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Kim W, Cho YA, Min KH, Kim DC, Lee KE. Machine Learning Approaches for Assessing Risk Factors of Adrenal Insufficiency in Patients Undergoing Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1097. [PMID: 37631013 PMCID: PMC10457804 DOI: 10.3390/ph16081097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Adrenal insufficiency is a rare, yet life-threatening immune-related adverse event of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). This study aimed to establish a risk scoring system for adrenal insufficiency in patients receiving anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) or anti-programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) agents. Moreover, several machine learning methods were utilized to predict such complications. This study included 209 ICI-treated patients from July 2015 to February 2021, excluding those with prior adrenal insufficiency, previous steroid therapy, or incomplete data to ensure data integrity. Patients were continuously followed up at Gyeongsang National University Hospital, with morning blood samples taken for basal cortisol level measurements, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of their adrenal insufficiency risk. Using a chi-squared test and logistic regression model, we derived the odds ratio and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) through univariate and multivariable analyses. This study utilized machine learning algorithms, such as decision trees, random forests, support vector machines (SVM), and logistic regression to predict adrenal insufficiency in patients treated with ICIs. The performance of each algorithm was evaluated using metrics like accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC), ensuring rigorous assessment and reproducibility. A risk scoring system was developed from the multivariable and machine learning analyses. In a multivariable analysis, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) (AOR 4.5), and α-blockers (AOR 6.0) were significant risk factors for adrenal insufficiency after adjusting for confounders. Among the machine learning models, logistic regression and elastic net showed good predictions, with AUROC values of 0.75 (0.61-0.90) and 0.76 (0.64-0.89), respectively. Based on multivariable and machine learning analyses, females (1 point), age ≥ 65 (1 point), PPIs (1 point), α-blockers (2 points), and antipsychotics (3 points) were integrated into the risk scoring system. From the logistic regression curve, patients with 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 points showed approximately 1.1%, 2.8%, 7.3%, 17.6%, 36.8%, 61.3%, and 81.2% risk for adrenal insufficiency, respectively. The application of our scoring system could prove beneficial in patient assessment and clinical decision-making while administering PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woorim Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ah Cho
- College of Pharmacy, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea
- The Prime Hospital, 305 Nabulo, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Hyun Min
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Chul Kim
- Department of Pathology, Gyeongsang National University Hospital, Jinju 52727, Republic of Korea
- School of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Eun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
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Bromek E, Danek PJ, Wójcikowski J, Basińska-Ziobroń A, Pukło R, Solich J, Dziedzicka-Wasylewska M, Daniel WA. The impact of noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 and noradrenaline transporter knockout (NET-KO) on the activity of liver cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) in male and female mice. Pharmacol Rep 2022; 74:1107-1114. [PMID: 36018449 PMCID: PMC9584982 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-022-00406-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Background Our earlier studies have shown that the brain noradrenergic system regulates cytochrome P450 (CYP) in rat liver via neuroendocrine mechanism. In the present work, a comparative study on the effect of intraperitoneal administration of the noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 and the knockout of noradrenaline transporter (NET-KO) on the CYP3A in the liver of male and female mice was performed.
Methods The experiments were conducted on C57BL/6J WT and NET–/– male/female mice. DSP-4 was injected intraperitoneally as a single dose (50 mg/kg ip.) to WT mice. The activity of CYP3A was measured as the rate of 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone in liver microsomes. The CYP3A protein level was estimated by Western blotting. Results DSP-4 evoked a selective decrease in the noradrenaline level in the brain of male and female mice. At the same time, DSP-4 reduced the CYP3A activity in males, but not in females. The level of CYP3A protein was not changed. The NET knockout did not affect the CYP3A activity/protein in both sexes. Conclusions The results with DSP-4 treated mice showed sex-dependent differences in the regulation of liver CYP3A by the brain noradrenergic system (with only males being responsive), and revealed that the NET knockout did not affect CYP3A in both sexes. Further studies into the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal hormones in DSP-4 treated mice may explain sex-specific differences in CYP3A regulation, whereas investigation of monoaminergic receptor sensitivity in the hypothalamic/pituitary areas of NET–/– mice will allow for understanding a lack of changes in the CYP3A activity in the NET-KO animals. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43440-022-00406-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Bromek
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Przemysław Jan Danek
