Symmetry breakage in the vertebrate embryo: when does it happen and how does it work?

ccdc141 is required for left-right axis development by regulating cilia formation in the Kupffer's vesicle of zebrafish

Laterality is a crucial physiological process intricately linked to the cilium-centrosome complex during embryo development. Defects in the process can result in severe organ mispositioning. Coiled-coil domain containing 141 (CCDC141) has been previously known as a centrosome-related gene, but its role in left-right (LR) asymmetry has not been characterized. In this study, we utilize the zebrafish model and human exome analysis to elucidate the function of ccdc141 in laterality defects. The knockdown of ccdc141 in zebrafish disrupts early LR signaling pathways, cilia function, and Kupffer's vesicle formation. Unlike ccdc141-knockdown embryos exhibiting aberrant LR patterns, ccdc141-null mutants show no apparent abnormality, suggesting a genetic compensation response effect. In parallel, we observe a marked reduction in α-tubulin acetylation levels in the ccdc141 crispants. The treatment with histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, particularly the HDAC6 inhibitor, rescues the ccdc141 crispant phenotypes. Furthermore, exome analysis of 70 patients with laterality defects reveals an increased burden of CCDC141 mutations, with in-vivo studies verifying the pathogenicity of the patient mutation CCDC141-R123G. Our findings highlight the critical role of ccdc141 in ciliogenesis and demonstrate that CCDC141 mutations lead to abnormal LR patterns, identifying it as a candidate gene for laterality defects.

Phenotypically Discordant Anomalies in Conjoined Twins: Quirks of Nature Governed by Molecular Pathways?

A multitude of additional anomalies can be observed in virtually all types of symmetrical conjoined twins. These concomitant defects can be divided into different dysmorphological patterns. Some of these patterns reveal their etiological origin through their topographical location. The so-called shared anomalies are traceable to embryological adjustments and directly linked to the conjoined-twinning mechanism itself, inherently located within the boundaries of the coalescence area. In contrast, discordant patterns are anomalies present in only one of the twin members, intrinsically distant from the area of union. These dysmorphological entities are much more difficult to place in a developmental perspective, as it is presumed that conjoined twins share identical intra-uterine environments and intra-embryonic molecular and genetic footprints. However, their existence testifies that certain developmental fields and their respective developmental pathways take different routes in members of conjoined twins. This observation remains a poorly understood phenomenon. This article describes 69 cases of external discordant patterns within different types of otherwise symmetrical mono-umbilical conjoined twins and places them in a developmental perspective and a molecular framework. Gaining insights into the phenotypes and underlying (biochemical) mechanisms could potentially pave the way and generate novel etiological visions in the formation of conjoined twins itself.

Non-classical functions of nuclear pore proteins in ciliopathy

Nucleoporins (NUPs) constitute integral nuclear pore protein (NPC) elements. Although traditional NUP functions have been extensively researched, evidence of additional vital non-NPC roles, referred to herein as non-classical NUP functions, is also emerging. Several NUPs localise at the ciliary base. Indeed, Nup188, Nup93 or Nup205 knockdown results in cilia loss, impacting cardiac left-right patterning in models and cell lines. Genetic variants of Nup205 and Nup188 have been identified in patients with congenital heart disease and situs inversus totalis or heterotaxy, a prevalent human ciliopathy. These findings link non-classical NUP functions to human diseases. This mini-review summarises pivotal NUP interactions with NIMA-related kinases or nephronophthisis proteins that regulate ciliary function and explores other NUPs potentially implicated in cilia-related disorders. Overall, elucidating the non-classical roles of NUPs will enhance comprehension of ciliopathy aetiology.

The midbody component Prc1-like is required for microtubule reorganization during cytokinesis and dorsal determinant segregation in the early zebrafish embryo

We show that the zebrafish maternal-effect mutation too much information (tmi) corresponds to zebrafish prc1-like (prc1l), which encodes a member of the MAP65/Ase1/PRC1 family of microtubule-associated proteins. Embryos from tmi homozygous mutant mothers display cytokinesis defects in meiotic and mitotic divisions in the early embryo, indicating that Prc1l has a role in midbody formation during cell division at the egg-to-embryo transition. Unexpectedly, maternal Prc1l function is also essential for the reorganization of vegetal pole microtubules required for the segregation of dorsal determinants. Whereas Prc1 is widely regarded to crosslink microtubules in an antiparallel conformation, our studies provide evidence for an additional function of Prc1l in the bundling of parallel microtubules in the vegetal cortex of the early embryo during cortical rotation and prior to mitotic cycling. These findings highlight common yet distinct aspects of microtubule reorganization that occur during the egg-to-embryo transition, driven by maternal product for the midbody component Prc1l and required for embryonic cell division and pattern formation.

Cell jamming regulates epithelial chiral morphogenesis

Internal organs such as the heart demonstrate apparent left-right (LR) asymmetric morphology and positioning. Cellular chirality and associated LR biased mechanical behavior such as cell migration have been attributed to LR symmetry breaking during embryonic development. Mathematical models have shown that chiral directional migration can be driven by cellular intrinsic torque. Tissue jamming state (i.e., solid-like vs fluid-like state) strongly regulates collective migratory behavior, but how it might affect chiral morphogenesis is still unknown. Here, we develop a cell vertex model to study the role of tissue rigidity or jamming state on chiral morphogenesis of the cells on a patterned ring-shaped tissue, simulating a previously reported experimental setup for measuring cell chirality. We simulate chirality as torsional forces acting on cell vertices. As expected, the cells undergo bidirectional migration at the opposing (inner and outer) boundaries of the ring-shaped tissue. We discover that more fluid-like tissues (unjammed) demonstrate a stronger chiral cell alignment and elongation than more solid-like (jammed) tissues and maintain a bigger difference in migration velocity between opposing tissue boundaries. Finally, we find that fluid-like tissues undergo more cell-neighbor exchange events. This study reveals that chiral torque is sufficient to achieve a biased cellular alignment as seen in vitro. It further sheds light on the mechanical regulation of chiral morphogenesis of tissues and reveals a role of cell density-independent tissue rigidity in this process.

