterbalancing with oversampling to systematically control for 110 + variables from a wide range of social, personality, and other psychometric characteristics potentially associated with binge drinking. We evaluated if controlling for any variable resulted in a significant reduction in ML prediction accuracy. Sensation-seeking (-13.98 ± 1.68%), assessed via the Substance Use Risk Profile Scale at age 14, and uncontrolled eating (-13.98 ± 3.28%), assessed via the Three-Factor-Eating-Questionnaire at age 22, led to significant reductions in mean balanced prediction accuracy upon controlling for them. Thus, sensation-seeking and binge eating could partially explain the prediction of future binge drinking from adolescent brain structure. Our findings suggest that binge drinking and binge eating at age 22 share common neurobiological precursors discovered by the ML model. These neurobiological precursors seem to be associated with sensation-seeking at age 14. Our results facilitate early detection of increased risk for binge drinking and inform future clinical research in trans-diagnostic prevention approaches for adolescent alcohol misuse.

The Microbiome-Gut-Brain axis regulates social cognition & craving in young binge drinkers

BACKGROUND

Binge drinking is the consumption of an excessive amount of alcohol in a short period of time. This pattern of consumption is highly prevalent during the crucial developmental period of adolescence. Recently, the severity of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) has been linked with microbiome alterations suggesting a role for the gut microbiome in its development. Furthermore, a strong link has emerged too between microbiome composition and socio-emotional functioning across different disorders including AUD. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential link (and its predictive value) between alcohol-related altered microbial profile, social cognition, impulsivity and craving.

METHODS

Young people (N = 71) aged 18-25 reported their alcohol use and underwent a neuropsychological evaluation. Craving was measured at baseline and three months later. Diet was controlled for. Blood, saliva and hair samples were taken for inflammatory, kynurenine and cortisol analysis. Stool samples were provided for shotgun metagenomic sequencing and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were measured.

FINDINGS

Binge drinking was associated with distinct microbiome alterations and emotional recognition difficulties. Associations were found for several microbiome species with emotional processing and impulsivity. Craving showed a strong link with alterations in microbiome composition and neuroactive potential over time.

INTERPRETATION

In conclusion, this research demonstrates alterations in the gut microbiome of young binge drinkers (BDs) and identifies early biomarkers of craving. Associations between emotional processing and microbiome composition further support the growing literature on the gut microbiome as a regulator of social cognition. These findings are of relevance for new gut-derived interventions directed at improving early alcohol-related alterations during the vulnerability period of adolescence.

FUNDING

C.C. and R.G-C. received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 754535. APC Microbiome Ireland is a research centre funded by Science Foundation Ireland (SFI), through the Irish Government's National Development Plan [grant no. SFI/12/RC/2273_P2]. J.F.C has research support from Cremo, Pharmavite, DuPont and Nutricia. He has spoken at meetings sponsored by food and pharmaceutical companies. G.C. has received honoraria from Janssen, Probi, and Apsen as an invited speaker; is in receipt of research funding from Pharmavite, Fonterra, Nestle and Reckitt; and is a paid consultant for Yakult, Zentiva and Heel pharmaceuticals. All the authors declare no competing interests.

Neurocognitive effects of binge drinking on verbal episodic memory. An ERP study in university students

Background: Verbal memory may be affected by engagement in alcohol binge drinking during youth, according to the findings of neuropsychological studies. However, little is known about the dynamics of the neural activity underlying this cognitive process in young, heavy drinkers. Aims: To investigate brain event-related potentials associated with cued recall from episodic memory in binge drinkers and controls. Methods: Seventy first-year university students were classified as binge drinkers (32: 17 female) or controls (38: 18 female). The participants completed a verbal paired associates learning task during electroencephalogram (EEG) recording. ERPs elicited by old and new word pairs were extracted from the cued-recall phase of the task by using Principal Component Analysis. Subjects also performed a standardized neuropsychological verbal learning test. Results: Two of the three event-related potentials components indicating old/new memory effects provided evidence for anomalies associated with binge drinking. The old/new effects were absent in the binge drinkers in the two subsequent posterior components, identified with the late parietal component and the late posterior negativity The late frontal component revealed similar old/new effects in both groups. Binge drinkers showed similar behavioural performance to controls in the verbal paired associates task, but performed poorly in the more demanding short-term cued-recall trial of a neuropsychological standardized test. Conclusion: Event-related potentials elicited during a verbal cued-recall task revealed differences in brain functioning between young binge drinkers and controls that may underlie emergent deficits in episodic memory linked to alcohol abuse. The brain activity of binge drinkers suggests alterations in the hippocampal - posterior parietal cortex circuitry subserving recognition and recollection of the cue context and generation of the solution, in relation to verbal information shallowly memorised.

