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Wang Q, Huang N, Wang W, Zhang Z, Qiu Y, Chen X, Xu A, Wu Y, Chen Z, Hu H. A novel route for urea abatement in UPW production: Pre-chlorination/VUV/UV under acidic circumstances and its enhancement mechanisms. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 475:134836. [PMID: 38889471 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Urea abatement has been a prominent challenge for UPW production. This research proposed a productive strategy combining pre-chlorination and VUV/UV processes under acidic conditions to settle this problem. This study first revealed the reaction kinetics between urea and free chlorine in a large pH range from 2.5 to 9.6, where the reaction constant rate varied from 0.06 to 0.46 M-1·s-1. Substitution reaction mediated by Cl2 was the dominant process at low pH (pH<3). The differences of dominant pathways resulted in the differences in reaction products: The detected concentration of dichloramine at pH 2.5 was twice that at pH 4.5 and 6.5. Further, this study found that pre-chlorination/VUV/UV process could achieve the thorough removal of 2-mg/L urea with chlorination of less than 5 min and VUV/UV irradiation of less than 200 mJ/cm2. Chloride ions, low pH, and higher chlorine dosage were found to be the positive factors to improve urea removal efficiency in pre-chlorination/VUV/UV process. The reaction rate constants between chlorourea with·OH and·Cl were calculated to be 3.62 × 107 and 2.26 × 109 L·mol-1·s-1, respectively.·Cl,·OH and photolysis contributed 60.5 %, 22.9 % and 16.6 % in chlorourea degradation, respectively. Pre-chlorination/VUV/UV achieved a DOC removal efficiency of 78.5 %. And nitrogen in urea was converted into inorganic nitrogenous compounds. Finally, compared with direct VUV/UV/chlorine and VUV/UV/persulfate processes, this process saved more than 70 % of energy in VUV/UV unit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nan Huang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Wenlong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control of Shenzhen, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhuowei Zhang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yu Qiu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaowen Chen
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ao Xu
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua University, Suzhou 215163, China
| | - Yinhu Wu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hongying Hu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China.
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2
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Cao J, Zhao F, Li C, Zhao Q, Gao L, Ma T, Xu H, Ren X, Liu A. Electrocatalytic Synthesis of Urea: An In-depth Investigation from Material Modification to Mechanism Analysis. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2403412. [PMID: 38934550 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202403412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Industrial urea synthesis production uses NH3 from the Haber-Bosch method, followed by the reaction of NH3 with CO2, which is an energy-consuming technique. More thorough evaluations of the electrocatalytic C-N coupling reaction are needed for the urea synthesis development process, catalyst design, and the underlying reaction mechanisms. However, challenges of adsorption and activation of reactant and suppression of side reactions still hinder its development, making the systematic review necessary. This review meticulously outlines the progress in electrochemical urea synthesis by utilizing different nitrogen (NO3 -, N2, NO2 -, and N2O) and carbon (CO2 and CO) sources. Additionally, it delves into advanced methods in materials design, such as doping, facet engineering, alloying, and vacancy introduction. Furthermore, the existing classes of urea synthesis catalysts are clearly defined, which include 2D nanomaterials, materials with Mott-Schottky structure, materials with artificially frustrated Lewis pairs, single-atom catalysts (SACs), and heteronuclear dual-atom catalysts (HDACs). A comprehensive analysis of the benefits, drawbacks, and latest developments in modern urea detection techniques is discussed. It is aspired that this review will serve as a valuable reference for subsequent designs of highly efficient electrocatalysts and the development of strategies to enhance the performance of electrochemical urea synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghui Cao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
| | - Fang Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
| | - Chengjie Li
- Shandong Engineering Research Center of Green and High-value Marine Fine Chemical, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang, 262700, China
| | - Qidong Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
| | - Liguo Gao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
| | - Tingli Ma
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Hao Xu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Inner Mongolia University of Technology, Hohhot, 010051, China
| | - Xuefeng Ren
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
| | - Anmin Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Ocean and Life Sciences, Leicester International Institute, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 124221, China
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3
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Long L, Wang S, Gao Z, You S, Wei L. Electro-oxidation and UV irradiation coupled method for in-site removing pollutants from human body fluids in swimming pool. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:132963. [PMID: 37976850 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive study was conducted to investigate how ultraviolet (UV) irradiation combined with electrochemistry (EC) can efficiently remove human body fluids (HBFs) related pollutants, such as urea/creatinine/hippuric acid, from swimming pool water (SPW). In comparison with the chlorination, UV, EC, and UV/chlorine treatments, the EC/UV treatment exhibited the highest removal rates for these typical pollutants (TPs) from HBFs in synthetic SPW. Specifically, increasing the operating current of the EC/UV process from 20 to 60 mA, as well as NaCl content from 0.5 to 3.0 g/L, improved urea and creatinine degradation while having no influence on hippuric acid. In contrast, EC/UV process was resilient to changes in water parameters (pH, HCO3-, and actual water matrix). Urea removal was primarily attributable to reactive chlorine species (RCS), whereas creatinine and hippuric acid removal were primarily related to hydroxyl radical, UV photolysis, and RCS. In addition, the EC/UV procedure can lessen the propensity for creatinine and hippuric acid to generate disinfection by-products. We can therefore draw the conclusion that the EC/UV process is a green and efficient in-situ technology for removing HBFs related TPs from SPW with the benefits of needless chlorine-based chemical additive, easy operation, continuous disinfection efficiency, and fewer byproducts production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shutao Wang
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Zhelu Gao
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shijie You
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Liangliang Wei
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
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4
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Lin HHH, Lin AYC. Peracetic acid as an alternative disinfectant for micropollutants degradation and disinfection byproducts control in outdoor swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 464:132988. [PMID: 37979421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Peracetic acid (PAA) has garnered significant interest as a novel alternative to chlorine-based disinfectants for water treatment due to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and its ability of reactive species generation when exposed to UV light. However, limited studies have investigated micropollutant degradation in the presence of PAA under solar irradiation. This is the first study to comprehensively investigate the photodegradation of caffeine (CAF) and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) and the removal of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in the presence of PAA under simulated solar light. The study revealed that the photodegradation of CAF and 4-MBC was significantly enhanced in the presence of PAA, following pseudo-first-order kinetics (R2 > 0.98) with reaction rates (kobs) of 0.220 and 0.111 h-1, respectively. In addition, substantial reduction of 21 DBPs, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and haloacetonitriles, and no DBPs formation were observed in the presence of PAA and simulated solar irradiation. The proportion of coexisting H2O2 in the PAA solution considerably influenced target compounds degradation. CAF and 4-MBC were degraded faster under acidic conditions than under alkaline conditions. Hydroxyl radicals (·OH) dominated the degradation of CAF at different pH values, while direct photolysis and other reactive species played a major role in the degradation of 4-MBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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5
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Sun J, Rene ER, Tao D, Lu Y, Jin Q, Lam JCH, Leung KMY, He Y. Degradation of organic UV filters in the water environment: A concise review on the mechanism, toxicity, and technologies. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 463:132822. [PMID: 37898090 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Organic ultraviolet filters (OUVFs) have been used globally for the past 20 years. Given that OUVFs can be quickly released from sunscreens applied on human skins, they have been frequently detected in aquatic environments and organisms. Some byproducts of OUVFs might be more recalcitrant and toxic than their parent compounds. To further assess the toxicity and potential risk of OUVFs' byproducts, it is necessary to determine the fate of OUVFs and identify their transformation products. This review summarizes and analyzes pertinent literature and reports in the field of OUVFs research. These published research works majorly focus on the degradation mechanisms of OUVFs in aquatic environments, their intermediates/byproducts, and chlorination reaction. Photodegradation (direct photolysis, self-sensitive photolysis and indirect photolysis) and biodegradation are the main transformation pathways of OUVFs through natural degradation. To remove residual OUVFs' pollutants from aqueous environments, novel physicochemical and biological approaches have been developed in recent years. Advanced oxidation, ultrasound, and bio-based technologies have been proven to eliminate OUVFs from wastewaters. In addition, the disinfection mechanism and the byproducts (DBPs) of various OUVFs in swimming pools are discussed in this review. Besides, knowledge gaps and future research directions in this field of study are also mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaji Sun
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), 511458 Guangzhou, China
| | - Eldon R Rene
- Department of Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Engineering, IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, P. O. Box 3015, 2611AX Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Danyang Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution and Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yichun Lu
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), 511458 Guangzhou, China
| | - Qianqian Jin
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jason Chun-Ho Lam
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), 511458 Guangzhou, China
| | - Kenneth M Y Leung
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution and Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuhe He
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), 511458 Guangzhou, China.
