Actions of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate in the central nervous system: effects on cognition and emotion in animals and humans

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal and Autonomic Nervous System Biomarkers of Stress and Tobacco Relapse: Review of the Research

Tobacco smoking is a risk factor for countless diseases, and smoking relapse remains a major public health concern. Subjective reports of stress by smokers are a common theme for relapse, however, the role of objective stress-related biomarkers in predicting tobacco relapse risk has been less studied. The aim of this manuscript was to review existing literature on the connection between biomarkers of stress and smoking relapse. Overall, trends indicate that blunted hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) responses to acute stress, larger reductions in HPA biomarkers during the initial days of abstinence during cessation (compared to pre-cessation levels), and exaggerated autonomic responses to stress predict increased risk of relapse. In addition, successful cessation is followed by changes in stress biomarkers (e.g., reductions in cortisol and heart rate, HR). This review also identifies potential modifiers, such as methodological differences, biological sex, and chronic stress, to account for heterogeneity of findings within and across studies. In addition, we identify gaps in the literature and suggest future research directions focusing on the roles of genetics and gene expression as well as the influence of neurobiological mechanisms on stress and relapse risk. Future clinical implications of this research include identifying reliable indicators of relapse risk and the potential of pharmacotherapeutic treatments to target stress response systems to correct dysregulation and potentially reduce stress-related risk of relapse.

Early-life matters: The role of fetal adrenal steroids in the relationship between cytokines within the placental circulation and cognitive development among infants in the Philippines

Prenatal exposure to inflammation is related to the risk for cognitive impairment in offspring. However, mechanisms underlying the link between inflammatory cytokines at the maternal-fetal interface and human cognitive development are largely unknown. This study addressed this research gap by examining whether i) cytokines within the placenta are associated with different domains of neurocognitive development during infancy, and ii) if DHEA-S in cord blood mediates these associations. We also explored the role of early-life socioeconomic status (SES) in moderating the effect of fetal adrenal steroids on cognitive development in low- and middle-income country contexts. A cohort of 242 mother-infant dyads in Leyte, the Philippines participated in the study and all of them were followed from early pregnancy until 12-months. Concentrations of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the placenta, and DHEA-S in cord blood collected at delivery were evaluated. The multifactorial aspects of the infant's cognitive functioning were assessed based on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, third edition (BSID-III). We used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with an orthogonal rotation to examine associated paths among latent variables of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the placenta, fetal neuroendocrine factors, and cognitive development. Pathway analyses showed that both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the placenta were indirectly related to cognitive (p < 0.05) and language developmental outcomes (p < 0.1) via DHEA-S in cord blood among the low SES group. Yet, we found no statistically significant indirect effect of pro- or anti-inflammatory cytokines on neurocognitive development among the high SES sub-sample. This study extends our understanding of how early-life socioeconomic conditions modify biological pathways underlying the relationship between prenatal factors and postpartum cognitive development.

Sex Differences in Neuromuscular Aging: The Role of Sex Hormones

Males and females experience different trajectories of neuromuscular function across the lifespan, with females demonstrating accelerated deconditioning in later life. We hypothesize that the menopause is a critical period in the female lifespan, during which the dramatic reduction in sex hormone concentrations negatively impacts synaptic input to the motoneuron pool, as well as motor unit discharge properties.

Temporal relation between pubertal development and peer victimization in a prospective sample of US adolescents

Peer victimization typically peaks in early adolescence, leading researchers to hypothesize that pubertal timing is a meaningful predictor of peer victimization. However, previous methodological approaches have limited our ability to parse out which puberty cues are associated with peer victimization because gonadal and adrenal puberty, two independent processes, have either been conflated or adrenal puberty timing has been ignored. In addition, previous research has overlooked the possibility of reverse causality-that peer victimization might drive pubertal timing, as it has been shown to do in non-human primates. To fill these gaps, we followed 265 adolescents (47% female) prospectively across three-time points (Mage : T1 = 9.6, T2 = 12.0, T3 = 14.4) and measured self-report peer victimization and self- and maternal-report of gonadal and adrenal pubertal development on the Pubertal Development Scale. Multilevel modeling revealed that females who were further along in adrenal puberty at age 9 were more likely to report peer victimization at age 12 (Cohen's d = 0.25, p = .005). The relation between gonadal puberty status and peer victimization was not significant for either sex. In terms of the reverse direction, the relation between early peer victimization and later pubertal development was not significant in either sex. Overall, our findings suggest that adrenal puberty status, but not gonadal puberty status, predicted peer victimization in females, highlighting the need to separate gonadal and adrenal pubertal processes in future studies.

Dehydroepiandrosterone alleviates hypoxia-induced learning and memory dysfunction by maintaining synaptic homeostasis

AIMS

Hypoxia causes plenty of pathologies in the central nervous system (CNS) including impairment of cognitive and memory function. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has been proved to have therapeutic effects on CNS injuries by maintaining the homeostasis of synapses, yet its effect on hypoxia-induced CNS damage remains unknown.

METHODS

In vivo and in vitro models were established. Concentrations of glutamate and γ GABA were tested by ELISA. Levels of synapse-associated proteins were measured by western blotting. Density of dendritic protrusions of hippocampal neurons was assessed by Golgi staining. Immunofluorescence was adopted to observe the morphology of primary neurons. The novel object recognition test (NORT) and shuttle box test were used to evaluate cognition.

RESULTS

Dehydroepiandrosterone reversed abnormal elevation of glutamate levels, shortenings of neuronal processes, decreases in the density of dendritic protrusions, downregulation of synaptosome-associated protein (SNAP25), and impaired cognition caused by hypoxia. Hypoxia also resulted in notably downregulation of syntaxin 1A (Stx-1A). Overexpression of Stx-1A dramatically attenuated hypoxia-induced elevation of glutamate. Treatment with DHEA reversed the Stx-1A downregulation caused by hypoxic exposure.

CONCLUSION

Dehydroepiandrosterone may exert a protective effect on hypoxia-induced memory impairment by maintaining synaptic homeostasis. These findings offer a novel understanding of the therapeutic effect of DHEA on hypoxia-induced cognitive dysfunction.

Clinical Effects of Using A Massage Chair on Stress Measures In Adults: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

Since the clinical benefits of a massage chair have not been fully elucidated, we aimed to assess the effects of the long-term use of a massage chair on stress measures in older adults.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial SETTING: Community. Interventions In total, 80 adults aged 50-75 years were randomly assigned to the intervention group (n=41) and control group (n=39). The intervention group used the massage chair twice a day for 6 months. The control group was educated about lifestyle modification.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was the change in serum cortisol levels in the morning (8 a.m.) and afternoon (1 p.m.), and the secondary outcomes included changes in levels of dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S), serotonin, insulin-like growth factor, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, high sensitivity C-reactive protein, and natural killer cell activity, and results from a questionnaire on mood, cognition, and quality of life.