Understanding laterality disorders and the left-right organizer: Insights from zebrafish

Vital internal organs display a left-right (LR) asymmetric arrangement that is established during embryonic development. Disruption of this LR asymmetry-or laterality-can result in congenital organ malformations. Situs inversus totalis (SIT) is a complete concordant reversal of internal organs that results in a low occurrence of clinical consequences. Situs ambiguous, which gives rise to Heterotaxy syndrome (HTX), is characterized by discordant development and arrangement of organs that is associated with a wide range of birth defects. The leading cause of health problems in HTX patients is a congenital heart malformation. Mutations identified in patients with laterality disorders implicate motile cilia in establishing LR asymmetry. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying SIT and HTX are not fully understood. In several vertebrates, including mouse, frog and zebrafish, motile cilia located in a "left-right organizer" (LRO) trigger conserved signaling pathways that guide asymmetric organ development. Perturbation of LRO formation and/or function in animal models recapitulates organ malformations observed in SIT and HTX patients. This provides an opportunity to use these models to investigate the embryological origins of laterality disorders. The zebrafish embryo has emerged as an important model for investigating the earliest steps of LRO development. Here, we discuss clinical characteristics of human laterality disorders, and highlight experimental results from zebrafish that provide insights into LRO biology and advance our understanding of human laterality disorders.

Abnormal left-right organizer and laterality defects in Xenopus embryos after formin inhibitor SMIFH2 treatment

Left-right symmetry breaking in most studied vertebrates makes use of so-called leftward flow, a mechanism which was studied in detail especially in mouse and Xenopus laevis embryos and is based on rotation of monocilia on specialized epithelial surface designated as left-right organizer or laterality coordinator. However, it has been argued that prior to emergence of leftward flow an additional mechanism operates during early cleavage stages in Xenopus embryo which is based on cytoskeletal processes. Evidence in favour of this early mechanism was supported by left-right abnormalities after chemical inhibition of cytoskeletal protein formin. Here we analyzed temporal dimension of this effect in detail and found that reported abnormalities arise only after treatment at gastrula-neurula stages, i.e. just prior to and during the operation of left-right organizer. Moreover, molecular and morphological analysis of the left-right organizer reveals its abnormal development. Our results strongly indicate that left-right abnormalities reported after formin inhibition cannot serve as support of models based on early symmetry breaking event in Xenopus embryo.

FGF-mediated establishment of left-right asymmetry requires Rab7 function in the dorsal mesoderm in Xenopus

Gastrulation denotes a very important developmental process, which includes significant structural tissue rearrangements and patterning events that shape the emerging vertebrate organism. At the end of gastrulation, the three body axes are spatially defined while the left-right axis still lacks any molecular or morphological polarity. In most vertebrates, this is established during neurulation by a symmetry breaking LR organizer. However, this mesoderm-derived structure depends on proper induction and specification of the mesoderm, which in turn requires involvement of several signaling pathways. Endocytosis and the endosomal machinery offer manifold platforms for intracellular pathway regulation, especially late endosomes claim increasing attention. The late endosomal regulator Rab7 has been linked to mesoderm specification during gastrulation. Distinct axial defects due to compromised dorsal mesoderm development in rab7-deficient Xenopus embryos suggested a requirement of Rab7 for FGF-dependent mesoderm patterning and LR asymmetry. Here we specifically addressed such a role of Rab7, demonstrating a functional requirement for LR organizer development and symmetry breakage. Using different FGF/MAPK pathway components we show that Rab7 participates in dorsal mesoderm patterning. We suggest a hierarchical classification of Rab7 upstream of MAPK-dependent mesoderm specification, most probably at the level of the small GTPase Ras. Thus, this study affords an insight on how the Rab7-regulated endosomal machinery could participate in signal transduction to enable correct mesoderm specification and left-right asymmetry.

dmrt2 and myf5 Link Early Somitogenesis to Left-Right Axis Determination in Xenopus laevis

The vertebrate left-right axis is specified during neurulation by events occurring in a transient ciliated epithelium termed left-right organizer (LRO), which is made up of two distinct cell types. In the axial midline, central LRO (cLRO) cells project motile monocilia and generate a leftward fluid flow, which represents the mechanism of symmetry breakage. This directional fluid flow is perceived by laterally positioned sensory LRO (sLRO) cells, which harbor non-motile cilia. In sLRO cells on the left side, flow-induced signaling triggers post-transcriptional repression of the multi-pathway antagonist dand5. Subsequently, the co-expressed Tgf-β growth factor Nodal1 is released from Dand5-mediated repression to induce left-sided gene expression. Interestingly, Xenopus sLRO cells have somitic fate, suggesting a connection between LR determination and somitogenesis. Here, we show that doublesex and mab3-related transcription factor 2 (Dmrt2), known to be involved in vertebrate somitogenesis, is required for LRO ciliogenesis and sLRO specification. In dmrt2 morphants, misexpression of the myogenic transcription factors tbx6 and myf5 at early gastrula stages preceded the misspecification of sLRO cells at neurula stages. myf5 morphant tadpoles also showed LR defects due to a failure of sLRO development. The gain of myf5 function reintroduced sLRO cells in dmrt2 morphants, demonstrating that paraxial patterning and somitogenesis are functionally linked to LR axis formation in Xenopus.