Longitudinal change of inhibitory control functional connectivity associated with the development of heavy alcohol drinking

Introduction

Heavy drinking (HD) prevalent pattern of alcohol consumption among adolescents, particularly concerning because of their critical vulnerability to the neurotoxic effects of ethanol. Adolescent neurodevelopment is characterized by critical neurobiological changes of the prefrontal, temporal and parietal regions, important for the development of executive control processes, such as inhibitory control (IC). In the present Magnetoencephalography (MEG) study, we aimed to describe the relationship between electrophysiological Functional Connectivity (FC) during an IC task and HD development, as well as its impact on functional neuromaturation.

Methods

We performed a two-year longitudinal protocol with two stages. In the first stage, before the onset of HD, we recorded brain electrophysiological activity from a sample of 67 adolescents (mean age = 14.6 ± 0.7) during an IC task. Alcohol consumption was measured using the AUDIT test and a semi-structured interview. Two years later, in the second stage, 32 of the 67 participants (mean age 16.7 ± 0.7) completed a similar protocol. As for the analysis in the first stage, the source-space FC matrix was calculated, and then, using a cluster-based permutation test (CBPT) based on Spearman's correlation, we calculated the correlation between the FC of each cortical source and the number of standard alcohol units consumed two years later. For the analysis of longitudinal change, we followed a similar approach. We calculated the symmetrized percentage change (SPC) between FC at both stages and performed a CBPT analysis, analyzing the correlation between FC change and the level of alcohol consumed in a regular session.

Results

The results revealed an association between higher beta-band FC in the prefrontal and temporal regions and higher consumption years later. Longitudinal results showed that greater future alcohol consumption was associated with an exacerbated reduction in the FC of the same areas.

Discussion

These results underline the existence of several brain functional differences prior to alcohol misuse and their impact on functional neuromaturation.

Adolescent brain maturation and the neuropathological effects of binge drinking: A critical review

Adolescence is a transitional stage marked by continued brain development. This period is accompanied by physical and neurochemical modifications in the shape and function of the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and other limbic system structures. Brain maturation during adolescence, which is typically governed by intrinsic factors, can be dramatically altered by environmental influences such as drugs and alcohol. Unlike many other addictive substances, binge drinking is very common and normative among teenagers and young adults. This repeated pattern of excessive alcohol consumption in adolescents has been shown to cause behavioral changes and neurocognitive impairments that include increased anxiety, risky decision-making, and learning deficits, which could lead to the development of alcohol use disorder (AUD). This manuscript highlights factors that lead to adolescent binge drinking, discusses maturational changes that occur in an adolescent's brain, and then evaluates the effect of adolescent alcohol consumption on brain structure, function, and neurocognitive abilities in both human studies and animal models. The impact of gender/sex and COVID-19 are briefly discussed. Understanding the factors that promote the onset of adolescent binge drinking and its undesirable consequences could serve as a catalyst for developing therapeutic agents that would decrease or eradicate the damaging effects of alcohol on an adolescent brain.

The Growing Trend of Young People Abstaining from Drinking Alcohol: A Literature Review

Background: Youth alcohol use and misuse lead to adverse outcomes. However, the literature has not always associated complete abstinence with better health. Since recent literature indicates an increased proportion of young abstainers, the aim of this paper is to review the studies investigating this upward trend and the factors associated with it, such as socio-demographics, school performance, social life, physical and mental health, and parental influence. Methods: Different databases were searched and appropriated terms were used. Given that the trend has only emerged in recent years, the review was limited to papers published since 2000. A total of 970 papers were returned and 10 were retained for the present review. Results: All papers covered by the review acknowledge the existence of a new significant trend resulting in more young people in developed countries who are choosing to abstain completely from drinking alcohol. They are in good physical and mental health and perform better at school than their drinking peers. The quality of their social life, albeit slightly more limited than that of their drinking peers, appeared to be good. Conclusion: Young alcohol abstainers represent a group situated at the beginning of a continuum of alcohol consumption, they do well and are not very different from light drinkers. Alcohol abstinence at young age does not seem to have any downsides and should therefore be generally advised. To further promote such behavior, measures to encourage parental monitoring and more generous public expenditure on health services and family benefits should be encouraged.