RESULTS

The use of the massage chair was associated with a decreasing trend in serum cortisol levels at 1 p.m. (-2.68 ug/dL, p = 0.059). Serum DHEA-S levels significantly decreased with the intervention (-9.66 ug/dL, p = 0.003). In addition, the perceived rate of depression and health status considerably improved following the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic stress in adults could be effectively managed using a massage chair.

DHEA-S production capacity in relation to perceived prolonged stress

We and other research groups have previously described that levels of the anabolic hormone dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) are lowered in individuals who report prolonged stress. We have also shown that the DHEA-S production capacity during acute stress is attenuated in individuals reporting high prolonged stress. This study aimed to further investigate the DHEA and DHEA-S production capacity in relation to prolonged stress. Eighty-one healthy participants in the age 20-50 years old were included in the study and divided into a low stress (n = 45) and a high stress group (n = 36) according their response to a single question regarding perceived stress during the preceding month. They underwent the Trier Social Stress Test while blood samples were drawn before, during and after the stress test. The concentration of DHEA, DHEA-S, cortisol and ACTH was measured. The results showed that the high stress group exhibited a significantly lower response of DHEA-S (40% lower) than the low stress group, while DHEA, cortisol and ACTH responses did not differ between the groups. Reduced DHEA-S production may constitute one of the links between stress and poor health.

Daily Social Interactions and HPA Axis Activity Among Midlife and Older Adults

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Older people experience fewer negative interactions and report less stress in response to interpersonal tensions. Less is known, however, about the implications of daily social interactions for biological stress responses. We evaluated links between daily positive and negative interactions and 2 key biomeasures of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S). We also considered the moderating effects of age.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants included a random sample of 93 individuals aged 40-95 who completed 14 days of daily diary interviews and provided saliva samples during 4 of those days.

RESULTS

Three-level piecewise models showed that individuals had higher sustained DHEA-S levels on days after reporting more positive interactions. Young-old adults (60-79) had lower overall DHEA-S on days when they had more negative interactions than oldest-old adults (80 and older). Oldest-old adults showed a flatter decline in DHEA-S on days after they reported more negative interactions compared to midlife adults (40-59). Daily social interactions were not significantly associated with cortisol.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Strategies to increase positive interactions may help to build physiological resilience to stress, particularly among midlife and young-old adults.

Relationship of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels with atherosclerosis in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism

BACKGROUND

Subclinical hypothyroidism is related with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. The decreased levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-S) are associated with hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis and obesity. The lower levels of DHEA‑S might be an important factor in development of atherosclerosis in subclinical hypothyroidism.

METHODS

A total of 126 patients (62 with subclinical hypothyroidism and 64 healthy individuals) were included in this prospectively designed study between January 2017 and December 2019. All individuals were evaluated according to DHEA‑S levels, carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) and anthropometric measurements. Blood samples were obtained from patients after 8 h fasting. The groups were statistically compared.

RESULTS

The mean ages of control group and patients with subclinical hypothyroidism were 36.9 ± 11.0 years and 39.6 ± 11.0 years, respectively (p = 0.165). The mean waist circumferences in controls and patients were 89 ± 10.7 cm and 91.3 ± 11.1 cm, respectively (p < 0.001). The DHEA‑S levels were 131.04 ± 96.02 µg/dl in patients, and these levels were significantly decreased in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism (p = 0.024). The levels of DHEA‑S were found to be negatively correlated with CIMT (p < 0.001, c = 0.406).

CONCLUSIONS

The early detection of cardiac and metabolic dysfunctions in subclinical hypothyroidism is important to avoid complications. We found a negative correlation between DHEA‑S levels and metabolic and cardiovascular risk factors in subclinical hypothyroidism. We believe that our results would attract more attention to the studies investigating relationships between DHEA‑S levels and cardiovascular complications of subclinical hypothyroidism.

Quantification of Hair Corticosterone, DHEA and Testosterone as a Potential Tool for Welfare Assessment in Male Laboratory Mice

Steroids, providing information regarding several biological patterns including stress and sexual behavior, have been investigated in different matrices in laboratory mice. Data regarding hair quantification, indicative of longer timespans when compared to blood and saliva, are lacking. The aim of the work was to analyze the hormonal hair profile of laboratory male mice and to investigate potential relationships with age and housing, as a potential tool for welfare assessment. Fifty-six adult male C57BL/6J and C57BL/6OlaHsd substrain mice were included in the study, housed in pairs or groups. Testosterone (T) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were quantified by radioimmunoassay, corticosterone (CORT) by ELISA. Mean hormone levels were 6.42 pg/mg for T, 23.16 pg/mg for DHEA and 502.1 pg/mg for CORT. Age influenced all hormones by significantly increasing T and DHEA levels and decreasing CORT; only DHEA, significantly higher in grouped mice, was influenced by housing conditions. The influence of age indicates the need for accurate age-related reference intervals, while the higher levels of DHEA in grouped animals suggests that such housing practice may be beneficial for social interactions. In conclusion, it seems that hair hormones quantification may be a good tool for welfare assessment in laboratory mice and may help in refining husbandry.

Do Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and Its Sulfate (DHEAS) Play a Role in the Stress Response in Domestic Animals?

In animal husbandry, stress is often associated with poor health and welfare. Stress occurs when a physiological control system detects a state of real or presumptive threat to the animal's homeostasis or a failure to control a fitness-critical variable. The definition of stress has mostly relied on glucocorticoids measurement, even though glucocorticoids represent one stress-response system, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, which is not precise enough as it is also related to metabolic regulation and activated in non-stressful situations (pleasure, excitement, and arousal). The mammal adrenal can synthesize the androgenic steroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate metabolite (DHEAS), which have been associated to the stress response in several studies performed mostly in humans and laboratory animals. Although the functions of these steroids are not fully understood, available data suggest their antagonistic effects on glucocorticoids and, in humans, their secretion is affected by stress. This review explores the scientific literature on DHEA and DHEAS release in domestic animals in response to stressors of different nature (inflammatory, physical, or social) and duration, and the extra-adrenal contribution to circulating DHEA. Then, the potential use of DHEA in conjunction with cortisol to improve the definition of the stress phenotype in farmed animals is discussed. Although the focus of this review is on farmed animals, examples from other species are reported when available.

Exploring hair steroid concentrations in asylum seekers, internally displaced refugees, and immigrants

The study of physiology in response to war and forced displacement can yield insight into the origin of stress-related mental health disorders. Previous studies found alterations in hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in refugees. However, the direction of this alteration in HCC, as well as the association between HCC and psychological stress, remain unclear. Mixed findings can potentially be explained by the lack of contextual factors that have been taken into account. In this explorative study, we investigated HCCs in three female refugee samples (N = 89) in different contexts. Samples were i) asylum seekers from Syria, who sought protection in Germany two years ago (n = 37), ii) internally displaced persons (IDPs), who fled a genocide and lived in conditions of onging insecurity in Iraq (n = 14), and iii) Kurdish immigrants and former asylum seekers, who resettled to Germany 18 years ago and were used as reference group (n = 38). HCC was assessed in the scalp-nearest 6 cm of hair (2*3 cm segments). Data on mental and physical health, exposure to traumatic events, and time between immigration and HCC assessments were collected. Syrian asylum seekers had lower HCC than immigrant controls (η² = .06). PTSD symptoms and perceived stress were associated with elevated cortisol levels in IDPs (r = .66 and r = .56), while time since immigration was associated with cortisol levels only in immigrant controls (r = .38). We discuss our findings with regard to the importance of contextual factors, particularly time since displacement and on-going insecurity, when studying physiological reactions in refugees.Lay summaryFemale Syrian asylum seekers had lower levels of hair cortisol concentration than Kurdish immigrants in Germany. Hair cortisol concentration was associated with post-traumatic stress symptoms only in internally displaced women who were exposed to ongoing stress and insecurity in Iraq.