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jacek Wójcikowski
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Basińska-Ziobroń
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Renata Pukło
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Solich
- Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marta Dziedzicka-Wasylewska
- Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Władysława Anna Daniel
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
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Duval F, Mokrani MC, Erb A, Danila V, Gonzalez Lopera F, Jeanjean L. Dopaminergic, Noradrenergic, Adrenal, and Thyroid Abnormalities in Psychotic and Affective Disorders. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:533872. [PMID: 33101075 PMCID: PMC7546351 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.533872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to assess hypothalamic-pituitary dopaminergic (DA), noradrenergic (NA), thyroid (HPT), and adrenal (HPA) activity in schizophrenia, in schizoaffective disorder, and in bipolar disorder. METHOD We investigated a combined approach of hormone responses to (1) apomorphine (APO), a short-acting DA receptor agonist which decreases prolactin secretion (PRL), and stimulates secretion of growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), and cortisol; (2) clonidine (CLO), an alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist which stimulates GH secretion; (3) 8 AM and 11 PM protirelin (TRH) which stimulates thyrotropin (TSH) secretion; and (4) dexamethasone which suppresses cortisol secretion, in 13 hospitalized healthy male controls and 39 untreated male inpatients: 13 with DSM-IV paranoid schizophrenia, 13 with DSM-IV schizoaffective disorder (bipolar subtype, depressed at the time of the study), and 13 with DSM-IV bipolar disorder (depressed). RESULTS Compared to controls, paranoid schizophrenic patients showed (1) lower APO-induced ACTH and cortisol stimulation, and (2) higher post-dexamethasone cortisol values. Compared to controls, schizoaffective and bipolar patients showed (1) lower ΔΔTSH values (i.e., difference between 11 PM and 8 AM TRH-TSH responses), (2) lower APO-induced PRL suppression, (3) lower CLO-induced GH stimulation, and (4) higher post-dexamethasone cortisol values. CONCLUSIONS Although results must be interpreted with caution because of the small sample, this preliminary study suggests that depressed bipolar and schizoaffective patients share common biological dysregulations, distinct from that of paranoid schizophrenic patients. From a pathophysiological viewpoint, paranoid schizophrenic patients can be characterized by hyposensitivity of the hypothalamic DA receptors (possibly resulting from an increase in presynaptic DA release) associated with increased HPA axis activity, while depressed bipolar and schizoaffective patients can be characterized by hyposensitivity of the pituitary TRH and DA-D2 receptors (possibly linked to the activation of the hypothalamic TRH and tuberoinfundibular DA neurons, respectively), together with subsensitive postsynaptic α2-adrenoreceptors at the hypothalamic level (possibly secondary to an erratic release of NA) and increased HPA axis activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Duval
- Pôle 8/9-APF2R, Centre Hospitalier, Rouffach, France
| | | | - Alexis Erb
- Pôle 8/9-APF2R, Centre Hospitalier, Rouffach, France
| | - Vlad Danila
- Pôle 8/9-APF2R, Centre Hospitalier, Rouffach, France
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Peeters B, Güiza F, Boonen E, Meersseman P, Langouche L, Van den Berghe G. Drug-induced HPA axis alterations during acute critical illness: a multivariable association study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2017; 86:26-36. [PMID: 27422812 DOI: 10.1111/cen.13155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Critical illness is hallmarked by low plasma ACTH in the face of high plasma cortisol. We hypothesized that frequently used drugs could play a role by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. DESIGN Observational association study. PATIENTS A total of 156 medical-surgical critically ill patients. MEASUREMENTS Plasma concentrations of ACTH and total/free cortisol were quantified upon ICU admission and throughout the first 3 ICU days. The independent associations between drugs administered 24 h prior to ICU admission and plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations upon ICU admission were quantified with use of multivariable linear regression analyses. RESULTS Upon ICU admission, compared with healthy subjects, patients had low mean±SEM plasma ACTH concentrations (2·7 ± 0·6 pmol/l vs 9·0 ± 1·6 pmol/l, P < 0·0001) in the face of unaltered total plasma cortisol (336·7 ± 30·4 nmol/l vs 300·8 ± 16·6 nmol/l, P = 0·3) and elevated free plasma cortisol concentrations (41·4 ± 5·5 nmol/l vs 5·5 ± 0·8 nmol/l, P = 0·04). Plasma ACTH concentrations remained low (P < 0·001) until day 3, whereas plasma (free) cortisol concentrations steeply increased and remained high (P < 0·001). No independent correlations with plasma ACTH were found. In contrast, the total admission plasma cortisol concentration was independently and negatively associated with the cumulative opioid (P = 0·001) and propofol (P = 0·02) dose, the use of etomidate (P = 0·03), and positively with the cumulative dobutamine dose (P = 0·0007). CONCLUSIONS Besides the known suppressive effect of etomidate, opioids and propofol may also suppress and dobutamine increases plasma cortisol in a dose-dependent manner. The observed independent associations suggest drug effects not mediated centrally via ACTH, but rather peripherally by a direct or indirect action on the adrenal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram Peeters
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Fabian Güiza
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Eva Boonen