Alterations of theta power and synchrony during encoding in young adult binge drinkers: Subsequent memory effects associated with retrieval after 48 h and 6 months

Introduction

Young emerging adults commonly engage in binge drinking which is associated with a range of neurocognitive deficits, including memory impairments. However, evidence on neural oscillations mediating episodic memory in this population is lacking. To address this gap, we recorded theta oscillatory activity in young binge (BDs) and light drinkers (LDs) during memory encoding and analyzed it prospectively as a function of subsequent retrieval. Theta underlies successful encoding of novel items in memory through corticolimbic integration. Subsequent memory effects (SMEs) are reflected in stronger theta activity during encoding of the items that are later remembered compared to those that are later forgotten.

Methods

In the present study, 23 BDs (age: 23.3 ± 3.3) and 24 LDs (age: 23.4 ± 3.3) rated emotionally evocative images with negative, positive, and neutral themes during implicit encoding. They performed a recognition memory task on two follow-up occasions after a short (48 h), and long retention delay (6 months). Electroencephalography (EEG) signal was recorded during the encoding session and analyzed in time-frequency domain with Morlet wavelets in theta band (4-7 Hz). To evaluate SMEs, the event-related theta oscillations acquired during encoding were analyzed based on recognition outcomes after the two retention intervals.

Results

The BD and LD groups did not differ on recognition memory. However, BDs showed attenuated event-related theta power during encoding of images that were successfully retained after 6 months compared to LDs. In addition, theta synchronous activity between frontal and left posterior regions during encoding successfully predicted recognition of the images after both retention delays in LDs but not in BDs. These SMEs on theta power and synchrony correlated negatively with high-intensity drinking in the previous 6 months. No differences between men and women were observed for any analysis.

Discussion

It has been well established that long-range neural synchrony between cortical and limbic nodes underlies successful memory encoding and retention which, in turn, depends on neural excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance. Given that binge drinking is associated with E/I dysregulation, the observed SME deficiencies are consistent with other evidence of neural hyperexcitability in BDs, and may be indicative of increased risk of developing alcohol use disorders.

Signal in the noise: Altered brain activation among adolescent alcohol users detected via the analysis of intra-individual variability1

RATIONALE

Unlike its average level, the variability in brain activation over time or trials can capture subtle and brief disruptions likely to occur among participants with low-to-moderate levels of substance use or misuse.

OBJECTIVE

The present study used this intra-individual variability measurement approach to detect neural processing differences associated with light-to-moderate use of alcohol among 14-19-year-old adolescents.

METHOD

A total of 128 participants reporting any level of alcohol use during the previous 6 months and 87 participants reporting no use during this period completed intake questionnaires and interviews as well as an assessment of P300 electroencephalographic responses to novel stimuli recorded during two separate tasks.

RESULTS

In addition to differing in recent alcohol use, the groups differed in nicotine and cannabis use, risk-taking behavior and conduct disorder symptoms, and P300 amplitude inter-trial variability (ITV) across both tasks. Across all participants, P300 ITV was positively correlated with a family history of depression but not with a family history of alcohol dependence. There were no group differences in P300 amplitude averaged across trials.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent reports attributing brain volume or brain function differences to an effect of light-to-moderate alcohol use should be viewed with great caution. In the present analysis of brain function differences among substance-using adolescents, the group differences were small, complicated by many factors coinciding with or preceding alcohol use, and not reflected in a stable central tendency.