Variations in strength-related measures during the menstrual cycle in eumenorrheic women: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review the current body of research that has investigated changes in strength-related variables during different phases of the menstrual cycle in eumenorrheic women.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in Pubmed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science using search terms related to the menstrual cycle and strength-related measures. Two reviewers reached consensus that 21 studies met the criteria for inclusion. Methodological rigour was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. Random effects meta-analyses were used to compare the early-follicular, ovulatory and mid-luteal phases for maximal voluntary contraction, isokinetic peak torque, and explosive strength.

RESULTS

The assessment of study quality showed that a high level of bias exists in specific areas of study design. Non-significant and small or trivial effect sizes (p≥0.26, Hedges g≤0.35) were identified for all strength-related variables in each comparison between phases. 95% confidence intervals for each comparison suggested the uncertainty associated with each estimate extends to a small effect on strength performance with unclear direction (-0.42≤g≤0.48). The heterogeneity for each comparison was also small (p≥0.83, I²=0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Strength-related measures appear to be minimally altered (g≤0.35) by the fluctuations in ovarian sex hormones that occur during the menstrual cycle. This finding should be interpreted with caution due to the methodological shortcomings identified by the quality assessment.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its Sulphate (DHEAS) in Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Neurosteroids Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulphate (DHEAS) are involved in many important brain functions, including neuronal plasticity and survival, cognition and behavior, demonstrating preventive and therapeutic potential in different neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the article was to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature on the involvement of DHEA and DHEAS in Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

PubMed and MEDLINE databases were searched for relevant literature. The articles were selected considering their titles and abstracts. In the selected full texts, lists of references were searched manually for additional articles.

RESULTS

We performed a systematic review of the studies investigating the role of DHEA and DHEAS in various in vitro and animal models, as well as in patients with Alzheimer's disease, and provided a comprehensive discussion on their potential preventive and therapeutic applications.

CONCLUSION

Despite mixed results, the findings of various preclinical studies are generally supportive of the involvement of DHEA and DHEAS in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease, showing some promise for potential benefits of these neurosteroids in the prevention and treatment. However, so far small clinical trials brought little evidence to support their therapy in AD. Therefore, large-scale human studies are needed to elucidate the specific effects of DHEA and DHEAS and their mechanisms of action, prior to their applications in clinical practice.

In search of optimal resilience ratios: Differential influences of neurobehavioral factors contributing to stress-resilience spectra

The ability to adapt to stressful circumstances, known as emotional resilience, is a key factor in the maintenance of mental health. Several individual biomarkers of the stress response (e.g., corticosterone) that influence an animal's position along the continuum that ranges from adaptive allostasis to maladaptive allostatic load have been identified. Extending beyond specific biomarkers of stress responses, however, it is also important to consider stress-related responses relative to other relevant responses for a thorough understanding of the underpinnings of adaptive allostasis. In this review, behavioral, neurobiological, developmental and genomic variables are considered in the context of emotional resilience [e.g., explore/exploit behavioral tendencies; DHEA/CORT ratios and relative proportions of protein-coding/nonprotein-coding (transposable) genomic elements]. As complex and multifaceted relationships between pertinent allostasis biomediators are identified, translational applications for optimal resilience are more likely to emerge as effective therapeutic strategies.

Verbal performance during stress in healthy older people: Influence of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and cortisol reactivity

The impact of stress on the dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) response in older population is understudied. This study investigated, in healthy older people, whether the DHEA and cortisol responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was related to performance on this task. Both speech (rated by committee and self-rated) and arithmetic (number of mistakes) performance were assessed. Sixty-five participants (55-77 years old) were exposed to the TSST. Increases in negative affect, state anxiety, and cortisol levels could be observed, but there were no significant changes in positive affect or DHEA levels. Interestingly, a larger DHEA response was related to better verbal performance after controlling for the cortisol's reactivity. No relationships were found between hormonal responses and the arithmetic task performance. Our results suggest that, in healthy older people, an increase in DHEA levels in response to acute psychosocial stress may help them to cope with this stressor by increasing verbal performance.

An active and selective molecular mechanism mediating the uptake of sex steroids by prostate cancer cells

Steroid hormones play important roles in normal physiological functions and diseases. Sex steroids hormones are important in the biology and treatment of sex hormone-related cancer such as prostate cancer and breast cancer. Cells may take up steroids using multiple mechanisms. The conventionally accepted hypothesis that steroids cross cell membrane through passive diffusion has not been tested rigorously. Experimental data suggested that cells may take up sex steroid using an active uptake mechanism. ³H-testosterone uptake by prostate cancer cells showed typical transporter-mediated uptake kinetic. Cells retained testosterone taken up from the medium. The uptake of testosterone was selective for certain steroid hormones but not others. Data also indicated that the active and selective uptake mechanism resided in cholesterol-rich membrane domains, and may involve ATP and membrane transporters. In summary, the present study provided strong evidence to support the existence of an active and selective molecular mechanism for sex steroid uptake.

Effects of night shift on the cognitive load of physicians and urinary steroid hormone profiles - a randomized crossover trial

Mental and physical stress is common in physicians during night shifts. Neurocognitive effects of sleep deprivation as well as alterations in hormonal and metabolic parameters have previously been described. The aim of this crossover study was to evaluate the effects of night-shift work with partial sleep deprivation on steroid hormone excretion and possible associations with mood, sleep characteristics and cognitive functions in physicians. In total, 34 physicians (mean age 42 ± 8.5 years, 76.5% male) from different departments of the General Hospital of Vienna, Austria, were randomly assigned to two conditions: a regular day shift (8 h on duty, condition 1) and a continuous day-night shift (24 h on duty, condition 2). In both conditions, physicians collected a 24 h urine sample for steroid hormone concentration analysis and further completed psychological tests, including the sleep questionnaire (SF-A), the questionnaire for mental state (MDBF) and the computer-assisted visual memory test (FVW) before and at the end of their shifts, respectively. Although mean sleep deprivation during night shift was relatively small (~1.5 h) the impairment in participants' mental state was high in all three dimensions (mood, vigilance and agitation, p ≤ 0.001). Sleep quality (SQ), feeling of being recovered after sleep and mental balance decreased (p ≤ 0.001), whereas mental exhaustion increased (p < 0.05). Moreover, we could show a nearly linear relationship between most of these self-rating items. Testing visual memory participants made significantly more mistakes after night shift (p = 0.011), however, mostly in incorrectly identified items and not in correctly identified ones (FVW). SQ and false identified items were negatively correlated, whereas SQ and time of reaction were positively associated. It is assumed that after night shift, a tendency exists to make faster wrong decisions. SQ did not influence correctly identified items in FVW. In contrast to previous investigations, we found that only excretion rates for pregnanetriol and androsterone/etiocholanolone ratios (p < 0.05, respectively) were slightly reduced in 24-h urine samples after night shift. A considerable stimulation of the adrenocortical axis could not be affirmed. In general, dehydroepiandrosteron (DHEA) was negatively associated with the sense of recreation after sleep and with the time of reaction and positively correlated with correctly identified items in the FVW test. These results, on the one hand, are in line with previous findings indicating that stress and sleep deprivation suppress gonadal steroids, but, on the other hand, do not imply significant adrenocortical-axis stimulation (e.g. an increase of cortisol) during the day-night shift.