Synthetic Lateral Inhibition in Periodic Pattern Forming Microbial Colonies

Multicellular entities are characterized by intricate spatial patterns, intimately related to the functions they perform. These patterns are often created from isotropic embryonic structures, without external information cues guiding the symmetry breaking process. Mature biological structures also display characteristic scales with repeating distributions of signals or chemical species across space. Many candidate patterning modules have been used to explain processes during development and typically include a set of interacting and diffusing chemicals or agents known as morphogens. Great effort has been put forward to better understand the conditions in which pattern-forming processes can occur in the biological domain. However, evidence and practical knowledge allowing us to engineer symmetry-breaking is still lacking. Here we follow a different approach by designing a synthetic gene circuit in E. coli that implements a local activation long-range inhibition mechanism. The synthetic gene network implements an artificial differentiation process that changes the physicochemical properties of the agents. Using both experimental results and modeling, we show that the proposed system is capable of symmetry-breaking leading to regular spatial patterns during colony growth. Studying how these patterns emerge is fundamental to further our understanding of the evolution of biocomplexity and the role played by self-organization. The artificial system studied here and the engineering perspective on embryogenic processes can help validate developmental theories and identify universal properties underpinning biological pattern formation, with special interest for the area of synthetic developmental biology.

Xenopus to the rescue: A model to validate and characterize candidate ciliopathy genes

Cilia are present on most vertebrate cells and play a central role in development, growth, and homeostasis. Thus, cilia dysfunction can manifest into an array of diseases, collectively termed ciliopathies, affecting millions of lives worldwide. Yet, our understanding of the gene regulatory networks that control cilia assembly and functions remain incomplete. With the advances in next-generation sequencing technologies, we can now rapidly predict pathogenic variants from hundreds of ciliopathy patients. While the pace of candidate gene discovery is exciting, most of these genes have never been previously implicated in cilia assembly or function. This makes assigning the disease causality difficult. This review discusses how Xenopus, a genetically tractable and high-throughput vertebrate model, has played a central role in identifying, validating, and characterizing candidate ciliopathy genes. The review is focused on multiciliated cells (MCCs) and diseases associated with MCC dysfunction. MCCs harbor multiple motile cilia on their apical surface to generate extracellular fluid flow inside the airway, the brain ventricles, and the oviduct. In Xenopus, these cells are external and present on the embryonic epidermal epithelia, facilitating candidate genes analysis in MCC development in vivo. The ability to introduce patient variants to study their effects on disease progression makes Xenopus a powerful model to improve our understanding of the underlying disease mechanisms and explain the patient phenotype.

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis

The freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis has a long research history, but only relatively recently has it emerged as an attractive model organism to study molecular mechanisms in the areas of developmental biology and translational medicine such as learning/memory and neurodegenerative diseases. The species has the advantage of being a hermaphrodite and can both cross- and self-mate, which greatly facilitates genetic approaches. The establishment of body-handedness, or chiromorphogenesis, is a major topic of study, since chirality is evident in the shell coiling. Chirality is maternally inherited, and only recently a gene-editing approach identified the actin-related gene Lsdia1 as the key handedness determinant. This short article reviews the natural habitat, life cycle, major research questions and interests, and experimental approaches.

Gene Therapy in Rare Respiratory Diseases: What Have We Learned So Far?

Gene therapy is an alternative therapy in many respiratory diseases with genetic origin and currently without curative treatment. After five decades of progress, many different vectors and gene editing tools for genetic engineering are now available. However, we are still a long way from achieving a safe and efficient approach to gene therapy application in clinical practice. Here, we review three of the most common rare respiratory conditions-cystic fibrosis (CF), alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD), and primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD)-alongside attempts to develop genetic treatment for these diseases. Since the 1990s, gene augmentation therapy has been applied in multiple clinical trials targeting CF and AATD, especially using adeno-associated viral vectors, resulting in a good safety profile but with low efficacy in protein expression. Other strategies, such as non-viral vectors and more recently gene editing tools, have also been used to address these diseases in pre-clinical studies. The first gene therapy approach in PCD was in 2009 when a lentiviral transduction was performed to restore gene expression in vitro; since then, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) technology has also been applied in primary cell culture. Gene therapy is an encouraging alternative treatment for these respiratory diseases; however, more research is needed to ensure treatment safety and efficacy.

Brachyury in the gastrula of basal vertebrates

The Brachyury gene encodes a transcription factor that is conserved across all animals. In non-chordate metazoans, brachyury is primarily expressed in ectoderm regions that are added to the endodermal gut during development, and often form a ring around the site of endoderm internalization in the gastrula, the blastopore. In chordates, this brachyury ring is conserved, but the gene has taken on a new role in the formation of the mesoderm. In this phylum, a novel type of mesoderm that develops into notochord and somites has been added to the ancestral lateral plate mesoderm. Brachyury contributes to a shift in cell fate from neural ectoderm to posterior notochord and somites during a major lineage segregation event that in Xenopus and in the zebrafish takes place in the early gastrula. In the absence of this brachyury function, impaired formation of posterior mesoderm indirectly affects the gastrulation movements of peak involution and convergent extension. These movements are confined to specific regions and stages, leaving open the question why brachyury expression in an extensive, coherent ring, before, during and after gastrulation, is conserved in the two species whose gastrulation modes differ considerably, and also in many other metazoan gastrulae of diverse structure.

LEFTY2/endometrial bleeding-associated factor up-regulates Na+ Coupled Glucose Transporter SGLT1 expression and Glycogen Accumulation in Endometrial Cancer Cells