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6
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Lee JW, Lee D, Lee HJ, Shim S, Kim JH, Lee C. Enhanced oxidation of urea by pH swing during chlorination: pH-dependent reaction mechanism. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 242:120183. [PMID: 37320874 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Urea reacts with chlorine to form chlorinated ureas (chloroureas), and fully chlorinated urea (tetrachlorourea) is further hydrolyzed into CO2 and chloramines. This study found that the oxidative degradation of urea by chlorination was enhanced by the pH swing, wherein the reaction proceeded under an acidic pH (e.g., pH = 3) in the first stage, and the solution pH was subsequently increased to a neutral or alkaline value (e.g., pH > 7) in the second-stage reaction. The degradation rate of urea by pH-swing chlorination increased with increasing chlorine dose and pH during the second-stage reaction. The pH-swing chlorination was based on the opposite pH dependence of sub-processes comprising urea chlorination. The formation of monochlorourea was favored under acidic pH conditions; however, the subsequent conversion into di- and trichloroureas was favored under neutral or alkaline pH conditions. The deprotonation of monochlorourea (pKa = 9.7 ± 1.1) and dichlorourea (pKa = 5.1 ± 1.4) was suggested to be responsible for the accelerated reaction in the second stage under increased pH conditions. pH-swing chlorination was also effective in degrading urea at low concentrations (micromolar levels). In addition, the total nitrogen concentration significantly decreased during the degradation of urea because of the volatilization of chloramines and the release of other gaseous nitrogen compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Won Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Process (ICP), and Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Donghyun Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Process (ICP), and Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Hye-Jin Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Process (ICP), and Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Soojin Shim
- Infra Engineering Group, Global Infra Technology, Samsung Electronics, 1 Samsungjeonja-ro, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do 18448, South Korea
| | - Je Hun Kim
- Infra Engineering Group, Global Infra Technology, Samsung Electronics, 1 Samsungjeonja-ro, Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do 18448, South Korea
| | - Changha Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Process (ICP), and Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, South Korea.
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Peng F, Lu Y, Dong X, Wang Y, Li H, Yang Z. Advances and research needs for disinfection byproducts control strategies in swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 454:131533. [PMID: 37146331 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is of great significance due to the non-negligible toxicity and widespread existence of DBPs. However, the management of DBPs remains challenging as the removal and regulation of DBPs is a multifactorial phenomenon in pools. This study summarized recent studies on the removal and regulation of DBPs, and further proposed some research needs. Specifically, the removal of DBPs was divided into the direct removal of the generated DBPs and the indirect removal by inhibiting DBP formation. Inhibiting DBP formation seems to be the more effective and economically practical strategy, which can be achieved mainly by reducing precursors, improving disinfection technology, and optimizing water quality parameters. Alternative disinfection technologies to chlorine disinfection have attracted increasing attention, while their applicability in pools requires further investigation. The regulation of DBPs was discussed in terms of improving the standards on DBPs and their preccursors. The development of online monitoring technology for DBPs is essential for implementing the standard. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the control of DBPs in pool water by updating the latest research advances and providing detailed perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Xuelian Dong
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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8
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Zhang D, Chen L, Dong S, Luo J, Xu Z, Chu W. Dramatically increased disinfection byproducts in swimming pool water caused by commonly used urea degradants. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 223:118987. [PMID: 36029699 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In China, urea degradants are often used in combination with chlorine in swimming pool water to remove urea. Here we report the first study about the impacts of urea degradants on urea degradation, disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation and estimated DBP-associated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Firstly, four groups of typical DBPs from six real indoor swimming pools were analyzed. The concentration of DBPs in swimming pool waters was about 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than that source tap water. Notably, a rapid increase in DBPs was observed after urea degradant treatment. Simulated processes of urea removal using three commonly used urea degradants were therefore conducted in laboratory. Neither urea degradant nor chlorine alone removed urea effectively within 48 h. When applied in combination, urea degradant with sufficient chlorine rapidly removed urea by 100% within 3 h, and anti-chlorourea oligomer in urea degradants was the main contributor. Meanwhile, a remarkable increase in DBPs, especially brominated DBPs, was observed due to bromide introduction by urea degradants. For this reason, bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of DBPs dramatically increased. For instance, the BIF of dihaloacetic acids increased by 2665%-4025% after applying three urea degradants. As the highly toxic brominated DBPs were generated, attention should be paid into the potential DBP-related health risks from the use of urea degradants together with chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Jiayi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Zuxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
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Zhang Y, Huang X, Li J, Bai J, Zhou C, Li L, Wang J, Long M, Zhu X, Zhou B. Rapid Conversion of Co 2+ to Co 3+ by Introducing Oxygen Vacancies in Co 3O 4 Nanowire Anodes for Nitrogen Removal with Highly Efficient H 2 Recovery in Urine Treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:9693-9701. [PMID: 35748107 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c00729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Urine is a nitrogenous waste biomass but can be used as an appealing alternative substrate for H2 recovery. However, urine electrolysis suffers from sluggish kinetics and requires alkaline condition. Herein, we report a novel system to decompose urine to H2 and N2 under neutral conditions mediated by Cl• using oxygen-vacancy-rich Co3O4 nanowire (Ov-Co3O4) anodes and CuO nanowire cathodes. The Co2+/Co3+ cycle in Co3O4 activates Cl- in urine to Cl•, which rapidly and selectively converts urea into N2. Thus, electron transfer is boosted for H2 production, eliminating the kinetic limitations. The shuttle of Co2+ to Co3+ is the key step for Cl• yield, which is accelerated due to the introduction of Ov. Electrochemical analysis shows that Ov induces positive charge on the Co center; therefore, Co2+ loses electrons more efficiently to form Co3+. H2 production in this system reaches 716 μmol h-1, which is 320% that of non-radical-mediated urine electrolysis. The utilization of Ov-Co3O4 further enhances H2 generation, which is 490 and 210% those of noble Pt and RuO2, respectively. Moreover, urine is effectively degraded in 90 min with the total nitrogen removal of 95.4%, and N2 is the final product. This work provides new insights for efficient and low-cost recovery of H2 and urine remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoya Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Jing Bai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Changhui Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Lei Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Jiachen Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Mingce Long
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Xinyuan Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Baoxue Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
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10
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Mapping the Complex Journey of Swimming Pool Contaminants: A Multi-Method Systems Approach. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14132062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Swimming pool owners worldwide face the challenging task of keeping their pool water balanced and free from contaminants. However, swimming pool water (SPW) quality management is complex with the countless processes and interactions of interlinked system variables. For example, contamination with sunscreen residues is inevitable as users apply sunscreen to protect their skin from damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Nanoparticulate titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) is one such residues that have received criticism due to potential human health and environmental risks. Despite ongoing research studies, management strategies of nano-TiO2 in swimming pools are still limited. Therefore, this paper focuses on developing a multi-method approach for identifying and understanding interdependencies between TiO2 particles and an aquatic environment such as a swimming pool. Given the complexity of the system to be assessed, the authors utilise a systems approach by integrating cross-matrix multiplication (MICMAC) and Systems Thinking techniques. The developed conceptual model visually depicts the complex system, which provides users with a basic understanding of swimming pool chemistry, displaying the numerous cause-and-effect relationships and enabling users to identify leverage points that can effectively change the dynamics of the system. Such systems-level understanding, and actions will help to manage nano-TiO2 levels in an efficient manner. The novelty of this paper is the proposed methodology, which uses a systems approach to conceptualise the complex interactions of contaminants in swimming pools and important pathways to elevated contaminant levels.
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11
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Young I, Robillard P, Loeffler P, Sekercioglu F. Determinants of bather hygiene in public swimming pools: a mixed-methods analysis of online discussion comments. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2022; 20:877-887. [PMID: 35768964 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2022.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Swimming in public pools can expose bathers to microbiological (e.g., Cryptosporidium) and chemical (e.g., disinfection by-product) hazards, which can lead to recreational water illness. Adequate hygienic behaviours among bathers are important to reduce these risks. However, prior studies have found low compliance with pre-swim showering and avoidance of urinating in pools. We conducted a mixed-methods analysis of online discussion comments to identify key determinants of these two behaviours. We identified relevant discussion threads on Reddit, Quora, and swimming forums. Identified comments were classified as having a positive or negative sentiment towards the behaviour, and they were thematically analyzed according to the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF). We analyzed 986 comments from 45 threads; 49.8% of comments were classified as expressing a positive sentiment towards the behaviour. Positive sentiments were more commonly expressed towards pre-swim showering compared to avoidance of urinating in pools (60.1 vs. 47.1%). Eleven themes were identified across the following eight TDF domains: beliefs about consequences (n = 362 comments), social influences (n = 298), beliefs about capabilities (n = 240), social/professional role and identity (n = 144), knowledge (n = 138), emotions (n = 137), reinforcement (n = 78), and environmental context and resources (n = 33). Results can help to inform targeted educational and outreach strategies with bathers to encourage increased adoption of hygienic behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Young
- School of Occupational and Public Health, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada E-mail:
| | - Paige Robillard
- School of Occupational and Public Health, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada E-mail:
| | - Pauline Loeffler
- School of Occupational and Public Health, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada E-mail:
| | - Fatih Sekercioglu
- School of Occupational and Public Health, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada E-mail:
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12
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Disinfection of Therapeutic Spa Waters: Applicability of Sodium Hypochlorite and Hydrogen Peroxide-Based Disinfectants. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The microbial water quality of therapeutic pools operating without disinfection is recurrently compromised, posing a risk to bathers’ health. The complex composition of such waters and the sensitivity of their therapeutic components hinder the use of traditional chlorine-based disinfectants. The present study aimed to investigate the applicability of a hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectant in therapeutic water in comparison with hypochlorite. Disinfection efficacy, byproduct formation, and the fate of therapeutic components were tested for both disinfectants under laboratory conditions, applying different doses and contact times. Disinfection efficacy was found to be matrix-dependent, especially that of hydrogen peroxide against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a 10- to 1000-fold difference). Hypochlorite treatment presented a significant chemical risk through the generation of byproducts, mainly brominated and iodinated compounds and combined chlorine. Of the alleged therapeutic components, sulfide ions were eliminated (≥86% loss) by both disinfectants, and hypochlorite reacted with iodide ions as well (≥70% removal). Based on their composition, only 2% of Hungarian therapeutic waters can be treated by chlorination due to high concentrations of ammonia and/or organic compounds. Hydrogen peroxide is applicable to 82% of the waters, as the presence of sulfide ions is the only limiting factor. Due to the matrix effect, close control of residual disinfectant concentration is necessary to ensure microbial safety.