Stress hormones and verbal memory in young people over the first 12 weeks of treatment for psychosis

AIMS

Memory impairment in psychosis may be mediated through detrimental effects of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function. This study prospectively investigated the relationship between cortisol, sulphate dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA(S) and cortisol: DHEA(S) ratio and memory in 35 first-episode psychosis (FEP) patients during the first 12 weeks of treatment and 23 healthy controls (HC).

METHODS

Morning blood sampling and tests of attention, working memory and verbal memory occurred at baseline and 12-week follow-up.

RESULTS

FEP and HC groups did not significantly differ in levels of cortisol, DHEA(S) or their ratio at baseline or over 12-weeks. The FEP group performed significantly below HC on all cognitive measures at baseline and over 12-weeks. Cortisol levels were unrelated to cognition in both groups. At baseline, DHEA(S) was positively associated with attention in HCs, but negatively associated with attention in FEP participants. Change in DHEA(S) was negatively associated with change in memory over 12-weeks in both groups. At 12-weeks, there was a negative correlation between the cortisol: DHEA(S) ratio and attention in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are mostly in contrast to findings in chronic schizophrenia. Investigation at different illness phases and over longer-follow-up periods is required to determine the complex relationship between HPA-axis and memory functioning in psychosis.

DHEA Treatment Effects on Redox Environment in Skeletal Muscle of Young and Aged Healthy Rats

BACKGROUND

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is an important precursor of active steroid hormone, produced abundantly by the adrenal cortex with an age-dependent pattern.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether chronic DHEA administration impacts on redox status and on Akt protein activation in skeletal muscle during the aging process (3 and 24 months-old rats).

METHODS

Rats received one weekly dose/5 weeks of DHEA (10 mg/kg) or vehicle. Gastrocnemius muscle was removed to evaluate glutathione system, hydrogen peroxide, antioxidant enzymes, and expression of Akt kinase protein.

RESULTS

In the 3-months-old rats DHEA induced an increase in hydrogen peroxide when compared both to its control (276%) and the 24-months-old DHEA group (485%). Moreover, in the 24- months-old rats DHEA caused an increase in GSSG (41 and 28%), a decrease in reduced-GSH (55 and 51%), and a more oxidized redox status (reduction in GSH/GSSG ratio, 47 and 65 %) when compared to 3-month-old DHEA and to 24-months-old control groups, respectively. Both older groups had increased G6PDH (2.7 fold) and GST (1.7 fold) activities when compared to younger groups, independently of any DHEA treatment. However, there was no modulation of Akt protein (phosphorylated/total isoform).

CONCLUSION

The results show that chronic DHEA administration to 3 and 24-months-old rats may not present positive effects regarding the redox environment in skeletal muscle without modulation of pro-survival Akt kinase. Due to the large-scale self-administration of DHEA as an "anti-aging" dietary supplement, it is crucial to investigate its molecular mechanisms over oxidative stressinduced related diseases.

Gender differences in susceptibility to schizophrenia: Potential implication of neurosteroids

Past research has indicated gender differences in the clinical characteristics and course of schizophrenia. In this study, we investigated whether gender differences in the manifestation of schizophrenia are correlated with neurosteroids, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and pregnenolone. We further explored the potential relationship between the aforementioned neurosteroids and psychopathology. We recruited 65 schizophrenic patients (36 males and 29 females) and 103 healthy control subjects (47 males and 56 females) and obtained blood samples from the subjects in the morning while in a fasting state to determine the serum levels of DHEA, DHEA-S, and pregnenolone. The psychopathology and mood symptoms of patients with schizophrenia were evaluated using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, respectively. Compared to the male control subjects, male patients with schizophrenia had significantly lower serum levels of DHEA and pregnenolone. In males with schizophrenia, the serum levels of DHEA and DHEA-S were associated with the age of onset and the duration of illness, while pregnenolone levels were associated with general symptoms of the PANSS. However, none of the neurosteroid levels were different between the female patients with schizophrenia and the female controls, and no significant correlation between neurosteroid levels and psychopathology evaluations was found among the schizophrenic females. Neurosteroids, including DHEA, DHEA-S, and pregnenolone, are involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia in male patients, but not in female ones. Therefore, our findings suggest that neurosteroids may be associated with gender differences in susceptibility to schizophrenia.

Prognostic Value of Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate for Patients With Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to estimate the impact of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) on the prognosis of patients with cardiovascular disease by performing a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The Embase, PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, and WanFang databases were searched up to September 5, 2016, to identify eligible studies. The quality of each study was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The association between DHEAS, either on admission or at discharge, and cardiovascular disease outcomes were reviewed. The overall risk ratio for the effect of DHEAS on all-cause mortality and fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events was pooled using a fixed-effects or a random-effects model. The publication bias was evaluated using funnel plots. Twenty-five studies were included for systematic review. The follow-up duration ranged from 1 to 19 years. Eighteen studies were included in the meta-analysis. We found that lower DHEAS levels indicated a significant increased risk for all-cause mortality (risk ratio, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.38-1.56 [P<0.00001]), fatal cardiovascular event (risk ratio, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.30-1.91 [P<0.00001]), and nonfatal cardiovascular event (risk ratio, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.24-1.62 [P<0.0001]) in patients with cardiovascular disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with cardiovascular disease who have lower DHEAS levels may have poorer prognosis than those with higher DHEAS levels.

Effects of acute and chronic administration of neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate on neuronal excitability in mice

Background

Neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) has been associated with important brain functions, including neuronal survival, memory, and behavior, showing therapeutic potential in various neuropsychiatric and cognitive disorders. However, the antagonistic effects of DHEAS on γ-amino-butyric acid_A receptors and its facilitatory action on glutamatergic neurotransmission might lead to enhanced brain excitability and seizures and thus limit DHEAS therapeutic applications. The aim of this study was to investigate possible age and sex differences in the neuronal excitability of the mice following acute and chronic DHEAS administration.