LEFTY2 (endometrial bleeding associated factor; EBAF or LEFTYA), a cytokine released shortly before menstrual bleeding, is a negative regulator of cell proliferation and tumour growth. LEFTY2 down-regulates Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger activity with subsequent inhibition of glycolytic flux and lactate production in endometrial cancer cells. Glucose can be utilized not only for glycolysis but also for glycogen formation. Both glycolysis and glycogen formation require cellular glucose uptake which could be accomplished by the Na⁺ coupled glucose transporter-1 (SGLT1; SLC5A1). The present study therefore explored whether LEFTY2 modifies endometrial SGLT1 expression and activity as well as glycogen formation. Ishikawa and HEC1a cells were exposed to LEFTY2, SGLT1 and glycogen synthase (GYS1) transcript levels determined by qRT-PCR. SGLT1, GYS1 and phospho-GYS1 protein abundance was quantified by western blotting, cellular glucose uptake from 2-(N-(7-Nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)Amino)-2-Deoxyglucose (2-NBDG) uptake, and cellular glycogen content utilizing an enzymatic assay and subsequent colorimetry. As a result, a 48-hour treatment with LEFTY2 significantly increased SGLT1 and GYS1 transcript levels as well as SGLT1 and GYS1 protein abundance in both Ishikawa and HEC1a cells. 2-NBDG uptake and cellular glycogen content were upregulated significantly in Ishikawa (type 1) but not in type 2 endometrial HEC1a cells, although there was a tendency of increased 2-NBDG uptake. Further, none of the effects were seen in human benign endometrial cells (HESCs). Interestingly, in both Ishikawa and HEC1a cells, a co-treatment with TGF-β reduced SGLT1, GYS and phospho-GYS protein levels, and thus reduced glycogen levels and again HEC1a cells had no significant change. In conclusion, LEFTY2 up-regulates expression and activity of the Na⁺ coupled glucose transporter SGLT1 and glycogen synthase GYS1 in a cell line specific manner. We further show the treatment with LEFTY2 fosters cellular glucose uptake and glycogen formation and TGF-β can negate this effect in endometrial cancer cells.

Matrix-filled microcavities in the emerging avian left-right organizer

BACKGROUND

Hensen node of the amniote embryo plays a central role in multiple developmental processes, especially in induction and formation of axial organs. In the chick, it is asymmetrical in shape and has recently been considered to represent the left-right organizer. As mechanisms of breaking the initial left-right symmetry of the embryo are still ill-understood, analyzing the node's microarchitecture may provide insights into functional links between symmetry breaking and asymmetric morphology.

RESULTS

In the course of a light- and electron-microscopic study addressing this issue we discovered novel intercellular matrix-filled cavities in the node of the chick during gastrulation and during early neurulation stages; measuring up to 45 μm, they are surrounded by densely packed cells and filled with nanoscale fibrils, which immunostaining suggests to consist of the basement membrane-related proteins fibronectin and perlecan. The cavities emerge immediately prior to node formation in the epiblast layer adjacent to the tip of the primitive streak and later, with emerging node asymmetry, they are predominantly located in the right part of the node. Almost identical morphological features of microcavities were found in the duck node.

CONCLUSIONS

We address these cavities as "nodal microcavities" and propose their content to be involved in the function of the avian node by mediating morphogen signaling and storage.

Tissue rheology in embryonic organization

Tissue morphogenesis in multicellular organisms is brought about by spatiotemporal coordination of mechanical and chemical signals. Extensive work on how mechanical forces together with the well-established morphogen signalling pathways can actively shape living tissues has revealed evolutionary conserved mechanochemical features of embryonic development. More recently, attention has been drawn to the description of tissue material properties and how they can influence certain morphogenetic processes. Interestingly, besides the role of tissue material properties in determining how much tissues deform in response to force application, there is increasing theoretical and experimental evidence, suggesting that tissue material properties can abruptly and drastically change in development. These changes resemble phase transitions, pointing at the intriguing possibility that important morphogenetic processes in development, such as symmetry breaking and self-organization, might be mediated by tissue phase transitions. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the regulation and role of tissue material properties in the context of the developing embryo. We posit that abrupt changes of tissue rheological properties may have important implications in maintaining the balance between robustness and adaptability during embryonic development.

Making and breaking symmetry in development, growth and disease

Consistent asymmetries between the left and right sides of animal bodies are common. For example, the internal organs of vertebrates are left-right (L-R) asymmetric in a stereotyped fashion. Other structures, such as the skeleton and muscles, are largely symmetric. This Review considers how symmetries and asymmetries form alongside each other within the embryo, and how they are then maintained during growth. I describe how asymmetric signals are generated in the embryo. Using the limbs and somites as major examples, I then address mechanisms for protecting symmetrically forming tissues from asymmetrically acting signals. These examples reveal that symmetry should not be considered as an inherent background state, but instead must be actively maintained throughout multiple phases of embryonic patterning and organismal growth.

Xenopus: Driving the Discovery of Novel Genes in Patient Disease and Their Underlying Pathological Mechanisms Relevant for Organogenesis

Frog model organisms have been appreciated for their utility in exploring physiological phenomena for nearly a century. Now, a vibrant community of biologists that utilize this model organism has poised Xenopus to serve as a high throughput vertebrate organism to model patient-driven genetic diseases. This has facilitated the investigation of effects of patient mutations on specific organs and signaling pathways. This approach promises a rapid investigation into novel mechanisms that disrupt normal organ morphology and function. Considering that many disease states are still interrogated in vitro to determine relevant biological processes for further study, the prospect of interrogating genetic disease in Xenopus in vivo is an attractive alternative. This model may more closely capture important aspects of the pathology under investigation such as cellular micro environments and local forces relevant to a specific organ's development and homeostasis. This review aims to highlight recent methodological advances that allow investigation of genetic disease in organ-specific contexts in Xenopus as well as provide examples of how these methods have led to the identification of novel mechanisms and pathways important for understanding human disease.

Structural Asymmetry in the Frontal and Temporal Lobes Is Associated with PCSK6 VNTR Polymorphism

The nodal cascade influences the development of bodily asymmetries in humans and other vertebrates. The gene PCSK6 has shown a regulatory function during left-right axis formation and is therefore thought to influence bodily left-right asymmetries. However, it is not clear if variation in this gene is also associated with structural asymmetries in the brain. We genotyped an intronic 33bp PCSK6 variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism that has been associated with handedness in a cohort of healthy adults. We acquired T1-weighted structural MRI images of 320 participants and defined cortical surface and thickness for each HCP region. The results demonstrate a significant association between PCSK6 VNTR genotypes and gray matter asymmetry in the superior temporal sulcus, which is involved in voice perception. Heterozygous individuals who carry a short (≤ 6 repeats) and a long (≥ 9 repeats) PCSK6 VNTR allele show stronger rightward asymmetry. Further associations were evident in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Here, individuals homozygous for short alleles show a more pronounced asymmetry. This shows that PCSK6, a gene that has been implicated in the ontogenesis of bodily asymmetries by regulating the nodal cascade, is also relevant for structural asymmetries in the human brain.