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13
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Zhang Y, Tang W, Bai J, Li J, Wang J, Zhou T, Guan X, Zhou B. Highly efficient removal of total nitrogen and dissolved organic compound in waste reverse osmosis concentrate mediated by chlorine radical on 3D Co 3O 4 nanowires anode. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 424:127662. [PMID: 34801298 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC) from wastewater reclamation has posed significant disposal challenges due to its highly concentrated NH3-N, chloride ion and bio-refractory organics, and developing technologies for their removal are essential. Herein, we developed an efficient electrochemical system to remove total nitrogen and dissolved organic compound (DOC) simultaneously mediated by chlorine radical (Cl•), which is generated by activation of chloride ion existing in ROC on an inexpensive, three-dimensional Co3O4 nanowires. Results showed that the total nitrogen and total organic carbon removal were 98.2% and 56.9% in 60 min for synthetic ROC with 56 mg/L of NH3-N and 20 mg/L of DOC. The utilization of Co3O4 nanowires enhanced NH3-N degradation by 2.58 times compared with Co3O4 nanoplates, which were 1.69 and 17.5 times these of RuO2 and Pt. We found that structural Co3+/Co2+ acts as cyclic catalysis to produce Cl• via single-electron transfer, which convert NH3-N to N2 and lead to faster DOC degradation. This architecture provides abundant catalytic sites and sufficient accessibility of reactants. Small amount of nitrate generated by oxidation of NH3-N was further reduced to N2 on Pd-Cu/NF cathode. These findings provide new insights for utilization of waste Cl- and development of novel electrochemical system for ROC disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Wenjing Tang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Jing Bai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Jiachen Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Tingsheng Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Xiaohong Guan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Baoxue Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pollution Process and Management of Plateau Lake-Watershed, Yunnan 650034, PR China.
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14
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Long-Term Monitoring of Water and Air Quality at an Indoor Pool Facility during Modifications of Water Treatment. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14030335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that volatile disinfection byproducts (DBPs) can adversely affect the human respiratory system. As a result, swimming pool water treatment processes can play important roles in governing water and air quality. Thus, it was hypothesized that water and air quality in a swimming pool facility can be improved by renewing or enhancing one or more components of water treatment. This study is designed to identify and quantify changes in water and air quality that are associated with changes in water treatment at an indoor chlorinated swimming pool facility. Reductions in aqueous trichloramine (NCl3) concentration were observed following the use of secondary oxidizer with its activator. This inclusion also resulted in significant decreases in the concentrations of cyanogen chloride (CNCl) in pool water. The concentration of urea, a compound that is common in swimming pools and that functions as an important precursor to NCl3 formation, as well as a marker compound for the introduction of contaminants by swimmers, was also reduced after the addition of the activator. Concentrations of gas-phase NCl3 did not decrease after the treatment processes were changed. The collection of long-term water and air quality measurements also allowed for an assessment of the effects of bather load on water and air quality. In general, the concentrations of urea (an NCl3 precursor), liquid-phase NCl3, and gas-phase NCl3 all increased during periods of high swimmer number.
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15
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Singla J, Thakur I, Sangal V, Verma A. Dimensionally stable anode (Doped-MMO) mediated electro-oxidation and multi-response optimization study for remediation of urea wastewater. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 285:131498. [PMID: 34252807 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the potential application of novel doped-MMO (Ti/IrO2/Ta2O5/SnO2-Sb2O4) anodes as an alternative source to costly electrodes have been visualized for the EO treatment of urea. Parametric optimization for the treatment of urea through the EO process by doped-MMO has been done successfully. The high R2 values of both responses i.e. % Degradation and energy consumption for quadratic suggested by BBD under RSM advocates a good correlation between predicted and experimental data. The maximum % Degradation and energy consumption at optimized were found to be 91.2%, 51.53 kWh m-3 for urea respectively. Additionally, efforts were made to minimize treatment time further by implementing a dual effect, namely photo-electrocatalysis. The anode was found to be relatively stable even after 120 runs. The analysis of treated urea solution was verified in terms of total organic carbon (TOC) 90.0% reduction. The average operating cost of the electro-oxidation treatment process is determined to be 1.91 $ m-3. The results of this study demonstrate the potential of doped-MMO as a promising concept for the treatment of wastewater that can be successfully applied in real life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayishnu Singla
- School of Energy and Environment, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India
| | - Ina Thakur
- School of Energy and Environment, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India
| | - Vikas Sangal
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Anoop Verma
- School of Energy and Environment, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India.
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Yang Q, Guo Y, Xu J, Wu X, He B, Blatchley ER, Li J. Photolysis of N-chlorourea and its effect on urea removal in a combined pre-chlorination and UV 254 process. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 411:125111. [PMID: 33485223 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Urea is one of the most important nitrogenous organic pollutants in water, and its removal attracts attention because of a growing concern related to water eutrophication. Urea has previously been considered to be largely unaffected by the UV-chlorine process. However, N-chlorourea, an intermediate of urea chlorination, has been shown to absorb ultraviolet radiation, and as such its photolysis is possible. Experiments were conducted to quantify the kinetics of N-chlorourea degradation under UV254 irradiation. The results showed that about 92% of N-chlorourea was degraded under UV254 irradiation. Ammonia and nitrate were detected as the primary nitrogen containing products of the photolysis of N-chlorourea. Solution pH ranging from 3.0 to 7.5 influenced the distribution of these products but not on the degradation rate. Based on these data, a possible pathway of photodegradation of N-chlorourea under UV254 is proposed. The degradation of urea was also achieved by the photolysis of N-chlorourea during the combined pre-chlorination and UV254 process. Insights gained in this study may be useful for exploring the potential of combined pre-chlorination and UV254 process on urea removal in water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Yang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yang Guo
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Jie Xu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Xingyi Wu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Bingying He
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, PR China.
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Peng F, Yang F, Lu Y, Li H, Yang Z. Formation of disinfection byproducts during chlorination of mixed nitrogenous compounds in swimming pools. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142100. [PMID: 32916492 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool waters are receiving increasing attention because of their toxicity and widespread occurrence. Current studies rarely investigate the formation of DBPs from typical precursors in swimming pools under mixed exposure. They also rarely investigate the formation of carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs) and nitrogenous DBPs (N-DBPs) simultaneously. In this study, the formation of C-DBPs and N-DBPs were investigated during chlorination of mixed precursors (i.e., tryptophan, urea, creatinine, and ammonia). The effects of precursors and operation parameters were also investigated. Among the four precursors, tryptophan had the highest DBP formation potential. Urea and ammonia restrained the formation of C-DBPs but promoted the formation of more toxic N-DBPs. C-DBP yields were significantly higher than N-DBP yields under all experimental conditions. Longer reaction time and higher chlorine dosage promoted the formation of C-DBPs, while higher temperature decreased the concentration of N-DBPs. The presence of bromide not only improved the sum yields of DBPs, but also shifted chlorinated DBPs to brominated species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Fang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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18
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Oviedo L, Lopera L, Lara PA, Castrillón F, Peñuela GA. Monitoring of chlorine decay in public swimming pools in Medellín (Colombia). ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 193:10. [PMID: 33319333 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08779-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The present work shows the evaluation of the decay of free residual chlorine in several public swimming pools in the city of Medellín, observing that a decrease in residual chlorine does occur. Some factors accelerate the decrease in the concentration of free residual chlorine in recreational water, such as the number of bathers in the pool, the pH, and the temperature of the water. For this reason, the concentration of the disinfectant rapidly decreases to an extent that the health of swimmers could be put at risk. The Authority of Health of Medellín carries out inspection, surveillance and quality control activities of water for recreational use. These purposes of these include guaranteeing the reduction of risk factors to the health of the users of said pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lía Oviedo
- Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), School of the Environment, Faculty of Engineering, University Research Campus (SIU), University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Laura Lopera
- Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), School of the Environment, Faculty of Engineering, University Research Campus (SIU), University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Paula A Lara
- Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), School of the Environment, Faculty of Engineering, University Research Campus (SIU), University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia
| | | | - Gustavo A Peñuela
- Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), School of the Environment, Faculty of Engineering, University Research Campus (SIU), University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellín, Colombia.