Methods

DHEAS was administered intraperitoneally in male and female adult and old mice either acutely or repeatedly once daily for 4 weeks in a 10 mg/kg dose. To investigate the potential proconvulsant properties of DHEAS, we studied the effects of acute and chronic DHEAS treatment on picrotoxin-, pentylentetrazole-, and N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced seizures in mice. The effects of acute and chronic DHEAS administration on the locomotor activity, motor coordination, and body weight of the mice were also studied. We also investigated the effects of DHEAS treatment on [³H]flunitrazepam binding to the mouse brain membranes.

Results

DHEAS did not modify the locomotor activity, motor coordination, body weight, and brain [³H]flunitrazepam binding of male and female mice. The results failed to demonstrate significant effects of single- and long-term DHEAS treatment on the convulsive susceptibility in both adult and aged mice of both sexes. However, small but significant changes regarding sex differences in the susceptibility to seizures were observed following DHEAS administration to mice.

Conclusion

Although our findings suggest that DHEAS treatment might be safe for various potential therapeutic applications in adult as well as in old age, they also support subtle interaction of DHEAS with male and female hormonal status, which may underline observed sex differences in the relationship between DHEAS and various health outcomes.

Associations between dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels, pituitary volume, and social anxiety in children

Early timing of adrenarche, associated with relatively high levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulphate (DHEA-S) in children, has been linked with mental health problems, particularly anxiety. However, little is known about possible neurobiological mechanisms underlying this association. The pituitary gland is a key component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the activation of which triggers the onset of adrenarche. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which pituitary gland volume mediated the relationship between levels of DHEA/DHEA-S relative to age (i.e., adrenarcheal timing) and symptoms of anxiety in 95 children (50 female, M age 9.50 years, SD 0.34 years). Relatively high DHEA and DHEA-S (DHEA/S) levels were found to be associated with larger pituitary gland volumes. There was no significant direct effect of relative DHEA/S levels on overall symptoms of anxiety. However, results supported an indirect link between relatively high DHEA/S levels and symptoms of social anxiety, mediated by pituitary gland volume. No sex differences were observed for any relationship. Our findings suggest that neurobiological mechanisms may be partly responsible for the link between relatively early adrenarche and anxiety symptoms in children. One possible mechanism for this finding is that an enlarged pituitary gland in children experiencing relatively advanced adrenarche might be associated with hyper-activity/reactivity of the HPA axis. Further research is needed to understand the role of stress in the link between adrenarcheal timing and HPA-axis function, especially in relation to the development of anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents.

Adrenarche and the Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Late Childhood

PURPOSE

Mental and behavioral disorders increase in prevalence with the passage through puberty. Yet the first symptoms for many children emerge between seven and 11 years, before the pubertal rise in gonadal hormones. A possibility that symptom onset may be linked to the adrenarchal rise in androgens has been little explored.

METHODS

The Childhood to Adolescence Transition Study recruited a stratified random sample of 1,239 eight-nine year olds from primary schools in Melbourne, Australia. Saliva samples were assayed for dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S), and testosterone. Emotional and behavioral problems were assessed through parental report on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

In males, high levels of all androgens were associated with greater total difficulties and peer problems. Higher dehydroepiandrosterone and testosterone were associated with emotional symptoms and DHEA-S with conduct problems. In females, DHEA-S was associated with peer problems.

CONCLUSIONS

In late childhood, androgens are associated with emotional and behavioral problems in males, raising a possibility that the adrenarchal transition plays a contributing role. If so, the late primary school years may prove to be an important phase for preventing the onset of mental health and behavioral problems in boys.

Neuroendocrine coupling across adolescence and the longitudinal influence of early life stress

Drawing on conceptual models illustrating the advantages of a multisystemic, interactive, developmental approach to understanding development, the present study examines the covariation of stress and sex hormones across the adolescent transition and the effect of early life stress (ELS) on neuroendocrine coupling to gain insight into atypical development. Morning levels of cortisol, testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were assessed at ages 11, 13, and 15; ELS was assessed during the infancy and preschool periods. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that cortisol-DHEA coupling patterns progressed to tight, positive coupling across adolescence. Cortisol-testosterone coupling was positive at age 11 but became more negative at ages 13 and 15. Exposure to ELS resulted in more adultlike neuroendocrine coupling patterns earlier in life than non-exposed youth; however the effect of ELS on cortisol-testosterone coupling was unique to girls. Results illustrate trajectories of neuroendocrine coupling that may be unique to adolescence. Moderation by ELS suggests that early stress exposure may prompt earlier adultlike neuroendocrine coupling, particularly within girls, which may contribute to early pubertal development.

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Covariation Between DHEA and Testosterone in Adolescent Twins

Although several studies have shown that pubertal tempo and timing are shaped by genetic and environmental factors, few studies consider to what extent endocrine triggers of puberty are shaped by genetic and environmental factors. Doing so moves the field from examining correlated developmentally-sensitive biomarkers toward understanding what drives those associations. Two puberty related hormones, dehydroepiandrosterone and testosterone, were assayed from salivary samples in 118 MZ (62 % female), 111 same sex DZ (46 % female) and 103 opposite-sex DZ twin pairs, aged 12-16 years (M = 13.1, SD = 1.3). Pubertal status was assessed with a composite of mother- and self-reports. We used biometric models to estimate the genetic and environmental influences on the variance and covariance in testosterone and DHEA, with and without controlling for their association with puberty, and to test for sex differences. In males, the variance in testosterone and pubertal status was due to shared and non-shared environmental factors; variation in DHEA was due to genetic and non-shared environmental factors. In females, variance in testosterone was due to genetic and non-shared environmental factors; genetic, shared, and non-shared environmental factors contributed equally to variation in DHEA. In males, the testosterone-DHEA covariance was primarily due to shared environmental factors that overlapped with puberty as well as shared and non-shared environmental covariation specific to testosterone and DHEA. In females, the testosterone-DHEA covariance was due to genetic factors overlapping with pubertal status, and shared and non-shared environmental covariation specific to testosterone and DHEA.

Neurobiology of DHEA and effects on sexuality, mood and cognition

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate ester, DHEAS, are the most abundant steroid hormones in the humans. However, their physiological significance, their mechanisms of action and their possible roles as treatment are not fully clarified. Biological actions of DHEA(S) in the brain involve neuroprotection, neurite growth, neurogenesis and neuronal survival, apoptosis, catecholamine synthesis and secretion, as well as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiglucocorticoid effects. In addition, DHEA affects neurosteroidogenis and endorphin synthesis/release. We also demonstrated in a model of ovariectomized rats that DHEA therapy increases proceptive behaviors, already after 1 week of treatment, affecting central function of sexual drive. In women, the analyses of clinical outcomes are far from being conclusive and many issues should still be addressed. Although DHEA preparations have been available in the market since the 1990s, there are very few definitive reports on the biological functions of this steroid. We demonstrate that 1 year DHEA administration at the dose of 10mg provided a significant improvement in comparison with vitamin D in sexual function and in frequency of sexual intercourse in early postmenopausal women. Among symptomatic women, the spectrum of symptoms responding to DHEA requires further investigation, to define the type of sexual symptoms (e.g. decreased sexual function or hypoactive sexual desire disorder) and the degree of mood/cognitive symptoms that could be responsive to hormonal treatment. In this regard, our findings are promising, although they need further exploration with a larger and more representative sample size. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Essential role of DHEA.