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Philippe Meersseman
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Medical Intensive Care Unit, Department of General Internal Medicine, UZ Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lies Langouche
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Greet Van den Berghe
- Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Loonen AJM, Ivanova SA. Circuits Regulating Pleasure and Happiness-Mechanisms of Depression. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:571. [PMID: 27891086 PMCID: PMC5102894 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
According to our model of the regulation of appetitive-searching vs. distress-avoiding behaviors, the motivation to display these essential conducts is regulated by two parallel cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical, re-entry circuits, including the core and the shell parts of the nucleus accumbens, respectively. An entire series of basal ganglia, running from the caudate nucleus on one side, to the centromedial amygdala on the other side, controls the intensity of these reward-seeking and misery-fleeing behaviors by stimulating the activity of the (pre)frontal and limbic cortices. Hyperactive motivation to display behavior that potentially results in reward induces feelings of hankering (relief leads to pleasure). Hyperactive motivation to exhibit behavior related to avoidance of misery results in dysphoria (relief leads to happiness). These two systems collaborate in a reciprocal fashion. In clinical depression, a mismatch exists between the activities of these two circuits: the balance is shifted to the misery-avoiding side. Five theories have been developed to explain the mechanism of depressive mood disorders, including the monoamine, biorhythm, neuro-endocrine, neuro-immune, and kindling/neuroplasticity theories. This paper describes these theories in relationship to the model (described above) of the regulation of reward-seeking vs. misery-avoiding behaviors. Chronic stress that leads to structural changes may induce the mismatch between the two systems. This mismatch leads to lack of pleasure, low energy, and indecisiveness, on one hand, and dysphoria, continuous worrying, and negative expectations on the other hand. The neuroplastic effects of monoamines, cortisol, and cytokines may mediate the induction of these structural alterations. Long-term exposure to stressful situations (particularly experienced during childhood) may lead to increased susceptibility for developing this condition. This hypothesis opens up the possibility of treating depression with psychotherapy. Genetic and other biological factors (toxic, infectious, or traumatic) may increase sensitivity to the induction of relevant neuroplastic changes. Reversal or compensation of these neuroplastic adjustments may explain the effects of biological therapies in treating depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton J. M. Loonen
- Department of Pharmacy, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
- GGZ WNB, Mental Health HospitalBergen op Zoom, Netherlands
| | - Svetlana A. Ivanova
- Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center of the Russian Academy of SciencesTomsk, Russia
- National Research Tomsk Polytechnic UniversityTomsk, Russia
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Kot M, Sadakierska-Chudy A, Haduch A, Rysz M, Bromek E, Gołembiowska K, Daniel WA. The role of the dorsal noradrenergic pathway of the brain (locus coeruleus) in the regulation of liver cytochrome P450 activity. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 751:34-41. [PMID: 25637782 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Our previous study conducted after intracerebroventricular DSP-4 injection showed an important stimulating role of a brain noradrenergic system in the neuroendocrine regulation of liver cytochrome P450 (CYP) expression. The aim of the present research was to study involvement of the dorsal noradrenergic pathway of the brain (originating from the locus coeruleus) in the expression of liver cytochrome P450. The experiment was carried out on male Wistar rats. Local injection of 6-hydroxydopamine to the locus coeruleus selectively decreased noradrenaline level in the brain (e.g. in the hypothalamus). The serum concentration of the growth hormone rose, while that of the thyroid hormones or corticosterone remained unchanged. A comparative study into cytochrome P450 isoform activity revealed significant increases in the activity of liver CYP2C11 and CYP3A after administration of 6-hydroxydopamine. The observed increase in the activity of CYP2C11 positively correlated with that in CYP protein level, while the enhanced activity of CYP3A was not accompanied with a simultaneous change in the enzyme protein. A 5-day-injection of noradrenaline into the lateral ventricles produced opposite effects on the CYP isoforms. It is concluded that damage to or activation of the dorsal noradrenergic innervation of the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus containing somatostatin (a growth hormone release-inhibiting factor) may be responsible for the changes observed in the activity of isoforms CYP2C11 and CYP3A that are regulated by the growth hormone. The obtained results indicate that the dorsal noradrenergic pathway plays an inhibitory (but not a crucial) role in the neuroendocrine regulation of cytochrome P450.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kot
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | | | - Anna Haduch
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Marta Rysz
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Ewa Bromek
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Krystyna Gołembiowska
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Wladyslawa A Daniel
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland.