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Wyczarska-Kokot J, Lempart-Rapacewicz A, Dudziak M, Łaskawiec E. Impact of swimming pool water treatment system factors on the content of selected disinfection by-products. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:722. [PMID: 33089340 PMCID: PMC7577915 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08683-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Recommendations regarding disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool waters consider the content of trihalomethanes (THMs) and combined chlorine (CC) as indicators of DBPs based on which the health risk for swimmers and staff of pool facility can be determined. However, the content of DBPs in swimming pools depends on many factors. In this paper, the influence of selected factors (physicochemical parameters of water and technological parameters) on the content of THMs and CC in pool water was determined. During the 6-month period, 9 pools of various functions were analyzed. The water in pools was subjected to the same method of treatment. The content of THMs and CC was compared against the content of organic matter, free chlorine and nitrates, pH, temperature, redox potential and turbidity, technological, and operational parameters. The THM content did not exceed the limit value of 0.1 mg/L. The content of CC varied significantly, from 0.05 to 1.13 mg Cl2/L. It was found that a very large water volume per person, in comparison to a very small one, contributed to the low content of CC and THMs. The high load expressed as m3 of water per person or m2 of water per person and the specific function of hot tubs (HT1 and HT2) led to the average concentration of CC in these pools exceeding 0.3 mg Cl2/L. The THM concentrations in hot tubs (especially in HT1) were also among the largest (0.038-0.058 mg/L). In terms of the analyzed microbiological indicators, the quality of the tested pool water samples was not in doubt. It was found that the purpose of the pool, its volume, and number of swimmers should be the key parameters that determine the choice of methods of water treatment. The research on the pool water quality in the actual working conditions of swimming pool facilities is necessary due to the need to preserve the health safety of swimmers and staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Anna Lempart-Rapacewicz
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Mariusz Dudziak
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Edyta Łaskawiec
- Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18 Street, Room 247, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland
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Firuzi P, Asl Hashemi A, Samadi Kafil H, Gholizadeh P, Aslani H. Comparative study on the microbial quality in the swimming pools disinfected by the ozone-chlorine and chlorine processes in Tabriz, Iran. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:516. [PMID: 32666262 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08470-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Applying a desirable disinfestation process is necessary to control the pathogenic microorganisms in the swimming pools and prevent both dermal and intestinal effects. Therefore, the present study was conducted to compare the bacterial community and diversity in the two swimming pools disinfected by the chlorine and ozone (O3)-chlorine processes. A total of 24 samples were taken from the two swimming pools in three distinct seasons to analyze the bacterial and physico-chemical indicators. Culture and molecular methods were used to evaluate the microbial quality. Two sets of sample taken from the pools with the maximum swimmer load in the summer were investigated by the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technique. In total, 410 and 406 bacterial species were identified in the chlorine- and ozone-chlorine-disinfected pools, respectively. Among the eight dominant bacterial species in each swimming pool, Pseudomonas alcaliphila, Pseudomonas stutzeri, and Pseudomonas acnes were common species between the two studied pools. Oleomonas sagaranensis (350 reads/18593), Staphylococcus caprae (302 reads /18593), and Anaerococcus octavius (110 reads/18593) were among the dominant bacteria in the chlorine-disinfected pool. Bacterial diversity was lower in the ozone-chlorine-disinfected pool than the other one, and the highest bacterial sequencing belonged to the genus Pseudomonas (85.79%). Results showed that water quality of in O3-chlorine-disinfected pool was more desirable than the chlorine-disinfected pool. Molecular methods along with conventional culture methods would be advantageous for microbial assessment in the swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parisa Firuzi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ahmad Asl Hashemi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hossein Samadi Kafil
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Pourya Gholizadeh
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hassan Aslani
- Health and Environment Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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Lara P, Ramírez V, Castrillón F, Peñuela GA. Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17134659. [PMID: 32605262 PMCID: PMC7369848 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17134659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The quality of water in swimming pools is essential to avoid risks to the health of users. Medellín has more than 1000 public swimming pools, which are supervised by the Medellín Health Authority to monitor and ensure compliance with relevant regulations. The Health Authority has financed several studies related to the quality of drinking and recreational water in Medellín in order to protect consumers and users. One such study involves the evaluation of the presence of disinfection byproducts (DBP). The best known DBPs resulting from disinfection with chlorine are trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs), as well as other minorities such as chloramines or halophenols (HPs). DBPs pose a greater risk in swimming pool water because there is a greater possibility of ingestion, since exposure occurs through several routes at the same time (direct ingestion of water, inhalation of volatile or aerosol solutes, dermal contact and absorption through skin). In the present work, high concentrations of THMs and HAAs were detected in the public swimming pools selected in the study, but the presence of HPs was not detected in the pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Lara
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
| | - Valentina Ramírez
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
| | - Fernando Castrillón
- Health Authority Entity of Medellín, La Alpujarra Administrative Center of Medellín, Calle 42 No 52-106, 050015 Medellín, Colombia;
| | - Gustavo A. Peñuela
- Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia; (P.L.); (V.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +57-219-6570
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Tsamba L, Correc O, Couzinet A. +Chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools: Development of a pilot pool unit and impact of operating parameters. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105566. [PMID: 32106046 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine addition in swimming pools ensures the microbiological quality of the water and the bathers' safety. However, water chlorination is associated with disinfection byproducts (DBP) formation and adverse health effects. The impact of operating parameters and innovative water treatment systems on DBPs levels has been reported in several studies, but sampling campaign in real pools remain difficult to carry out, mainly due to unexpected attendance variations. This study presents the development of a pilot pool plant allowing to perform experiments under controlled and reproducible conditions. Bathers inputs were simulated both for the organic load and for the mechanical agitation of water. Two sampling campaigns were performed during the building of the pilot, before and after the hall was closed. Key operating parameters such as chlorine dose, water temperature and attendance were controlled and monitored. DBP levels in the pilot plant were representative of French indoor swimming pools and the impact of bathers' activity was visible on volatile DBPs. Furthermore, correlations could be stated between operating parameters and DBP levels. Stripping effectively reduced volatile DBP concentrations in water. Moreover, energy consumption data, which are usually very scarce in experimental studies, showed the influence of heat pump consumption on the global energy consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Tsamba
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Olivier Correc
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France.
| | - Anthony Couzinet
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France
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Shen Z, Zhang Y, Zhou C, Bai J, Chen S, Li J, Wang J, Guan X, Rahim M, Zhou B. Exhaustive denitrification via chlorine oxide radical reactions for urea based on a novel photoelectrochemical cell. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 170:115357. [PMID: 31812812 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Urea is a major source of nitrogen pollution in domestic sewage and its denitrification is difficult since it is very likely to be converted into ammonia or nitrate instead of expected N2. Herein, we propose an exhaustive denitrification method for urea via the oxidation of amine/ammonia-N with chlorine oxide radical, which induced from a bi-functional RuO2//WO3 anode, and the highly selective reduction of nitrate-N on cathode in photoelectrochemical cell (PEC). Under illumination, the WO3 photoanode side promotes the quantities hydroxyl and reactive chlorine radical, and these radicals are immediately combined to stronger chlorine oxide radical by RuO2 side, which obviously enhances the efficiency and speed of the urea oxidation. Synchronously, the over-oxidized nitrate can be selectively reduced by Pd and Au nanoparticles on the surface of cathode. Eventually, exhaustive denitrification is realized by the circulative reaction. Experimental observations and theoretical calculation revealed that chlorine oxide radical promoted significant denitrification of urea with an efficiency of 99.74% in 60 min under the optimum condition. The removal rate constant of the RuO2//WO3 anode was 3.08 times than that of single WO3 anode and 2.64 times than that of single RuO2 anode, confirming the chlorine oxide radical had stronger ability on denitrification than reactive chlorine radical. Also, the bi-functional anode contributed to best current efficiencies, utilizing the energy availably. This work proposes a promising method of exhaustive denitrification for urea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoxi Shen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Changhui Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Jing Bai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Shuai Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China.
| | - Jiachen Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Xiaohong Guan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, PR China
| | - Mohammadi Rahim
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Baoxue Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No. 800, Dongchuan Rd, Shanghai, 200240, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, PR China; Key Laboratory of Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 200240, PR China; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pollution Process and Management of Plateau Lake-Watershed, Yunnan, 650034, PR China.
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24
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Analysis of Free and Combined Chlorine Concentrations in Swimming Pool Water and an Attempt to Determine a Reliable Water Sampling Point. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12020311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of free chlorine concentrations in swimming pool water makes it possible to assess the antiseptic effect of the disinfectant. The concentration of combined chlorine determines the comfort of swimming and indicates if there is a threat from DBP (disinfection by-products). The distribution of free and combined chlorine concentration was analyzed in four basins differing in seasonality of use and in the applied water flow systems. After considering the distribution of free and combined chlorine content in characteristic points of pools, an attempt was made to determine the most reliable point for assessing the quality of water and its suitability for swimming. Such searches should aim to identify the places with the worst water quality. The most uniform distribution of the concentrations of both free and combined chlorine was observed at the middle point of swimming pools, while at points near the corners and walls of swimming pools a varied distribution was observed. Such a control strategy, based on the least favorable test results at a point considered as characteristic, would make it possible to verify the parameters of the swimming pool water treatment system and thus minimize the risk to swimmers’ health.