Dehydroepiandrosterone: a neuroactive steroid

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate bound form (DHEAS) are important steroids of mainly adrenal origin. They are produced also in gonads and in the brain. Dehydroepiandrosterone easily crosses the brain-blood barrier and in part is also produced locally in the brain tissue. In the brain, DHEA exerts its effects after conversion to either testosterone and dihydrotestosterone or estradiol via androgen and estrogen receptors present in the most parts of the human brain, through mainly non-genomic mechanisms, or eventually indirectly via the effects of its metabolites formed locally in the brain. As a neuroactive hormone, DHEA in co-operation with other hormones and transmitters significantly affects some aspects of human mood, and modifies some features of human emotions and behavior. It has been reported that its administration can increase feelings of well-being and is useful in ameliorating atypical depressive disorders. It has neuroprotective and antiglucocorticoid activity and modifies immune reactions, and some authors have also reported its role in degenerative brain diseases. Here we present a short overview of the possible actions of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate in the brain, calling attention to various mechanisms of their action as neurosteroids and to prospects for the knowledge of their role in brain disorders.

Daily stressors and adult day service use by family caregivers: effects on depressive symptoms, positive mood, and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate

OBJECTIVE

This study examines effects of daily use of adult day service (ADS) programs by caregivers of individuals with dementia (IWD) on a salivary biomarker of stress reactivity, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S), and whether these effects on DHEA-S are associated with daily variability in positive mood and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

We used a daily diary design of 8 consecutive days with alternation of intervention (ADS) and nonintervention days to evaluate within- and between-person effects of the intervention. Family caregivers (N = 151) of IWD who were using ADS were interviewed daily by telephone at home. Saliva samples were collected from caregivers five times a day for 8 consecutive days and were assayed for DHEA-S. Daily telephone interviews assessed daily stressors and mood.

RESULTS

DHEA-S levels were significantly higher on days after ADS use. Daily DHEA-S levels covaried significantly with daily positive mood but not with depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate an association of ADS use by family caregivers and higher DHEA-S levels on the next day. Prior research has found that higher DHEA-S levels are protective against the physiologic damaging effects of stressor exposure and may reduce risks of illness. Regular use of ADS may help reduce depletion of DHEA-S and allow the body to mount a protective and restorative response to the physiologic demands of caregiving. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine DHEA-S levels across the day in connection with an intervention that affected daily exposure to stressors.

Biological stress regulation in female adolescents: a key role for confiding

Attachment behaviors play a critical role in regulating emotion within the context of close relationships, and attachment theory is currently used to inform evidence-based practice in the areas of adolescent health and social care. This study investigated the association between female adolescents' interview-based attachment behaviors and two markers of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Unlike the classic stress hormone cortisol, there is very limited investigation of DHEA-a quintessential developmental hormone-in relation to attachment, especially in adolescents. Fifty-five healthy females mean age 14.36 (±2.41) years participated in the attachment style interview. A smaller cortisol awakening response was related to anxious attachment attitudes, including more fear of rejection, whereas greater morning basal DHEA secretion was only predicted by lower levels of reported confiding in one's mother. These attachment-hormone relationships may be developmental markers in females, as they were independent of menarche status. These findings highlight that the normative shifts occurring in attachment to caregivers around adolescence are reflected in adolescents' biological stress regulation. We discuss how studying these shifts can be informed by evolutionary-developmental theory.

Neurosteroid, GABAergic and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis regulation: what is the current state of knowledge in humans?

RATIONALE

A robust epidemiological literature suggests an association between chronic stress and the development of affective disorders. However, the precise biological underpinnings of this relationship remain elusive. Central to the human response and adaptation to stress, activation and inhibition of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis involves a multi-level, multi-system, neurobiological stress response which is as comprehensive in its complexity as it is precarious. Dysregulation in this complex system has implications for human stress related illness.

OBJECTIVES

The pioneering research of Robert Purdy and colleagues has laid the groundwork for advancing our understanding of HPA axis regulation by stress-derived steroid hormones and their neuroactive metabolites (termed neurosteroids), which are potent allosteric modulators of GABAA receptor function in the central nervous system. This review will describe what is known about neurosteroid modulation of the HPA axis in response to both acute and chronic stress, particularly with respect to the current state of our knowledge of this process in humans.

RESULTS

Implications of this research to the development of human stress-related illness are discussed in the context of two human stress-related psychiatric disorders - major depressive disorder and premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

Neurosteroid-mediated HPA axis dysregulation is a potential pathophysiologic mechanism which may cross traditional psychiatric diagnostic classifications. Future research directions are identified.

Hypotensive effect of retabolil correcting the concentration of aldosterone during stress exposures

Male rats were exposed to single or repeated (19 days) cold treatment (4°C) and non-cold stress (60-min shaking on a laboratory shuttle device). Retabolil had a hypotensive effect, which was accompanied by the prevention of a stress-induced increase in the concentration of a hypertensive hormone aldosterone. Under conditions of repeated stress, these effects were realized via μ-opioid receptors. Our results suggest that retabolil can be used as a hypotensive and aldosterone-blocking agent, at least during stress exposure in animals (and probably in humans).

Age and isolation influence steroids release and chemical signaling in male mice

Social interactions in mice involve olfactory signals, which convey information about the emitter. In turn, the mouse social and physiological status may modify the release of chemical cues. In this study, the influences of age and social isolation on the endocrine response and the release of chemical signals were investigated in male CD1 mice, allocated into four groups: Young Isolated (from weaning till 60days; N=6), Adult Isolated (till 180days; N=6), Young Grouped (6 mice/cage; till 60days; N=18), Adult Grouped (6 mice/cage; till 180days; N=18). Mice were transferred in a clean cage to observe the micturition pattern and then sacrificed. Body and organs weights, serum testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, corticosterone and the ratio Major Urinary Protein/creatinine were measured. Urinary volatile molecules potentially involved in pheromonal communication were identified. Androgen secretion was greater in isolated mice (P<0.05), suggesting a greater reactivity of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal axis. Grouped mice presented a higher degree of adrenal activity, and young mice showed a higher serum corticosterone (P<0.05) suggesting a greater stimulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis. The micturition pattern typical of dominant male, consisting in voiding numerous droplets, was observed in Young Isolated mice only, which showed a higher protein/creatinine ratio (P<0.05). Urinary 2-s-butyl-thiazoline was higher in both Young and Adult Isolated mice (P<0.005). Young Isolated mice showed the most prominent difference in both micturition pattern and potentially active substance emission, while long term isolation resulted in a less extreme phenotype; therefore social isolation had a higher impact on young mice hormone and pheromone release.