A dual function of FGF signaling in Xenopus left-right axis formation

Organ left-right (LR) asymmetry is a conserved vertebrate feature, which is regulated by left-sided activation of Nodal signaling. Nodal asymmetry is established by a leftward fluid-flow generated at the ciliated LR organizer (LRO). Although the role of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathways during mesoderm development is conserved, diverging results from different model organisms suggest a non-conserved function in LR asymmetry. Here, we demonstrate that FGF is required during gastrulation in a dual function at consecutive stages of Xenopus embryonic development. In the early gastrula, FGF is necessary for LRO precursor induction, acting in parallel with FGF-mediated mesoderm induction. During late gastrulation, the FGF/Ca²⁺-branch is required for specification of the flow-sensing lateral LRO cells, a function related to FGF-mediated mesoderm morphogenesis. This second function in addition requires input from the calcium channel Polycystin-2. Thus, analogous to mesoderm development, FGF activity is required in a dual role for laterality specification; namely, for generating and sensing leftward flow. Moreover, our findings in Xenopus demonstrate that FGF functions in LR development share more conserved features across vertebrate species than previously anticipated.

Chiral Neuronal Motility: The Missing Link between Molecular Chirality and Brain Asymmetry

Left–right brain asymmetry is a fundamental property observed across phyla from invertebrates to humans, but the mechanisms underlying its formation are still largely unknown. Rapid progress in our knowledge of the formation of body asymmetry suggests that brain asymmetry might be controlled by the same mechanisms. However, most of the functional brain laterality, including language processing and handedness, does not share common mechanisms with visceral asymmetry. Accumulating evidence indicates that asymmetry is manifested as chirality at the single cellular level. In neurons, the growth cone filopodia at the tips of neurites exhibit a myosin V-dependent, left-helical, and right-screw rotation, which drives the clockwise circular growth of neurites on adhesive substrates. Here, I propose an alternative model for the formation of brain asymmetry that is based on chiral neuronal motility. According to this chiral neuron model, the molecular chirality of actin filaments and myosin motors is converted into chiral neuronal motility, which is in turn transformed into the left–right asymmetry of neural circuits and lateralized brain functions. I also introduce automated, numerical, and quantitative methods to analyze the chirality and the left–right asymmetry that would enable the efficient testing of the model and to accelerate future investigations in this field.

Embryogenesis of Marsupial Frogs (Hemiphractidae), and the Changes that Accompany Terrestrial Development in Frogs

The developmental adaptations of the marsupial frogs Gastrotheca riobambae and Flectonotus pygmaeus (Hemiphractidae) are described and compared with frogs belonging to seven additional families. Incubation of embryos by the mother in marsupial frogs is associated with changes in the anatomy and physiology of the female, modifications of oogenesis, and extraordinary changes in embryonic development. The comparison of early development reveals that gene expression is highly conserved. However, the timing of gene expression varies between frog species. There are two modes of gastrulation according to the onset of convergent extension. In gastrulation mode 1, convergent extension is an intrinsic mechanism of gastrulation. This gastrulation mode occurs in frogs with aquatic reproduction, such as Xenopus laevis. In gastrulation mode 2, convergent extension occurs after the completion of gastrulation movements. Gastrulation mode 2 occurs in frogs with terrestrial reproduction, such as the marsupial frog, G. riobambae. The two modes of frog gastrulation resemble the two transitions toward meroblastic cleavage of ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii). The comparison indicates that a major event in the evolution of frog terrestrial development is the separation of convergent extension from gastrulation.

WDR5 regulates left-right patterning via chromatin-dependent and -independent functions

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is a major cause of infant mortality and morbidity, yet the genetic causes and mechanisms remain opaque. In a patient with CHD and heterotaxy, a disorder of left-right (LR) patterning, a de novo mutation was identified in the chromatin modifier gene WDR5 WDR5 acts as a scaffolding protein in the H3K4 methyltransferase complex, but a role in LR patterning is unknown. Here, we show that Wdr5 depletion leads to LR patterning defects in Xenopus via its role in ciliogenesis. Unexpectedly, we find a dual role for WDR5 in LR patterning. First, WDR5 is expressed in the nuclei of monociliated cells of the LR organizer (LRO) and regulates foxj1 expression. LR defects in wdr5 morphants can be partially rescued with the addition of foxj1 Second, WDR5 localizes to the bases of cilia. Using a mutant form of WDR5, we demonstrate that WDR5 also has an H3K4-independent role in LR patterning. Guided by the patient phenotype, we identify multiple roles for WDR5 in LR patterning, providing plausible mechanisms for its role in ciliopathies like heterotaxy and CHD.

The evolutionary conserved FOXJ1 target gene Fam183b is essential for motile cilia in Xenopus but dispensable for ciliary function in mice

The transcription factor FOXJ1 is essential for the formation of motile cilia throughout the animal kingdom. Target genes therefore likely constitute an important part of the motile cilia program. Here, we report on the analysis of one of these targets, Fam183b, in Xenopus and mice. Fam183b encodes a protein with unknown function which is conserved from the green algae Chlamydomonas to humans. Fam183b is expressed in tissues harbouring motile cilia in both mouse and frog embryos. FAM183b protein localises to basal bodies of cilia in mIMCD3 cells and of multiciliated cells of the frog larval epidermis. In addition, FAM183b interacts with NUP93, which also localises to basal bodies. During frog embryogenesis, Fam183b was dispensable for laterality specification and brain development, but required for ciliogenesis and motility of epidermal multiciliated cells and nephrostomes, i.e. the embryonic kidney. Surprisingly, mice homozygous for a null allele did not display any defects indicative of disrupted motile ciliary function. The lack of a cilia phenotype in mouse and the limited requirements in frog contrast with high sequence conservation and the correlation of gene expression with the presence of motile cilia. This finding may be explained through compensatory mechanisms at sites where no defects were observed in our FAM183b-loss-of-function studies.