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25
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Tsamba L, Cimetière N, Wolbert D, Correc O, Le Cloirec P. Body fluid analog chlorination: Application to the determination of disinfection byproduct formation kinetics in swimming pool water. J Environ Sci (China) 2020; 87:112-122. [PMID: 31791485 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2019.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed in swimming pools by the reactions of bather inputs with the disinfectant. Although a wide range of molecules has been identified within DBPs, only few kinetic rates have been reported. This study investigates the kinetics of chlorine consumption, chloroform formation and dichloroacetonitrile formation caused by human releases. Since the flux and main components of human inputs have been determined and formalized through Body Fluid Analogs (BFAs), it is possible to model the DBPs formation kinetics by studying a limited number of precursor molecules. For each parameter the individual contributions of BFA components have been quantified and kinetic rates have been determined, based on reaction mechanisms proposed in the literature. With a molar consumption of 4 mol Cl2/mol, urea is confirmed as the major chlorine consumer in the BFA because of its high concentration in human releases. The higher reactivity of ammonia is however highlighted. Citric acid is responsible for most of the chloroform produced during BFA chlorination. Chloroform formation is relatively slow with a limiting rate constant determined at 5.50 × 10-3 L/mol/sec. L-histidine is the only precursor for dichloroacetonitrile in the BFA. This DBP is rapidly formed and its degradation by hydrolysis and by reaction with hypochlorite shortens its lifetime in the basin. Reaction rates of dichloroacetonitrile formation by L-histidine chlorination have been established based on the latest chlorination mechanisms proposed. Moreover, this study shows that the reactivity toward chlorine differs whether L-histidine is isolated or mixed with BFA components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Tsamba
- Rennes University, ENSCR, CNRS, ISCR - UMR 6226, F - 35000 Rennes, France; Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, BP 82341, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France.
| | - Nicolas Cimetière
- Rennes University, ENSCR, CNRS, ISCR - UMR 6226, F - 35000 Rennes, France
| | - Dominique Wolbert
- Rennes University, ENSCR, CNRS, ISCR - UMR 6226, F - 35000 Rennes, France
| | - Olivier Correc
- Scientific and Technical Center for Buildings, 11 rue Henri Picherit, BP 82341, 44323 Nantes Cedex 3, France
| | - Pierre Le Cloirec
- Rennes University, ENSCR, CNRS, ISCR - UMR 6226, F - 35000 Rennes, France
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Wu H, Long K, Lu D, Mo Y, Yang Q, Wei X. Occurrence and formation of halobenzoquinones in indoor and outdoor swimming pool waters of Nanning City, Southwest China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:31537-31545. [PMID: 31482527 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06341-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool have elicited increasing worldwide concern due to their potential health risks. However, only trihalomethanes (THMs) are regulated by several local governing bodies. Studies indicated that specific unregulated DBP classes would drive disinfected water toxicity in addition to THMs. Halobenzoquinones (HBQs), a type of emerging unregulated DBPs, have been shown to be possible bladder cancer carcinogens. This study aimed to determine the distribution and formation of HBQs in indoor and outdoor swimming pool waters of Nanning City, Southwest China. Seven HBQs in water from seven public indoor and outdoor swimming pools were examined using an effective ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Results suggest the presence of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone in all the swimming pool waters in the range of 4.56-45.30 ng/L. Furthermore, 2,6-dibromo-1,4-benzoquinone and 3,4,5,6-tetrachloro-1,2-benzoquinone (TetraC-1,2-BQ) were detected in two pools at concentrations of < 0.38-14.20 and < 0.54-2.60 ng/L, respectively. The swimming pool water featured higher HBQs than input tap water, and TetraC-1,2-BQ was only detected in pool water. Higher HBQ levels were observed in the indoor pools than in the outdoor pools. These findings demonstrate that low NH3-N, high chloride, humic acid, chemical oxygen demand, and UV254 in the indoor pools increased the HBQ formation. This study is the first to reveal the occurrence and formation of HBQs in water from Chinese indoor and outdoor swimming pools. The findings should be useful in the management of these governing factors and HBQ controls in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Wu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Kunling Long
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Du Lu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Yan Mo
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Qiyuan Yang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Xiao Wei
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Shuang Yong Road 22, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China.
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27
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Long L, Bu Y, Chen B, Sadiq R. Removal of urea from swimming pool water by UV/VUV: The roles of additives, mechanisms, influencing factors, and reaction products. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:89-97. [PMID: 31181450 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To discover an applicable technology for urea abatement from swimming pool water (SPW), this study compared the performances of seven ultraviolet (UV)-based technologies on urea removal, including UV alone, UV coupled with hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2), sulfite (UV/Na2SO3), potassium persulfate (UV/K2S2O8), a combination of UV and vacuum UV (UV/VUV), and UV/VUV in tandem with either H2O2 (VUV/H2O2) or potassium persulfate (VUV/K2S2O8). Among them, UV and UV/Na2SO3 showed little removal ability, and UV/H2O2 removed only 12.8% of urea within 3-h experiments, while UV/VUV degraded 71.7% of urea without introducing substantial total dissolved solids (TDS). Therefore, UV/VUV was considered as a promising technology for further exploration. In comparison, although UV/K2S2O8 exhibited higher urea removal than UV/VUV, it caused dramatic increases of TDS, which made the regulatory threshold for the TDS increment difficult to maintain. Within UV/VUV studies, some common components in SPW (e.g., cyanuric acid, humic acid, nitrate, and bicarbonate) inhibited the removal process, whereas chloride and sulfate facilitated it, while free chlorine at doses ≤ 3 mg-Cl2/L and pH levels from 6.8 to 8.0 imposed little impact on urea degradation. Overall, UV/VUV degraded 40.0% and 22.2% of urea from tap water and SPW, respectively; both were lower than the efficiency observed in ultrapure water. As for reaction byproducts, urea phototransformation via UV/VUV yielded nitrate and ammonia as the key products with the mass balance of nitrogen element being met. However, the contents of organic carbon decreased at a rate slightly lower than urea degradation, suggesting that urea was mostly mineralized and slightly converted to unknown organic compounds. The results hence demonstrate that UV/VUV is an effective alternative for urea removal from SPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangchen Long
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yinan Bu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control of Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V1V7, Canada
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28
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Garcia-Segura S, Mostafa E, Baltruschat H. Electrogeneration of inorganic chloramines on boron-doped diamond anodes during electrochemical oxidation of ammonium chloride, urea and synthetic urine matrix. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 160:107-117. [PMID: 31136845 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ubiquitous presence of chloride in water effluents may result in the unavoidable electrogeneration of active chlorine species when considering the application of electrochemical advanced oxidation processes as water treatment technologies. However, less attention has been drawn to the subsequent generation of other combined chlorine species such as chloramines. In this work, the electrogeneration of chloramines has been assessed in different water matrices containing NHCl4, urea or synthetic urine. The yield of chloramines has been followed in-situ by differential electrochemistry mass spectroscopy (DEMS) during electrochemical advanced oxidation process with boron-doped diamond (BDD) anodes. Furthermore, the influence of several variables such as chloride concentration, pH or organics concentration on the different distribution of inorganic monochloramine, dichloramine and trichloramine released as products has been considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Garcia-Segura
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53117 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Ehab Mostafa
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53117 Bonn, Germany; Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, 35516 Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Helmut Baltruschat
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53117 Bonn, Germany.
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29
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Evaluation of the effect of body fluid analogs on the parameters of nanofiltration during the purification of swimming pool water. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-0568-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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30
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Berg AP, Fang TA, Tang HL. Variability of residual chlorine in swimming pool water and determination of chlorine consumption for maintaining hygienic safety of bathers with a simple mass balance model. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2019; 17:227-236. [PMID: 30942773 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Trial-and-error chlorination as a conventional practice for swimming pool water disinfection may fail to consistently maintain the pool's residual chlorine within regulatory limits. This study explored the variability of residual chlorine and other common water quality parameters of two sample swimming pools and examined the potential of using a mass balance model for proactive determination of chlorine consumption to better secure the hygienic safety of bathers. A lightly loaded Pool 1 with a normalized bather load of 0.038 bather/m3/day and a heavily loaded Pool 2 with a normalized bather load of 0.36 bather/m3/day showed great variances in residual free and combined chlorine control by trial-and-error methods due to dynamic pool uses. A mass balance model based on chemical and physical chlorine consumption mechanisms was found to be statistically valid using field data obtained from Pool 1. The chlorine consumption per capita coefficient was determined to be 4120 mg/bather. The predictive method based on chlorine demand has a potential to be used as a complementary approach to the existing trial-and-error chlorination practices for swimming pool water disinfection. The research is useful for pool maintenance to proactively determine the required chlorine dosage for compliance of pool regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvyn P Berg
- Environmental Engineering Program, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA E-mail:
| | - Ting-An Fang
- Environmental Engineering Program, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA E-mail:
| | - Hao L Tang
- Environmental Engineering Program, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA E-mail:
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31
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Ilyas H, Masih I, van der Hoek JP. An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:861-892. [PMID: 30540262 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation and their relationship with governing factors in chlorinated swimming pools. The study compares concentrations of DBPs with WHO guidelines for drinking water quality recommended to screen swimming pool water quality. The statistical analysis is based on a global database of 188 swimming pools accumulated from 42 peer-reviewed journal publications from 16 countries. The mean and standard deviation of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid were estimated as 282 ± 437 and 326 ± 517 μg L-1, respectively, which most often surpassed the WHO guidelines. Similarly, more than half of the examined pools had higher values of chloral hydrate (102 ± 128 μg L-1). The concentration of total chloramines (650 ± 490 μg L-1) was well above the WHO guidelines in all reported cases. Nevertheless, the reported values remained below the guidelines for most of the studied pools in the case of total trihalomethanes (134 ± 160 μg L-1), dichloroacetonitrile (12 ± 12 μg L-1) and dibromoacetonitrile (8 ± 11 μg L-1). Total organic carbon, free residual chlorine, temperature, pH, total nitrogen and bromide ions play a pivotal role in DBPs formation processes. Therefore, proper management of these governing factors could significantly reduce DBPs formation, thereby, contributing towards a healthy swimming pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huma Ilyas
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Ilyas Masih
- Water Treatment and Management Consultancy B.V., 2289 ED Rijswijk, The Netherlands E-mail: ; IHE Delft, Institute for Water Education, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands and Strategic Centre, Waternet, 1096 AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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32
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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33
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Payus C, Geoffrey I, Amrie K, Oliver A. Coliform Bacteria Contamination in Chlorine-treated Swimming Pool Sports Complex. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.3923/ajsr.2018.560.567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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34
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Carter RAA, Joll CA. Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:19-50. [PMID: 28774608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water for human use is essential to protect against microbial disease; however, disinfection also leads to formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of health concern. From a chemical perspective, swimming pools are a complex matrix, with continual addition of a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals via filling waters, disinfectant addition, pharmaceuticals and personal care products and human body excretions. Natural organic matter, trace amounts of DBPs and chlorine or chloramines may be introduced by the filling water, which is commonly disinfected distributed drinking water. Chlorine and/or bromine is continually introduced via the addition of chemical disinfectants to the pool. Human body excretions (sweat, urine and saliva) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (sunscreens, cosmetics, hair products and lotions) are introduced by swimmers. High addition of disinfectant leads to a high formation of DBPs from reaction of some of the chemicals with the disinfectant. Swimming pool air is also of concern as volatile DBPs partition into the air above the pool. The presence of bromine leads to the formation of a wide range of bromo- and bromo/chloro-DBPs, and Br-DBPs are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. This is particularly important for seawater-filled pools or pools using a bromine-based disinfectant. This review summarises chemical contaminants and DBPs in swimming pool waters, as well as in the air above pools. Factors that have been found to affect DBP formation in pools are discussed. The impact of the swimming pool environment on human health is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia.