Testosterone increases circulating dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in the male rhesus macaque

The adrenal steroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate (DHEAS) are two of the most abundant hormones in the human circulation. Furthermore, they are released in a circadian pattern and show a marked age-associated decline. Adult levels of DHEA and DHEAS are significantly higher in males than in females, but the reason for this sexual dimorphism is unclear. In the present study, we administered supplementary androgens [DHEA, testosterone and 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)] to aged male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). While this paradigm increased circulating DHEAS immediately after DHEA administration, an increase was also observed following either testosterone or DHT administration, resulting in hormonal profiles resembling levels observed in young males in terms of both amplitude and circadian pattern. This stimulatory effect was limited to DHEAS, as an increase in circulating cortisol was not observed. Taken together, these data demonstrate an influence of the hypothalamo-pituitary-testicular axis on adrenal function in males, possibly by sensitizing the zona reticularis to the stimulating action of adrenocorticopic hormone. This represents a plausible mechanism to explain sex differences in circulating DHEA and DHEAS levels, and may have important implications in the development of hormone therapies designed for elderly men and women.

Association of serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and cognition in older adults: sex steroid, inflammatory, and metabolic mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels and cognitive function decline with age, and a role for DHEAS in supporting cognition has been proposed. Higher DHEAS levels may be associated with better cognitive performance, although potential mechanisms for this relationship are not well established.

METHOD

We performed a cross-sectional study of the relationship between serum DHEAS and three aspects of cognition--executive function, working memory, and processing speed--in 49 men and 54 women, aged 60-88 years, with low serum DHEAS levels. We examined three potential mechanisms of DHEAS action--sex hormone sufficiency, inflammatory status, and glucose regulation.

RESULTS

After adjustment for multiple covariates, higher serum DHEAS levels were associated with better working memory (standardized beta coefficient 0.50, p < .05), with a trend toward better executive function (standardized beta coefficient 0.37, p < .10) in men only. There was a nonsignificant trend toward a negative association between levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and working memory in the combined population (standardized beta coefficient -0.22, p < .10). None of the glucoregulatory measures was associated with cognitive function.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between DHEAS and cognition is complex and differs by sex and cognitive domain. This study supports the need for further investigations of the sex-specific effects of DHEAS on cognition and its underlying mechanisms of action.

Causes and consequences of age-related steroid hormone changes: insights gained from nonhuman primates

Similar to humans, rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are large, long-lived diurnal primates, and show similar age-related changes in the secretion of many steroid hormones, including oestradiol, testosterone, cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Consequently, they represent a pragmatic animal model in which to examine the mechanisms by which these steroidal changes contribute to perturbed sleep-wake cycles and cognitive decline in the elderly. Using remote serial blood sampling, we have found the circulating levels of DHEA sulphate, as well as oestradiol and testosterone, decline markedly in old monkeys. Furthermore, using the real-time polymerase chain reaction, we have shown that the genes for the enzymes associated with the conversion of DHEA to oestradiol and testosterone (3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and aromatase) are highly expressed in brain areas associated with cognition and behaviour, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Taken together, these findings suggest that the administration of supplementary DHEA in the elderly may have therapeutic potential for cognitive and behavioural disorders, although with fewer negative side effects outside of the central nervous system. To test this, we have developed a novel steroid supplementation paradigm for use in old animals; this involves the oral administration of DHEA and testosterone at physiologically relevant times of the day to mimic the circadian hormone patterns observed in young adults. We are currently evaluating the efficacy of this steroid supplementation paradigm with respect to reversing age-associated disorders, including perturbed sleep-wake cycles and cognitive decline, as well as an impaired immune response.

The influence of age and season on fecal dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS) concentrations in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate, DHEAS, are the most abundant steroid hormones in primates, providing a large reservoir of precursors for the production of androgens. DHEAS levels decline with age in adult humans and nonhuman primates, prompting its consideration as a biomarker of senescence. However, the mechanisms responsible for this age-related decrease and its relationship to reproduction remain elusive. This research investigated DHEAS concentrations in fecal samples in order to determine age-related changes in captive Japanese macaques, as well as to assess the possible influence of seasonality. The subjects were 25 female Japanese macaques (2weeks to 14years-old) housed outdoors in social groups at the Primate Research Institute. We collected three fecal samples from each animal during the breeding season (October to December) and three additional samples from adult females during the non-breeding season (May to June). The hormonal concentrations were determined using enzyme immunoassay. DHEAS concentration was negatively correlated with age, but we did not find a significant difference between breeding and non-breeding seasons. Neonatal macaques had the highest DHEAS concentrations of all age groups. We suggest that elevated neonatal DHEAS is possibly a residue from fetal adrenal secretion and that, as in humans, it might assist in neurobiological development.

Psychopathy's influence on the coupling between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and -gonadal axes among incarcerated adolescents

Conduct disorder (CD) is a heterogeneous diagnosis, leading researchers to initiate studies focused on neurobiological mechanisms underlying this disorder. One specifier of CD currently considered for inclusion in the DSM-V is callous-unemotional (CU) traits, a key component of psychopathy. CU traits are thought to have neuroendocrine underpinnings, yet little is known about hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and -gonadal (HPG) hormones in the context of psychopathic traits. The current study sought to identify daily coupling patterns between HPA and HPG hormones in order to clarify distinct neurobiological underpinning associated with psychopathic/CU traits. Fifty incarcerated adolescent males who met criteria for CD were recruited and provided 10 saliva samples across 2 days. Participants completed the Psychopathy Checklist Youth Version (PCL:YV) and Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits (ICU) on a third day. Diurnal cortisol, testosterone, and DHEA functioning was modeled via hierarchical linear modeling. Psychopathy subscales from the measures administered were used as predictors of daily coupling patterns between these hormones. Results indicated all three hormones were tightly coupled. Further, higher PCL-YV interpersonal scores related to greater coupling between all three hormones, whereas higher ICU callousness scores related to greater uncoupling of testosterone with cortisol and DHEA. The current study is novel in its emphasis on testing the coupling of HPA and HPG hormones among incarcerated adolescent males. Results suggest that affective and interpersonal psychopathic traits are marked by unique HPA- and HPG coupling.

Threat perception and familiarity moderate the androgen response to competition in women

Social interactions elicit androgen responses whose function has been posited to be the adjustment of androgen-dependent behaviors to social context. The activation of this androgen response is known to be mediated and moderated by psychological factors. In this study we tested the hypothesis that the testosterone (T) changes after a competition are not simply related to its outcome, but rather to the way the subject evaluates the event. In particular we tested two evaluative dimensions of a social interaction: familiarity with the opponent and the subjective evaluation of the outcome as threat or challenge. Challenge/threat occurs in goal relevant situations and represent different motivational states arising from the individuals' subjective evaluation of the interplay between the task demands and coping resources possessed. For challenge the coping resources exceed the task demands, while threat represents a state where coping resources are insufficient to meet the task demands. In this experiment women competed in pairs, against a same sex opponent using the number tracking test as a competitive task. Losers appraised the competition outcome as more threatening than winners, and displayed higher post-competition T levels than winners. No differences were found either for cortisol (C) or for dehydroepiandrosterone. Threat, familiarity with the opponent and T response were associated only in the loser condition. Moderation analysis suggests that for the women that lost the competition the effect of threat on T is moderated by familiarity with the opponent.