A scoping review of electroencephalographic (EEG) markers for tracking neurophysiological changes and predicting outcomes in substance use disorder treatment

Substance use disorders (SUDs) constitute a growing global health crisis, yet many limitations and challenges exist in SUD treatment research, including the lack of objective brain-based markers for tracking treatment outcomes. Electroencephalography (EEG) is a neurophysiological technique for measuring brain activity, and although much is known about EEG activity in acute and chronic substance use, knowledge regarding EEG in relation to abstinence and treatment outcomes is sparse. We performed a scoping review of longitudinal and pre-post treatment EEG studies that explored putative changes in brain function associated with abstinence and/or treatment in individuals with SUD. Following PRISMA guidelines, we identified studies published between January 2000 and March 2022 from online databases. Search keywords included EEG, addictive substances (e.g., alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine), and treatment related terms (e.g., abstinence, relapse). Selected studies used EEG at least at one time point as a predictor of abstinence or other treatment-related outcomes; or examined pre- vs. post-SUD intervention (brain stimulation, pharmacological, behavioral) EEG effects. Studies were also rated on the risk of bias and quality using validated instruments. Forty-four studies met the inclusion criteria. More consistent findings included lower oddball P3 and higher resting beta at baseline predicting negative outcomes, and abstinence-mediated longitudinal decrease in cue-elicited P3 amplitude and resting beta power. Other findings included abstinence or treatment-related changes in late positive potential (LPP) and N2 amplitudes, as well as in delta and theta power. Existing studies were heterogeneous and limited in terms of specific substances of interest, brief times for follow-ups, and inconsistent or sparse results. Encouragingly, in this limited but maturing literature, many studies demonstrated partial associations of EEG markers with abstinence, treatment outcomes, or pre-post treatment-effects. Studies were generally of good quality in terms of risk of bias. More EEG studies are warranted to better understand abstinence- or treatment-mediated neural changes or to predict SUD treatment outcomes. Future research can benefit from prospective large-sample cohorts and the use of standardized methods such as task batteries. EEG markers elucidating the temporal dynamics of changes in brain function related to abstinence and/or treatment may enable evidence-based planning for more effective and targeted treatments, potentially pre-empting relapse or minimizing negative lifespan effects of SUD.

Electrophysiological resting-state hyperconnectivity and poorer behavioural regulation as predisposing profiles of adolescent binge drinking

Adolescent Binge Drinking (BD) has become an increasing health and social concern, with detrimental consequences for brain development and functional integrity. However, research on neurophysiological and neuropsychological traits predisposing to BD are limited at this time. In this work, we conducted a 2‐year longitudinal magnetoencephalography (MEG) study over a cohort of initially alcohol‐naïve adolescents with the purpose of exploring anomalies in resting‐state electrophysiological networks, impulsivity, sensation‐seeking, and dysexecutive behaviour able to predict future BD patterns. In a sample of 67 alcohol‐naïve adolescents (age = 14.5 ± 0.9), we measured resting‐state activity using MEG. Additionally, we evaluated their neuropsychological traits using self‐report ecological scales (BIS‐11, SSS‐V, BDEFS, BRIEF‐SR and DEX). In a second evaluation, 2 years later, we measured participant's alcohol consumption, sub‐dividing the original sample in two groups: future binge drinkers (22 individuals, age 14.6 ± 0.8; eight females) and future light/no drinkers (17 individuals, age 14.5 ± 0.8; eight females). Then, we searched for differences predating alcohol BD intake. We found abnormalities in MEG resting state, in a form of gamma band hyperconnectivity, in those adolescents who transitioned into BD years later. Furthermore, they showed higher impulsivity, dysexecutive behaviours and sensation seeking, positively correlated with functional connectivity (FC). Sensation seeking and impulsivity mainly predicted BD severity in the future, while the relationship between dysexecutive trait and FC with future BD was mediated by sensation seeking. These findings shed light to electrophysiological and neuropsychological traits of vulnerability towards alcohol consumption. We hypothesise that these differences may rely on divergent neurobiological development of inhibitory neurotransmission pathways and executive prefrontal circuits.