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35
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Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:591-603. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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36
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Zare Afifi M, Blatchley ER. Effects of UV-based treatment on volatile disinfection byproducts in a chlorinated, indoor swimming pool. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 105:167-177. [PMID: 27614037 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and chlorination are commonly used together in treatment of swimming pool water because they function as complementary disinfectants and because UV-based processes have been shown to promote photodecay of chloramines. However, UV-based treatment also has the potential to promote formation of some disinfection byproducts (DBPs). As a result, the overall effects of UV irradiation with chlorination on swimming pool chemistry remain unclear. To address this issue, a three-year study was conducted in a chlorinated, indoor swimming pool under three different operating conditions: conventional chlorination (1st year) which served as a control, chlorination augmented by MP UV irradiation (2nd year), and chlorination augmented by LP UV irradiation (3rd year). Water samples were collected from the pool for measurement of pH, temperature, total alkalinity, free and combined chlorine, eleven volatile DBPs, and urea concentration. After installation of MP UV, the concentrations of most volatile DBPs decreased; similar effects were observed after inclusion of LP UV. Collectively, these results imply an overall improvement in water quality as a result of the inclusion of the both UV systems. In general, MP UV was more efficient than LP UV for reducing the concentrations of most of the volatile DBPs measured in this pool. However, a need exists to standardize the application of UV systems in recreational water settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrnaz Zare Afifi
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Ernest R Blatchley
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Yang L, Schmalz C, Zhou J, Zwiener C, Chang VWC, Ge L, Wan MP. An insight of disinfection by-product (DBP) formation by alternative disinfectants for swimming pool disinfection under tropical conditions. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 101:535-546. [PMID: 27300590 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) is the most commonly used disinfectant in pool treatment system. Outdoor pools usually suffer from the strong sunlight irradiation which degrades the free chlorine rapidly. In addition, more pools start to adopt the recirculation of swimming pool water, which intensifies the disinfection by-product (DBP) accumulation issue. Given these potential drawbacks of using NaClO in the tropical environment, two alternative organic-based disinfectants, trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCCA, C3Cl3N3O3) and bromochlorodimethylhydantoin (BCDMH, C5H6BrClN2O2), were investigated and compared to NaClO in terms of their self-degradation and the formation of DBPs, including trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), under simulated tropical climate conditions. The result reveals that halogen stabilizer, TCCA, had the advantages of slower free chlorine degradation and lower DBP concentration compared to NaClO, which makes it a good alternative disinfectant. BCDMH was not recommended mainly due to the highly reactive disinfecting ingredient, hypobromous acid (HBrO), which fails to sustain the continuous disinfection requirement. Total disinfectant dosage was the main factor that affects residual chlorine/bromine and THM/HAA formation regardless of different disinfectant dosing methods, e.g. shock dosing (one-time spiking) in the beginning, and continuous dosing during the whole experimental period. Two-stage second-order-kinetic-based models demonstrate a good correlation between the measured and predicted data for chlorine decay (R(2) ≥ 0.95), THM (R(2) ≥ 0.99) and HAA (R(2) ≥ 0.83) formation. Higher temperature was found to enhance the DBP formation due to the temperature dependence of reaction rates. Thus, temperature control of pools, especially for those preferring higher temperatures (e.g. hydrotherapy and spa), should take both bather comfort and DBP formation potential into consideration. It is also observed that chlorine competition existed between different precursors from natural organic matters (NOM) in filling water and body fluid analogue (BFA). Among the composition of BFA, uric acid, citric acid and hippuric acid were found to be the main precursors for HAA formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Christina Schmalz
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience (ZAG), Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Jin Zhou
- Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Christian Zwiener
- Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience (ZAG), Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Division of Environmental and Water Resources, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore.
| | - Liya Ge
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Man Pun Wan
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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Manasfi T, De Méo M, Coulomb B, Di Giorgio C, Boudenne JL. Identification of disinfection by-products in freshwater and seawater swimming pools and evaluation of genotoxicity. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 88:94-102. [PMID: 26735347 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools has been linked to adverse health effects. Numerous DBPs that occur in swimming pools are genotoxic and carcinogenic. This toxicity is of a greater concern in the case of brominated DBPs that have been shown to have substantially greater toxicities than their chlorinated analogs. In chlorinated seawater swimming pools, brominated DBPs are formed due to the high content of bromide. Nevertheless, very little data is reported about DBP occurrence and mutagenicity of water in these pools. In the present study, three seawater and one freshwater swimming pools located in Southeastern France were investigated to determine qualitatively and quantitatively their DBP contents. An evaluation of the genotoxic properties of water samples of the freshwater pool and a seawater pool was conducted through the Salmonella assay (Ames test). The predominant DBPs identified in the freshwater pool were chlorinated species and included trichloroacetic acid, chloral hydrate, dichloroacetonitrile, 1,1,1-trichloropropanone and chloroform. In the seawater pools, brominated DBPs were the predominant species and included dibromoacetic acid, bromoform and dibromoacetonitile. Bromal hydrate levels were also reported. In both types of pools, haloacetic acids were the most prevalent chemical class among the analyzed DBP classes. The distribution of other DBP classes varied depending on the type of pool. As to genotoxicity, the results of Ames test showed higher mutagenicity in the freshwater pool as a consequence of its considerably higher DBP contents in comparison to the tested seawater pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Manasfi
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
| | - Michel De Méo
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, IMBE UMR 7263, Laboratoire de Mutagénèse Environnementale, 13385, Marseille, France.
| | - Bruno Coulomb
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
| | - Carole Di Giorgio
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, IMBE UMR 7263, Laboratoire de Mutagénèse Environnementale, 13385, Marseille, France.
| | - Jean-Luc Boudenne
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, LCE UMR 7376, 13331 Marseille, France.
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Zuo X, Chu X, Hu J. Effects of water matrix on virus inactivation using common virucidal techniques for condensate urine disinfection. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 136:118-24. [PMID: 25966330 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Three common virucidal techniques (chlorine, UV and UV/TiO2) were applied to inactivate virus (MS2 and Phi X174) in condensate water after the evaporation of source-separated urine for reclaimed water. The inactivation efficiencies were compared with the results of previous studies, with the emphasis on the analysis of water matrix effects. Results showed that all virus inactivation in condensate water were lower than the control (in sterilized DI water). As for UV/TiO2 disinfection, both nitrate and ammonia nitrogen could promote slightly viral inactivation, while the inhibition by urea was dominant. Similarly, ammonia nitrogen had greater impacts on chlorine disinfection than urea and nitrate. In contrast, all water matrices (urea, nitrate and ammonia nitrogen) had little influence on UV disinfection. Based on the findings in this study, UV disinfection could be recommended for disinfecting the reclaimed water from the evaporation of source-separated urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Zuo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore
| | - Xiaona Chu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore
| | - Jiangyong Hu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260, Singapore.