Special Issue: Left-Right Asymmetry and Cardiac Morphogenesis

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The left-right asymmetry of liver lobation is generated by Pitx2c-mediated asymmetries in the hepatic diverticulum

Internal organs exhibit left-right asymmetric sizes, shapes and anatomical positions, but how these different lateralities develop is poorly understood. Here we use the experimentally tractable Xenopus model to uncover the morphogenetic events that drive the left-right asymmetrical lobation of the liver. On the right side of the early hepatic diverticulum, endoderm cells become columnar and apically constricted, forming an expanded epithelial surface and, ultimately, an enlarged right liver lobe. In contrast, the cells on the left side become rounder, and rearrange into a compact, stratified architecture that produces a smaller left lobe. Side-specific gain- and loss-of-function studies reveal that asymmetric expression of the left-right determinant Pitx2c elicits distinct epithelial morphogenesis events in the left side of the diverticulum. Surprisingly, the cellular events induced by Pitx2c during liver development are opposite those induced in other digestive organs, suggesting divergent cellular mechanisms underlie the formation of different lateralities.

TGF-β Family Signaling in Early Vertebrate Development

TGF-β family ligands function in inducing and patterning many tissues of the early vertebrate embryonic body plan. Nodal signaling is essential for the specification of mesendodermal tissues and the concurrent cellular movements of gastrulation. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling patterns tissues along the dorsal-ventral axis and simultaneously directs the cell movements of convergence and extension. After gastrulation, a second wave of Nodal signaling breaks the symmetry between the left and right sides of the embryo. During these processes, elaborate regulatory feedback between TGF-β ligands and their antagonists direct the proper specification and patterning of embryonic tissues. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the function and regulation of TGF-β family signaling in these processes. Although we cover principles that are involved in the development of all vertebrate embryos, we focus specifically on three popular model organisms: the mouse Mus musculus, the African clawed frog of the genus Xenopus, and the zebrafish Danio rerio, highlighting the similarities and differences between these species.

Mechanical Strain Determines Cilia Length, Motility, and Planar Position in the Left-Right Organizer

The Xenopus left-right organizer (LRO) breaks symmetry along the left-right axis of the early embryo by producing and sensing directed ciliary flow as a patterning cue. To carry out this process, the LRO contains different ciliated cell types that vary in cilia length, whether they are motile or sensory, and how they position their cilia along the anterior-posterior (A-P) planar axis. Here, we show that these different cilia features are specified in the prospective LRO during gastrulation, based on anisotropic mechanical strain that is oriented along the A-P axis, and graded in levels along the medial-lateral axis. Strain instructs ciliated cell differentiation by acting on a mesodermal prepattern present at blastula stages, involving foxj1. We propose that differential strain is a graded, developmental cue, linking the establishment of an A-P planar axis to cilia length, motility, and planar location during formation of the Xenopus LRO.

The Power of Strain: Organizing Left-Right Cilia

Left-right organizers require motile and polarized cilia to break symmetry. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Chien et al. (2018) demonstrate that gastrulation-derived mechanical strain of the precursor tissue orients cilia and is required for cilia lengthening and motility.

An Early Function of Polycystin-2 for Left-Right Organizer Induction in Xenopus

Nodal signaling controls asymmetric organ placement during vertebrate embryogenesis. Nodal is induced by a leftward fluid flow at the ciliated left-right organizer (LRO). The mechanism of flow sensing, however, has remained elusive. pkd2 encodes the calcium channel Polycystin-2, which is required for kidney development and laterality, and may act in flow perception. Here, we have studied the role of Polycystin-2 in Xenopus and show that pkd2 is indispensable for left-right (LR) asymmetry. Knockdown of pkd2 prevented left-asymmetric nodal cascade induction in the lateral plate mesoderm. Defects were due to failure of LRO specification, morphogenesis, and, consequently, absence of leftward flow. Polycystin-2 synergizes with the unconventional nodal-type signaling molecule Xnr3 to induce the LRO precursor tissue before gastrulation, upstream of symmetry breakage. Our data uncover an unknown function of pkd2 in LR axis formation, which we propose represents an ancient role of Polycystin-2 during LRO induction in lower vertebrates.

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Loss of Polycystin-2 in Xenopus results in LR asymmetry defects upstream of leftward flow

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LR defects are caused by lack of LR organizer induction

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Polycystin-2 is required upstream of foxj1 for specification of superficial mesoderm

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Polycystin-2 and Xnr3 synergistically induce foxj1 in the superficial mesoderm

A Conserved Role of the Unconventional Myosin 1d in Laterality Determination

Anatomical and functional asymmetries are widespread in the animal kingdom [1, 2]. In vertebrates, many visceral organs are asymmetrically placed [3]. In snails, shells and inner organs coil asymmetrically, and in Drosophila, genitalia and hindgut undergo a chiral rotation during development. The evolutionary origin of these asymmetries remains an open question [1]. Nodal signaling is widely used [4], and many, but not all, vertebrates use cilia for symmetry breaking [5]. In Drosophila, which lacks both cilia and Nodal, the unconventional myosin ID (myo1d) gene controls dextral rotation of chiral organs [6, 7]. Here, we studied the role of myo1d in left-right (LR) axis formation in Xenopus. Morpholino oligomer-mediated myo1d downregulation affected organ placement in >50% of morphant tadpoles. Induction of the left-asymmetric Nodal cascade was aberrant in >70% of cases. Expression of the flow-target gene dand5 was compromised, as was flow itself, due to shorter, fewer, and non-polarized cilia at the LR organizer. Additional phenotypes pinpointed Wnt/planar cell polarity signaling and suggested that myo1d, like in Drosophila [8], acted in the context of the planar cell polarity pathway. Indeed, convergent extension of gastrula explant cultures was inhibited in myo1d morphants, and the ATF2 reporter gene for non-canonical Wnt signaling was downregulated. Finally, genetic interference experiments demonstrated a functional interaction between the core planar cell polarity signaling gene vangl2 and myo1d in LR axis formation. Thus, our data identified myo1d as a common denominator of arthropod and chordate asymmetry, in agreement with a monophyletic origin of animal asymmetry.