Prognostic value of dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate and other parameters of adrenal function in acute ischemic stroke

Background and Purpose

Acute stroke has a high morbidity and mortality. We evaluated the predictive value of adrenal function testing in acute ischemic stroke.

Methods

In a cohort of 231 acute ischemic stroke patients, we measured dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA-Sulfate (DHEAS), cortisol at baseline and 30 minutes after stimulation with 1 ug ACTH. Delta cortisol, the amount of rise in the 1 ug ACTH-test, was calculated. Primary endpoint was poor functional outcome defined as modified Rankin scale 3–6 after 1 year. Secondary endpoint was nonsurvival after 1 year.

Results

Logistic regression analysis showed that DHEAS (OR 1.21, 95% CI 1.01–1.49), but not DHEA (OR 1.01, 95% CI 0.99–1.04), was predictive for adverse functional outcome. Neither DHEA (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.96–1.03) nor DHEAS (OR 1.10, 95% CI 0.82–1.44) were associated with mortality. Baseline and stimulated cortisol were predictive for mortality (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.20–1.71; 1.35, 95% CI 1.15–1.60), but only basal cortisol for functional outcome (OR 1.20, 95% CI 1.04–1.38). Delta cortisol was not predictive for functional outcome (OR 0.86, 95% CI 0.71–1.05) or mortality (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.72–1.17). The ratios cortisol/DHEA and cortisol/DHEAS discriminated between favorable outcome and nonsurvival (both p<0.0001) and between unfavorable outcome and nonsurvival (p = 0.0071 and 0.0029), but are not independent predictors for functional outcome or mortality in multivariate analysis (adjusted OR for functional outcome for both 1.0 (95% CI 0.99–1.0), adjusted OR for mortality for both 1.0 (95% CI 0.99–1.0 and 1.0–1.01, respectively)).

Conclusion

DHEAS and the cortisol/DHEAS ratio predicts functional outcome 1 year after stroke whereas cortisol levels predict functional outcome and mortality.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00390962 (Retrospective analysis of this cohort).

Year-round territorial aggression is independent of plasma DHEA in the European nuthatch Sitta europaea

Plasma testosterone can play an important role in promoting aggressive behaviors relating to territory defense in breeding male birds. Some birds defend territories also during the non-breeding phase, when testosterone circulates at basal levels. In such species, plasma levels of the pro-hormone dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) may support non-breeding territoriality by acting as a local substrate for sex steroids. To test this possible role of plasma DHEA, we examined the seasonal DHEA profile of male (and female) European nuthatches Sitta europaea: a male and female nuthatch pair will defend an all-purpose territory throughout the year. We hypothesized that plasma DHEA would be detectable in wintering nuthatches with a territory. However, only ca. half of the territorial wintering males (and females) displayed detectable DHEA levels, suggesting that plasma DHEA is not a major sex steroid precursor during non-breeding. Further, among hatching-year birds, plasma DHEA was significantly lower in territorial birds than in "floaters", i.e., subordinate birds without a territory. To experimentally examine the role of DHEA in non-breeding territoriality, we treated adult wintering males with DHEA and measured effects on aggressive responses to conspecific challenge. DHEA treatment elevated plasma levels of DHEA (and testosterone), but did not enhance territorial behaviors or their persistence. Taken together, our data suggest that DHEA (and, indeed, sex steroids per se) do not regulate non-breeding territoriality in the nuthatch. Given that territorial aggression in nuthatches is expressed year-round, a hormone for its activation may be redundant.

Hormones in the treatment of depression

Several treatment strategies have been proposed for the management of depression in women. The occurrence of depression among females is often associated with periods of intense hormonal fluctuations, as observed in cases of premenstrual dysphoria, perinatal depression and with the development of depressive symptoms during the perimenopause. Various hormones including estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone and thyroid hormones may exert modulatory effects on neurotransmitter pathways in the CNS. It has been postulated that abrupt changes in these hormones may negatively affect mood; conversely, hormonal interventions could potentially improve such symptoms. This article reviews the current literature on the impact of hormonal treatments for mood symptoms in women and preventative strategies for depression in women during the reproductive lifecycle.

The effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields and dehydroepiandrosterone on viability and osteo-induction of human mesenchymal stem cells

The hypothesis of this work was that human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are regulated by pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) and by intracrine conversion of an adrenal prohormone to dihydrotestosterone. The effect of PEMF and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on viability and osteogenic differentiation of human MSCs and on the viability of osteoblastic SaOS-2 cells was evaluated. It was found that PEMF promoted the viability rate of both cell types, whereas DHEA decreased the viability rate in a concentration-dependent manner. PEMF did not have major effects on osteo-induction at this low seeding density level (3000 cells/cm(2) ). Instead, DHEA, after MSC-mediated and 5α-reductase-dependent conversion to dihydrotestosterone, clearly promoted the osteo-induction of MSCs induced with β-glyserophosphate, ascorbate and dexamethasone. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), SMAD1, RUNX2, osteopontin (OP) and osteocalcin (OC) RNA levels were increased and alizarin red S- and hydroxyapatite-specific OsteoImage(TM) stainings disclosed a promoted mineralization process. In addition, DHEA increased OP and OC mRNA levels of non-induced MSCs. A sequential use of mitogenic PEMF early during the fracture healing, followed by later administration of DHEA with osteogenic differentiating effect, might be worth subjecting to a randomized clinical trial.

Age-related changes in neuroendocrine rhythmic function in the rhesus macaque

Many environmental conditions show rhythmic changes across the 24-h day; these include changes in light intensity, ambient temperature, food availability, and presence or absence of predators. Consequently, many organisms have developed corresponding adaptations, which ensure that specific physiological and behavioral events occur at an appropriate time of the day. In mammals, the underlying mechanism responsible for synchronizing internal biochemical processes with circadian environmental cues has been well studied and is thought to comprise three major components: (1) photoreception by the retina and transmission of neural signals along the retinohypothalamic tract, (2) integration of photoperiodic information with an internal reference circadian pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and (3) dissemination of circadian information to target organs, via the autonomic nervous system and through humoral pathways. Given the importance that neuroendocrine rhythms play in coordinating normal circadian physiology and behavior, it is plausible that their perturbation during aging contributes to the etiology of age-related pathologies. This mini-review highlights some of the most dramatic rhythmic neuroendocrine changes that occur in primates during aging, focusing primarily on data from the male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). In addition to the age-associated attenuation of hormone levels and reduction of humoral circadian signaling, there are also significant age-related changes in intracrine processing enzymes and hormone receptors which may further affect the functional efficacy of these hormones. Rhesus macaques, like humans, are large diurnal primates and show many of the same physiological and behavioral circadian changes during aging. Consequently, they represent an ideal translational animal model in which to study the causes and consequences of age-associated internal circadian disruption and in which to evaluate novel therapies.