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40
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Zare Afifi M, Blatchley ER. Seasonal dynamics of water and air chemistry in an indoor chlorinated swimming pool. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 68:771-783. [PMID: 25462781 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Although swimming is known to be beneficial in terms of cardiovascular health, as well as for some forms of rehabilitation, swimming is also known to present risks to human health, largely in the form of exposure to microbial pathogens and disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Relatively little information is available in the literature to characterize the seasonal dynamics of air and water chemistry in indoor chlorinated swimming pools. To address this issue, water samples were collected five days per week from an indoor chlorinated swimming pool facility at a high school during the academic year and once per week during summer over a fourteen-month period. The samples were analyzed for free and combined chlorine, urea, volatile DBPs, pH, temperature and total alkalinity. Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry (MIMS) was used to identify and measure the concentrations of eleven aqueous-phase volatile DBPs. Variability in the concentrations of these DBPs was observed. Factors that influenced variability included bather loading and mixing by swimmers. These compounds have the ability to adversely affect water and air quality and human health. A large fraction of the existing literature regarding swimming pool air quality has focused on trichloramine (NCl₃). For this work, gas-phase NCl₃ was analyzed by an air sparging-DPD/KI method. The results showed that gas-phase NCl₃ concentration is influenced by bather loading and liquid-phase NCl₃ concentration. Urea is the dominant organic-N compound in human urine and sweat, and is known to be an important precursor for producing NCl₃ in swimming pools. Results of daily measurements of urea indicated a link between bather load and urea concentration in the pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrnaz Zare Afifi
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Cho K, Hoffmann MR. Urea degradation by electrochemically generated reactive chlorine species: products and reaction pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:11504-11. [PMID: 25219459 DOI: 10.1021/es5025405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the transformation of urea by electrochemically generated reactive chlorine species (RCS). Solutions of urea with chloride ions were electrolyzed using a bismuth doped TiO2 (BiOx/TiO2) anode coupled with a stainless steel cathode at applied anodic potentials (Ea) of either +2.2 V or +3.0 V versus the normal hydrogen electrode. In NaCl solution, the current efficiency of RCS generation was near 30% at both potentials. In divided cell experiments, the pseudo-first-order rate of total nitrogen decay was an order of magnitude higher at Ea of +3.0 V than at +2.2 V, presumably because dichlorine radical (Cl2(-)·) ions facilitate the urea transformation primary driven by free chlorine. Quadrupole mass spectrometer analysis of the reactor headspace revealed that N2 and CO2 are the primary gaseous products of the oxidation of urea, whose urea-N was completely transformed into N2 (91%) and NO3(-) (9%). The higher reaction selectivity with respect to N2 production can be ascribed to a low operational ratio of free available chlorine to N. The mass-balance analysis recovered urea-C as CO2 at 77%, while CO generation most likely accounts for the residual carbon. In light of these results, we propose a reaction mechanism involving chloramines and chloramides as reaction intermediates, where the initial chlorination is the rate-determining step in the overall sequence of reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangwoo Cho
- Linde+Robinson Laboratories, California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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Yeh RYL, Farré MJ, Stalter D, Tang JYM, Molendijk J, Escher BI. Bioanalytical and chemical evaluation of disinfection by-products in swimming pool water. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 59:172-84. [PMID: 24793115 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Pool water disinfection is vital to prevent microbial pathogens. However, potentially hazardous disinfection by-products (DBP) are formed from the reaction between disinfectants and organic/inorganic precursors. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of DBPs in various swimming pool types in Brisbane, Australia, including outdoor, indoor and baby pools, and the dynamics after a complete water renewal. Chemical analysis of 36 regulated and commonly found DBPs and total adsorbable organic halogens as well as in vitro bioassays targeting cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity were used to evaluate swimming pool water quality. Dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid dominated in the pool water samples with higher levels (up to 2600 μg/L) than the health guideline values set by the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (100 μg/L). Chlorinated DBPs occurred at higher concentrations compared to tap water, while brominated DBPs decreased gradually with increasing pool water age. Biological effects were expressed as chloroacetic acid equivalent concentrations and compared to predicted effects from chemical analysis and biological characterisation of haloacetic acids. The quantified haloacetic acids explained 35-118% of the absorbable organic halogens but less than 4% of the observed non-specific toxicity (cytotoxicity), and less than 1% of the observed oxidative stress response and genotoxicity. While the DBP concentrations in Australian pools found in this study are not likely to cause any adverse health effect, they are higher than in other countries and could be reduced by better hygiene of pool users, such as thorough showering prior to entering the pool and avoiding urination during swimming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby Y L Yeh
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia
| | - Maria José Farré
- The University of Queensland, Advanced Water Management Centre (AWMC), St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Daniel Stalter
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia
| | - Janet Y M Tang
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Molendijk
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia
| | - Beate I Escher
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia.
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Soltermann F, Widler T, Canonica S, von Gunten U. Comparison of a novel extraction-based colorimetric (ABTS) method with membrane introduction mass spectrometry (MIMS): trichloramine dynamics in pool water. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 58:258-268. [PMID: 24769062 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.03.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Trichloramine is a hazardous disinfection by-product, which is present in chlorinated swimming pools. Although it is primarily taken up by inhalation, the concentration in pool water is important to monitor pool water quality and to assess trichloramine mitigation strategies. To date, scarce data is available on trichloramine concentration in pool water due to the lack of a suitable and easily applicable analytical method. This study presents a novel low cost, colorimetric method which is easy to operate and suitable for on-site measurements of trichloramine concentrations ≥0.05 μM (≥0.01 mg L(-1) as Cl2). The analytical method (termed "extraction-based ABTS method") consists of, (i) trichloramine stripping from pool water samples, (ii) passing it through a solid phase filter, composed of silica gel impregnated with sulfamic acid to eliminate interferences and (iii) trichloramine reaction with the indicator 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) to produce the coloured ABTS(•-) radical, which is measured at λ = 405 nm to determine the trichloramine concentration in the pool water sample. A comparison of the extraction-based ABTS method with membrane introduction mass spectrometry (MIMS) for 28 pool samples revealed a good correlation of the two methods. The trichloramine concentration in pool samples is correlated to HOCl, which is the most important factor for its formation. Other parameters such as combined chlorine and pH play a minor role while no correlation between trichloramine and the urea or the TOC concentration was observed. On-site measurements with MIMS in a wading pool over 6 days with a time resolution of 1 h confirmed that trichloramine concentrations strongly responded to changes in free chlorine concentrations. A diurnal measurement of trichloramine with a time resolution of 20 min revealed that trichloramine concentrations reacted quickly and sensitively to the bather load and that urea is probably not the main precursor for its formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Soltermann
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Widler
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Silvio Canonica
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Urs von Gunten
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland; School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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44
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Chowdhury S, Alhooshani K, Karanfil T. Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 53:68-109. [PMID: 24509344 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of swimming pool water is essential to deactivate pathogenic microorganisms. Many swimming pools apply chlorine or bromine based disinfectants to prevent microbial growth. The chlorinated swimming pool water contains higher chlorine residual and is maintained at a higher temperature than a typical drinking water distribution system. It constitutes environments with high levels of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in water and air as a consequence of continuous disinfection and constant organic loading from the bathers. Exposure to those DBPs is inevitable for any bather or trainer, while such exposures can have elevated risks to human health. To date, over 70 peer-reviewed publications have reported various aspects of swimming pool, including types and quantities of DBPs, organic loads from bathers, factors affecting DBPs formation in swimming pool, human exposure and their potential risks. This paper aims to review the state of research on swimming pool including with the focus of DBPs in swimming pools, understand their types and variability, possible health effects and analyze the factors responsible for the formation of various DBPs in a swimming pool. The study identifies the current challenges and future research needs to minimize DBPs formation in a swimming pool and their consequent negative effects to bathers and trainers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Research Group, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Khalid Alhooshani
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, SC, USA
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Keuten MGA, Peters MCFM, Daanen HAM, de Kreuk MK, Rietveld LC, van Dijk JC. Quantification of continual anthropogenic pollutants released in swimming pools. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 53:259-270. [PMID: 24530546 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection in swimming pools is often performed by chlorination, However, anthropogenic pollutants from swimmers will react with chlorine and form disinfection by-products (DBPs). DBPs are unwanted from a health point of view, because some are irritating, while others might be carcinogenic. The reduction of anthropogenic pollutants will lead to a reduction in DBPs. This paper investigates the continual release of anthropogenic pollutants by means of controlled sweat experiments in a pool tank during laboratory time-series experiments (LTS experiments) and also during on-site experiments (OS experiments) in a swimming pool. The sweat released during the OS and LTS experiments was very similar. The sweat rate found was 0.1-0.2 L/m(2)/h at water temperatures below 29 °C and increased linearly with increasing water temperatures to 0.8 L/m(2)/h at 35 °C. The continual anthropogenic pollutant release (CAPR) not only consisted of sweat, particles (mainly skin fragments and hair) and micro-organisms, but also sebum (skin lipids) has to be considered. The release of most components can be explained by the composition of sweat. The average release during 30 min of exercise is 250 mg/bather non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC), 77.3 mg/bather total nitrogen (TN), 37.1 mg/bather urea and 10.1 mg/bather ammonium. The release of NPOC cannot be explained by the composition of sweat and is most probably a result of sebum release. The average release of other components was 1.31 × 10(9) # particles/bather (2-50 μm), 5.2 μg/bather intracellular adenosine triphosphate (cATP) and 9.3 × 10(6) intact cell count/bather (iCC). The pool water temperature was the main parameter to restrain the CAPR. This study showed that a significant amount of the total anthropogenic pollutants release is due to unhygienic behaviour of bathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G A Keuten
- Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands; Hellebrekers Technieken, Nunspeet, The Netherlands.
| | - M C F M Peters
- Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - H A M Daanen
- TNO, Soesterberg, The Netherlands; MOVE Research Institute Amsterdam and Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M K de Kreuk
- Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - L C Rietveld
- Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - J C van Dijk
- Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
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David Holbrook R, Motabar D, Quiñones O, Stanford B, Vanderford B, Moss D. Titanium distribution in swimming pool water is dominated by dissolved species. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2013; 181:68-74. [PMID: 23820189 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The increased use of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO2) in consumer products such as sunscreen has raised concerns about their possible risk to human and environmental health. In this work, we report the occurrence, size fractionation and behavior of titanium (Ti) in a children's swimming pool. Size-fractionated samples were analyzed for Ti using ICP-MS. Total titanium concentrations ([Ti]) in the pool water ranged between 21 μg/L and 60 μg/L and increased throughout the 101-day sampling period while [Ti] in tap water remained relatively constant. The majority of [Ti] was found in the dissolved phase (<1 kDa), with only a minor fraction of total [Ti] being considered either particulate or microparticulate. Simple models suggest that evaporation may account for the observed variation in [Ti], while sunscreen may be a relevant source of particulate and microparticule Ti. Compared to diet, incidental ingestion of nano-Ti from swimming pool water is minimal.