The cytoskeleton regulates symmetry transitions in moving amoeboid cells

Symmetry and symmetry breaking are essential in biology. Symmetry comes in different forms: rotational symmetry, mirror symmetry and alternating right/left symmetry. Especially the transitions between the different symmetry forms specify crucial points in cell biology, including gastrulation in development, formation of the cleavage furrow in cell division, or the front in cell polarity. However, the mechanisms of these symmetry transitions are not well understood. Here we have investigated the fundaments of symmetry and symmetry transitions of the cytoskeleton during cell movement. Our data show that the dynamic shape changes of amoeboid cells are far from random, but are the consequence of refined symmetries and symmetry changes that are orchestrated by small G-proteins and the cytoskeleton, with local stimulation by F-actin and Scar , and local inhibition by IQGAP2 and myosin.

Vertebrate Left-Right Asymmetry: What Can Nodal Cascade Gene Expression Patterns Tell Us?

Laterality of inner organs is a wide-spread characteristic of vertebrates and beyond. It is ultimately controlled by the left-asymmetric activation of the Nodal signaling cascade in the lateral plate mesoderm of the neurula stage embryo, which results from a cilia-driven leftward flow of extracellular fluids at the left-right organizer. This scenario is widely accepted for laterality determination in wildtype specimens. Deviations from this norm come in different flavors. At the level of organ morphogenesis, laterality may be inverted (situs inversus) or non-concordant with respect to the main body axis (situs ambiguus or heterotaxia). At the level of Nodal cascade gene activation, expression may be inverted, bilaterally induced, or absent. In a given genetic situation, patterns may be randomized or predominantly lacking laterality (absence or bilateral activation). We propose that the distributions of patterns observed may be indicative of the underlying molecular defects, with randomizations being primarily caused by defects in the flow-generating ciliary set-up, and symmetrical patterns being the result of impaired flow sensing, on the left, the right, or both sides. This prediction, the reasoning of which is detailed in this review, pinpoints functions of genes whose role in laterality determination have remained obscure.

Copy number variation as a genetic basis for heterotaxy and heterotaxy-spectrum congenital heart defects

Genomic disorders and rare copy number abnormalities are identified in 15-25% of patients with syndromic conditions, but their prevalence in individuals with isolated birth defects is less clear. A spectrum of congenital heart defects (CHDs) is seen in heterotaxy, a highly heritable and genetically heterogeneous multiple congenital anomaly syndrome resulting from failure to properly establish left-right (L-R) organ asymmetry during early embryonic development. To identify novel genetic causes of heterotaxy, we analysed copy number variants (CNVs) in 225 patients with heterotaxy and heterotaxy-spectrum CHDs using array-based genotyping methods. Clinically relevant CNVs were identified in approximately 20% of patients and encompassed both known and putative heterotaxy genes. Patients were carefully phenotyped, revealing a significant association of abdominal situs inversus with pathogenic or likely pathogenic CNVs, while d-transposition of the great arteries was more frequently associated with common CNVs. Identified cytogenetic abnormalities ranged from large unbalanced translocations to smaller, kilobase-scale CNVs, including a rare, single exon deletion in ZIC3, a gene known to cause X-linked heterotaxy. Morpholino loss-of-function experiments in Xenopus support a role for one of these novel candidates, the platelet isoform of phosphofructokinase-1 (PFKP) in heterotaxy. Collectively, our results confirm a high CNV yield for array-based testing in patients with heterotaxy, and support use of CNV analysis for identification of novel biological processes relevant to human laterality.This article is part of the themed issue 'Provocative questions in left-right asymmetry'.

Mutations in the Katnb1 gene cause left-right asymmetry and heart defects

BACKGROUND

The microtubule-severing protein complex katanin is composed two subunits, the ATPase subunit, KATNA1, and the noncatalytic regulatory subunit, KATNB1. Recently, the Katnb1 gene has been linked to infertility, regulation of centriole and cilia formation in fish and mammals, as well as neocortical brain development. KATNB1 protein is expressed in germ cells in humans and mouse, mitotic/meiotic spindles and cilia, although the full expression pattern of the Katnb1 gene has not been described.

RESULTS

Using a knockin-knockout mouse model of Katnb1 dysfunction we demonstrate that Katnb1 is ubiquitously expressed during embryonic development, although a stronger expression is seen in the crown cells of the gastrulation organizer, the murine node. Furthermore, null and hypomorphic Katnb1 gene mutations show a novel correlation between Katnb1 dysregulation and the development of impaired left-right signaling, including cardiac malformations.

CONCLUSIONS

Katanin function is a critical regulator of heart development in mice. These findings are potentially relevant to human cardiac development. Developmental Dynamics 246:1027-1035, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Physical limits of flow sensing in the left-right organizer

Fluid flows generated by motile cilia are guiding the establishment of the left-right asymmetry of the body in the vertebrate left-right organizer. Competing hypotheses have been proposed: the direction of flow is sensed either through mechanosensation, or via the detection of chemical signals transported in the flow. We investigated the physical limits of flow detection to clarify which mechanisms could be reliably used for symmetry breaking. We integrated parameters describing cilia distribution and orientation obtained in vivo in zebrafish into a multiscale physical study of flow generation and detection. Our results show that the number of immotile cilia is too small to ensure robust left and right determination by mechanosensing, given the large spatial variability of the flow. However, motile cilia could sense their own motion by a yet unknown mechanism. Finally, transport of chemical signals by the flow can provide a simple and reliable mechanism of asymmetry establishment.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25078.001

Xenopus, an ideal model organism to study laterality in conjoined twins

Conjoined twins occur at low frequency in all vertebrates including humans. Many twins fused at the chest or abdomen display a very peculiar laterality defect: while the left twin is normal with respect to asymmetric organ morphogenesis and placement (situs solitus), the organ situs is randomized in right twins. Although this phenomenon has fascinated already some of the founders of experimental embryology in the 19th and early 20th century, such as Dareste, Fol, Warynsky and Spemann, its embryological basis has remained enigmatic. Here we summarize historical experiments and interpretations as well as current models, argue that the frog Xenopus is the only vertebrate model organism to tackle the issue, and outline suitable experiments to address the question of twin laterality in the context of cilia-based symmetry breakage.