Effects of Persistent Binge Drinking on Brain Structure in Emerging Adults: A Longitudinal Study

Previous cross-sectional research has largely associated binge drinking (BD) with changes in volume and thickness during adolescence and early adulthood. Nevertheless, the long-term alcohol-related effects on gray matter features in youths who had maintained a BD pattern over time have not yet been sufficiently explored. The present study aimed to assess group differences both cross-sectionally and longitudinally [using symmetric percent change (SPC)] on several structural measures (i.e., thickness, surface area, volume). For this purpose, magnetic resonance imaging was recorded twice within a 2-year interval; at baseline (18-19 years) and a follow-up (20-21 years). The sample included 44 university students who were classified as 16 stable binge drinkers (8 females) and 28 stable controls (13 females). Whole-brain analysis showed larger insular surface area in binge drinkers relative to controls at follow-up (cluster-wise p = 0.045). On the other hand, region of interest (ROI) analyses on thickness also revealed a group by sex interaction at follow-up (p = 0.005), indicating that BD males had smaller right rostral middle frontal gyrus thickness than both control males (p = 0.011) and BD females (p = 0.029). Similarly, ROI-based analysis on longitudinal data showed a group by sex interaction in the right nucleus accumbens (p = 0.009) which revealed a decreased volume across time in BD males than in control males (p = 0.007). Overall, continued BD pattern during emerging adulthood appears to lead to gray matter abnormalities in regions intimately involved in reward processing, emotional regulation and executive functions. Notably, some anomalies varied significantly depending on sex, suggesting a sex-specific impact of BD on typical neurodevelopment processes.

Effects of binge drinking during adolescence and emerging adulthood on the brain: A systematic review of neuroimaging studies

Binge drinking (BD) is a common pattern of alcohol consumption which is generating great concern because of its deleterious consequences. We selected 33 neuroimaging studies of healthy young binge drinkers (BDs) by following PRISMA guidelines. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the relationship between BD and neurocognitive anomalies reported across magnetic resonance studies. Moreover, this work is the first in which results of relatively new imaging techniques, such as resting-state functional connectivity (RS-FC) and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI), have been reviewed using a systematic procedure. We established strict inclusion criteria in order to isolate the various potential effects of BD on the adolescent brain. Two authors independently evaluated the methodological quality, assessing different aspects related to sample size, and statistical correction methods, which are of particular importance in neuroimaging studies. BD is associated with structural and functional anomalies in several cortical and subcortical brain regions intimately involved in the control and regulation of impulsive or risky behaviours, as well as in the processing of reinforcing stimuli.

"It's a beer!": Brain functional hyperconnectivity during processing of alcohol-related images in young binge drinkers

Alcohol attentional bias has been pointed as a major marker of alcohol misuse. Recent evidence has revealed that brain functional connectivity (FC) may be a valuable index of the brain networks' integrity in young binge drinkers (BDs). However, there is no study to date examining the FC networks linked to the processing of alcohol-related images in this population. The present study aimed to explore the FC signatures underlying alcohol attention bias in young BDs. Thus, electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded in 54 college students (55.5% females; 27 non/low-drinkers and 27 BDs) while performing a visual alcohol cue-reactivity task. We evaluated whole-brain FC profiles during the processing of alcoholic and non-alcoholic cues, as well as their potential relationship with craving and severity of alcohol use. Results showed that, at the behavioural level, BDs rated alcohol-related images as more pleasant/attractive than non/low-drinkers. Furthermore, at the electrophysiological level, BDs exhibited increased beta-band FC-particularly in the fronto-parieto-occipital network-when processing alcoholic cues. Conversely, they displayed reduced theta-band FC relatively to non/low-drinkers for non-alcoholic images. These hyper-/hypo-connectivity patterns were associated with higher alcohol craving levels. Findings are congruent with previous neurofunctional studies reporting an attentional bias towards alcohol-related information in BDs. These results may have important clinical implications as this neural reactivity to alcoholic cues may contribute to the maintenance and/or escalation of the drinking pattern. Finally, the present study constitutes the first evidence showing that FC networks may be a sensitive indicator to alcohol attentional bias in BDs.

Local and network-level dysregulation of error processing is associated with binge drinking

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Go/NoGo performance does not differ between binge (BDs) and light drinkers.

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BDs show greater BOLD activity to inhibition errors primarily in prefrontal areas.

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Greater functional connectivity in the frontal cortex correlates with drinking.

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Observed increase in error-related activity may serve a compensatory role.

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This is consistent with allostatic hyperexcitability reflecting neuroadaptation.