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Affiliation(s)
- R David Holbrook
- Materials Measurement Science Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Mail Stop 6371, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA.
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47
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Weng SC, Li J, Wood KV, Kenttämaa HI, Williams PE, Amundson LM, Blatchley ER. UV-induced effects on chlorination of creatinine. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:4948-4956. [PMID: 23863372 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is commonly employed for water treatment in swimming pools to complement conventional chlorination, and to reduce the concentration of inorganic chloramine compounds. The approach of combining UV irradiation and chlorination has the potential to improve water quality, as defined by microbial composition. However, relatively little is known about the effects of this process on water chemistry. To address this issue, experiments were conducted to examine the effects of sequential UV254 irradiation/chlorination, as will occur in recirculating system of swimming pools, on disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation. Creatinine, which is present in human sweat and urine, was selected as the target precursor for these experiments. Enhanced formation of dichloromethylamine (CH3NCl2) and inorganic chloramines was observed to result from post-chlorination of UV-irradiated samples. Chlorocreatinine was found to be more sensitive to UV254 irradiation than creatinine; UV254 irradiation of chlorocreatinine resulted in opening of the ring structure, thereby yielding a series of intermediates that were more susceptible to free chlorine attack than their parent compound. The quantum yields for photodegradation of creatinine and chlorocreatinine at 254 nm were estimated at 0.011 ± 0.002 mol/E and 0.144 ± 0.011 mol/E, respectively. The N-Cl bond was found to be common to UV-sensitive chlorinated compounds (e.g., inorganic chloramines, CH3NCl2, and chlorocreatinine); compounds that were less susceptible to UV-based attack generally lacked the N-Cl bond. This suggested that the N-Cl bond is susceptible to UV254 irradiation, and cleavage of the N-Cl bond appears to open or promote reaction pathways that involve free chlorine, thereby enhancing formation of some DBPs and promoting loss of free chlorine. Proposed reaction mechanisms to describe this behavior based on creatinine as a precursor are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih Chi Weng
- School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA
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Wang W, Qian Y, Boyd JM, Wu M, Hrudey SE, Li XF. Halobenzoquinones in swimming pool waters and their formation from personal care products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:3275-3282. [PMID: 23410080 DOI: 10.1021/es304938x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Halobenzoquinones (HBQs) are a class of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) of health relevance. In this study, we aimed to uncover which HBQs are present in swimming pools. To achieve this goal, we developed a new method capable of determining eight HBQs while overcoming matrix effects to achieve reliable quantification. The method provided reproducible and quantitative recovery (67-102%) and detection limits of 0.03-1.2 ng/L for all eight HBQs. Using this new method, we investigated water samples from 10 swimming pools and found 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-DCBQ) in all the pools at concentrations of 19-299 ng/L, which was as much as 100 times higher than its concentration in the input tap water (1-6 ng/L). We also identified 2,3,6-trichloro-(1,4)benzoquinone (TriCBQ), 2,3-dibromo-5,6-dimethyl-(1,4)benzoquinone (DMDBBQ), and 2,6-dibromo-(1,4)benzoquinone (2,6-DBBQ) in some swimming pools at concentrations of <0.1-11.3, <0.05-0.7, and <0.05-3.9 ng/L, respectively, but not in the input tap water. We examined several factors to determine why HBQ concentrations in pools were much higher than in the input tap water. Higher dissolved organic carbon (DOC), higher doses of chlorine and higher temperatures enhanced the formation of HBQs in the pools. In addition, we conducted laboratory disinfection experiments and discovered that personal care products (PCPs) such as lotions and sunscreens can serve as precursors to form additional HBQs, such as TriCBQ, 2,6-dichloro-3-methyl-(1,4)benzoquinone (DCMBQ), and 2,3,5,6-tetrabromo-(1,4)benzoquinone (TetraB-1,4-BQ). These results explained why some HBQs existed in swimming pools but not in the input water. This study presents the first set of occurrence data, identification of new HBQ DBPs, and the factors for their enhanced formation in the swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G3
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Weng S, Li J, Blatchley ER. Effects of UV 254 irradiation on residual chlorine and DBPs in chlorination of model organic-N precursors in swimming pools. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:2674-2682. [PMID: 22425148 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 02/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is commonly applied as a secondary disinfection process in chlorinated pools. UV-based systems have been reported to yield improvements in swimming pool water and air chemistry, but to date these observations have been largely anecdotal. The objectives of this investigation were to evaluate the effects of UV irradiation on chlorination of important organic-N precursors in swimming pools. Creatinine, L-arginine, L-histidine, glycine, and urea, which comprise the majority of the organic-N in human sweat and urine, were selected as precursors for use in conducting batch experiments to examine the time-course behavior of several DBPs and residual chlorine, with and without UV(254) irradiation. In addition, water samples from two natatoria were subjected to monochromatic UV irradiation at wavelengths of 222 nm and 254 nm to evaluate changes of liquid-phase chemistry. UV(254) irradiation promoted formation and/or decay of several chlorinated N-DBPs and also increased the rate of free chlorine consumption. UV exposure resulted in loss of inorganic chloramines (e.g., NCl(3)) from solution. Dichloromethylamine (CH(3)NCl(2)) formation from creatinine was promoted by UV exposure, when free chlorine was present in solution; however, when free chlorine was depleted, CH(3)NCl(2) photodecay was observed. Dichloroacetonitrile (CNCHCl(2)) formation (from L-histidine and L-arginine) was promoted by UV(254) irradiation, as long as free chlorine was present in solution. Likewise, UV exposure was observed to amplify cyanogen chloride (CNCl) formation from chlorination of L-histidine, L-arginine, and glycine, up to the point of free chlorine depletion. The results from experiments involving UV irradiation of chlorinated swimming pool water were qualitatively consistent with the results of model experiments involving UV/chlorination of precursors in terms of the behavior of residual chlorine and DBPs measured in this study. The results indicate that UV(254) irradiation promotes several reactions that are involved in the formation and/or destruction of chlorinated N-DBPs in pool settings. Enhancement of DBP formation was consistent with a mechanism whereby a rate-limiting step in DBP formation was promoted by UV exposure. Promotion of these reactions also resulted in increases of free chlorine consumption rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- ShihChi Weng
- School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2051, USA
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Parinet J, Tabaries S, Coulomb B, Vassalo L, Boudenne JL. Exposure levels to brominated compounds in seawater swimming pools treated with chlorine. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:828-836. [PMID: 22153961 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Revised: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Despite evidence of formation of brominated compounds in seawater swimming pools treated with chlorine, no data about exposure levels to these compounds have been reported. To address this issue, a survey has been carried out in four establishments (representing 8 pools) fed with seawater and devoted to relaxing and cure treatments (thalassotherapy centres located in Southeast of France). Carcinogenic and mutagenic brominated disinfection byproducts (trihalomethanes -THM- and halogenated acetic acids -HAA-) were quantified at varying levels, statistically related to organic loadings brought by bathers, and not from marine organic matter, and also linked to activities carried out in the pools (watergym vs swimming). Bromoform and dibromoacetic acid, the most abundant THM and HAA detected, were measured at levels up to 18-fold greater than the maximum contaminant levels of 60 and 80 μg/L fixed by US.EPA in drinking waters. The correlations between these disinfection byproducts and other environmental factors such as nitrogen, pH, temperature, free residual chlorine, UV(254), chloride and bromide concentrations, and daily frequentation were examined. Because thalassotherapy and seawater swimming pools (hotels, cruise ships,…) are increasing in use around the world and because carcinogenic and mutagenic brominated byproducts may be produced in chlorinated seawater swimming pools, specific care should be taken to assure cleanliness of users (swimmers and patients taking the waters) and to increase water circulation through media filters to reduce levels of brominated byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Parinet
- Aix-Marseille Université - CNRS, Laboratoire Chimie Environnement, Equipe Développements Métrologiques et Chimie des Milieux, 3 place Victor Hugo, case 29, 13331 Marseille Cedex 3, France
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