Toolbox in a tadpole: Xenopus for kidney research

Xenopus is a versatile model organism increasingly used to study organogenesis and genetic diseases. The rapid embryonic development, targeted injections, loss- and gain-of-function experiments and an increasing supply of tools for functional in vivo analysis are unique advantages of the Xenopus system. Here, we review the vast array of methods available that have facilitated its transition into a translational model. We will focus primarily on how these methods have been employed in the study of kidney development, renal function and kidney disease. Future advances in the fields of genome editing, imaging and quantitative 'omics approaches are likely to enable exciting and novel applications for Xenopus to deepen our understanding of core principles of renal development and molecular mechanisms of human kidney disease. Thus, using Xenopus in clinically relevant research diversifies the narrowing pool of "standard" model organisms and provides unique opportunities for translational research.

Leftward Flow Determines Laterality in Conjoined Twins

Conjoined twins fused at the thorax display an enigmatic left-right defect: although left twins are normal, laterality is disturbed in one-half of right twins [1-3]. Molecularly, this randomization corresponds to a lack of asymmetric Nodal cascade induction in right twins [4]. We studied leftward flow [5, 6] at the left-right organizer (LRO) [7, 8] in thoracopagus twins in Xenopus, which displayed a duplicated, fused, and ciliated LRO. Cilia were motile and produced a leftward flow from the right LRO margin of the right to the left margin of the left twin. Motility was required for correct laterality in left twins, as knockdown of dynein motor dnah9 prevented Nodal cascade induction. Nodal was rescued by parallel knockdown of the inhibitor dand5 [9, 10] on the left side of the left twin. Lack of Nodal induction in the right twin, despite the presence of flow, was due to insufficient suppression of dand5. Knockdown of dand5 at the center of the fused LRO resulted in asymmetric Nodal cascade induction in the right twin as well. Manipulation of leftward flow and dand5 in a targeted and sided manner induced the Nodal cascade in a predictable manner, in the left twin, the right one, both, or neither. Laterality in conjoined twins thus was determined by cilia-driven leftward fluid flow like in single embryos, which solves a century-old riddle, as the phenomenon was already studied by some of the founders of experimental embryology, including Dareste [11], Fol and Warynsky [12], and Spemann and Falkenberg [13] (reviewed in [14]).

Asymmetric Localization and Distribution of Factors Determining Cell Fate During Early Development of Xenopus laevis

Asymmetric division is a property of eukaryotic cells that is fundamental to the formation of higher life forms. Despite its importance, the mechanism behind it remains elusive. Asymmetry in the cell is induced by polarization of cell fate determinants that become unevenly distributed among progeny cells. So far dozens of determinants have been identified. Xenopus laevis is an ideal system to study asymmetric cell division during early development, because of the huge size of its oocytes and early-stage blastomeres. Here, we present the current knowledge about localization and distribution of cell fate determinants along the three body axes: animal-vegetal, dorsal-ventral, and left-right. Uneven distribution of cell fate determinants during early development specifies the formation of the embryonic body plan.

Cilia in vertebrate left-right patterning

Understanding how left-right (LR) asymmetry is generated in vertebrate embryos is an important problem in developmental biology. In humans, a failure to align the left and right sides of cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal systems often results in birth defects. Evidence from patients and animal models has implicated cilia in the process of left-right patterning. Here, we review the proposed functions for cilia in establishing LR asymmetry, which include creating transient leftward fluid flows in an embryonic 'left-right organizer'. These flows direct asymmetric activation of a conserved Nodal (TGFβ) signalling pathway that guides asymmetric morphogenesis of developing organs. We discuss the leading hypotheses for how cilia-generated asymmetric fluid flows are translated into asymmetric molecular signals. We also discuss emerging mechanisms that control the subcellular positioning of cilia and the cellular architecture of the left-right organizer, both of which are critical for effective cilia function during left-right patterning. Finally, using mosaic cell-labelling and time-lapse imaging in the zebrafish embryo, we provide new evidence that precursor cells maintain their relative positions as they give rise to the ciliated left-right organizer. This suggests the possibility that these cells acquire left-right positional information prior to the appearance of cilia.This article is part of the themed issue 'Provocative questions in left-right asymmetry'.

CFAP157 is a murine downstream effector of FOXJ1 that is specifically required for flagellum morphogenesis and sperm motility

Motile cilia move extracellular fluids or mediate cellular motility. Their function is essential for embryonic development, adult tissue homeostasis and reproduction throughout vertebrates. FOXJ1 is a key transcription factor for the formation of motile cilia but its downstream genetic programme is only partially understood. Here, we characterise a novel FOXJ1 target, Cfap157, that is specifically expressed in motile ciliated tissues in mouse and Xenopus in a FOXJ1-dependent manner. CFAP157 protein localises to basal bodies and interacts with tubulin and the centrosomal protein CEP350. Cfap157 knockout mice appear normal but homozygous males are infertile. Spermatozoa display impaired motility and a novel phenotype: Cfap157-deficient sperm exhibit axonemal loops, supernumerary axonemal profiles with ectopic accessory structures, excess cytoplasm and clustered mitochondria in the midpiece regions, and defective axonemes along the flagella. Our study thus demonstrates an essential sperm-specific function for CFAP157 and suggests that this novel FOXJ1 effector is part of a mechanism that acts during spermiogenesis to suppress the formation of supernumerary axonemes and ensures a correct ultrastructure.