Binge drinking refers to the pattern of alcohol consumption that brings blood alcohol levels to or above legal intoxication levels. Commonly practiced by young adults, it is associated with neurofunctional alterations, raising health-related concerns. Executive deficits may contribute to the inability to refrain from excessive alcohol intake. As a facet of cognitive control, error processing allows for flexible modification of behavior to optimize future outcomes. It is highly relevant to addiction research, as a failure to inhibit excessive drinking results in relapses, which is a hallmark of alcohol use disorder. However, research on local and system-level neural underpinnings of inhibition failures as a function of binge drinking is limited. To address these gaps, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine local changes and interregional functional connectivity during response inhibition errors on a Go/NoGo task. Young adult binge drinkers (BDs) performed equally well as light drinkers (LDs), a group of demographically matched individuals who drink regularly but in low-risk patterns. In contrast, BDs exhibited greater fMRI activity to inhibition errors contrasted with correct NoGo trials in the rostral anterior (rACC) and posterior cingulate cortices (PCC), as well as right middle frontal gyrus (R-MFG). Furthermore, BDs showed increased connectivity between the rACC and right lateral prefrontal cortex, in addition to greater connectivity between the R-MFG and the left ventrolateral and superior frontal cortices. Imaging indices were positively correlated only with alcohol-related measures, but not with those related to moods, disposition, or cognitive capacity. Taken together, greater error-related activity and expanded functional connectivity among prefrontal regions may serve a compensatory role to maintain efficiency of inhibitory control. Aligned with prominent models of addiction, these findings accentuate the importance of top-down control in maintaining low-risk drinking levels. They provide insight into potentially early signs of deteriorating cognitive control functions in BDs and may help guide intervention strategies aimed at preventing excessive drinking habits.

Subjective executive function deficits in hazardous alcohol drinkers

BACKGROUND

Dependent alcohol drinkers exhibit differences in the structure and function of the brain, and impairments in cognitive function, including executive functions (EFs). Less is known about the impact of non-dependent but hazardous use (that which raises the risk of harm), and it is also unclear to what extent executive impairments in this cohort affect real-world function. The current study examines the relationship between alcohol use, EF and alcohol-related problems, in the general population.

METHODS

A between-groups cross-sectional design assessed EF across two levels of drinking; hazardous (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) score of ⩾8) and non-hazardous. Alcohol drinkers (n = 666; 136 male; 524 female; six not disclosed; aged 28.02 ± 10.40 years) completed validated questionnaires online assessing subjective EF, alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.

RESULTS

Organisation, Strategic Planning, Impulse Control and overall function were significantly impaired in hazardous drinkers. Furthermore, the effect of alcohol on EF, partially mediated the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.

CONCLUSION

Hazardous drinking was associated with lower subjective EF, and this mediated the effect of alcohol on alcohol-related problems. This may be due to changes in prefrontal brain regions, which could indicate greater risk for the development of alcohol dependence (AD). Future research should use additional means to assess EF in hazardous drinkers, including recovery of function, development of AD and the relationship between cognition and alcohol-related daily problems.

Effects of the COVID-19 Mitigation Measures on Alcohol Consumption and Binge Drinking in College Students: A Longitudinal Survey

To "flatten the curve" of COVID-19 contagion, several countries ordered lockdowns amid the pandemic along with indications on social distancing. These social isolation measures could potentially bring alterations to healthy behavior, including to alcohol consumption. However, there is hardly any scientific evidence of the impact of such measures on alcohol consumption and binge drinking (BD) among young adults, and how they relate to alcohol craving, stress, anxiety, and depression levels. We addressed these questions by conducting a longitudinal study with 146 Portuguese college students-regular binge drinkers (regular BDs), infrequent binge drinkers (infrequent BDs) and non-binge drinkers (non-BDs)-in three moments: before the pandemic (Pre-Lockdown), during lockdown (Lockdown) and 6 months after (Post-Lockdown). Results revealed that regular BDs decreased alcohol use during Lockdown, a change in behavior that was even greater during Post-Lockdown, when regular BDs displayed similar levels of consumption to infrequent/non-BDs. Additionally, alcohol craving and living with friends were predictive of alcohol use during Lockdown, whereas stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms did not contribute to explain changes in drinking behavior. Collectively, the results suggest that BD in young Portuguese college students can be stopped when the contexts in which alcohol intake usually takes place are suppressed, which may have important implications for future prevention and intervention strategies.