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Bromek E, Wójcikowski J, Daniel WA. Involvement of the paraventricular (PVN) and arcuate (ARC) nuclei of the hypothalamus in the central noradrenergic regulation of liver cytochrome P450. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:1614-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Sadakierska-Chudy A, Haduch A, Rysz M, Gołembiowska K, Daniel WA. The role of brain noradrenergic system in the regulation of liver cytochrome P450 expression. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:800-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Pasquali R. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sex hormones in chronic stress and obesity: pathophysiological and clinical aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1264:20-35. [PMID: 22612409 PMCID: PMC3464358 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06569.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Obesity, particularly the abdominal phenotype, has been ascribed to an individual maladaptation to chronic environmental stress exposure mediated by a dysregulation of related neuroendocrine axes. Alterations in the control and action of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis play a major role in this context, with the participation of the sympathetic nervous system. The ability to adapt to chronic stress may differ according to sex, with specific pathophysiological events leading to the development of stress-related chronic diseases. This seems to be influenced by the regulatory effects of sex hormones, particularly androgens. Stress may also disrupt the control of feeding, with some differences according to sex. Finally, the amount of experimental data in both animals and humans may help to shed more light on specific phenotypes of obesity, strictly related to the chronic exposure to stress. This challenge may potentially imply a different pathophysiological perspective and, possibly, a specific treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Pasquali
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Clinical Medicine, S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University Alma Mater Studiorum of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
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Goekoop JG, de Winter RFP, Wolterbeek R, Van Kempen GMJ, Wiegant VM. Increased plasma norepinephrine concentration in psychotic depression. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2012; 2:51-63. [PMID: 23983957 PMCID: PMC3736933 DOI: 10.1177/2045125312436574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We previously found psychotic depression (PSDEP) to have positively correlating plasma norepinephrine (NE) and vasopressin (AVP) concentrations. Since central noradrenergic activity and plasma NE concentration are highly correlated, this suggests an increased noradrenergic activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. We hypothesize the increased release of NE in PSDEP to be an associated mechanism. METHODS To test this hypothesis we analyzed the relation between plasma NE and PSDEP in a comparison with non-psychotically depressed patients. Potentially confounding variables were, among others, melancholia and two better validated subcategories in the field of melancholia and endogenous depression, three global dimensions of psychopathology - Emotional Dysregulation, Retardation and Anxiety - smoking habit, and different types of psychotropic and particularly antidepressant treatment. The data from nine patients with PSDEP and 69 patients with non-PSDEP were reanalysed. RESULTS Analysis of covariance controlling for the effects of tricyclic antidepressant treatment (≥100 mg) and smoking habit showed that PSDEP had an increased concentration of plasma NE. The previously found correlation between plasma NE and AVP was still present after correcting for the effects of confounding variables. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest an increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system in PSDEP that may act as a specific mechanism for increased vasopressinergic activation. This supports the view of PSDEP as a distinct subcategory of major depression.
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Cytochrome P450 is regulated by noradrenergic and serotonergic systems. Pharmacol Res 2011; 64:371-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Revised: 06/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Shishkina GT, Berezova IV, Dygalo NN. Decrease in expression of α2a-adrenoreceptors in the brain of neonatal rats modulates exploratory behavior on the stage of its development. BIOL BULL+ 2009. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359009040141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Uebaba K, Xu FH, Ogawa H, Tatsuse T, Wang BH, Hisajima T, Venkatraman S. Psychoneuroimmunologic effects of Ayurvedic oil-dripping treatment. J Altern Complement Med 2009; 14:1189-98. [PMID: 19123874 DOI: 10.1089/acm.2008.0273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study assessed the psychoneuroimmunologic changes achieved by Shirodhara, an Ayurvedic treatment, characterized by dripping oil on the forehead, in a randomized, controlled protocol involving a novel approach using a robotic system. METHODS In the first experiment for the determination of the most appropriate conditions of Shirodhara, 16 healthy females (33 +/- 9 years old) underwent a 30-minute treatment. In the second study, another 16 healthy females (39 +/- 9 years old) were assigned to either the Shirodhara treatment or control supine position for 30 minutes, with monitoring of physiologic, biochemical, immunologic, and psychometric parameters including anxiety and altered states of consciousness (ASC). RESULTS The subjects receiving Shirodhara treatment showed lowered levels of state anxiety and higher levels of ASC than those in the control position. Plasma noradrenaline and urinary serotonin excretion decreased significantly more after Shirodhara treatment than in the control. Plasma levels of thyrotropin-releasing hormone, dopamine, and natural killer (NK) cell activity were different between control and Shirodhara treatment. The correlation between anxiolysis and the depth of ASC was significant in the Shirodhara treatment group (r = 0.52, p < 0.05, N = 16), while in the control no correlation was obtained (r = 0.13, p = 0.64, N = 16). The increase in foot skin temperature after Shirodhara showed a significant correlation with anxiolysis and the depth of Trance of ASC (r = 0.58, p < 0.01, r = 0.43, p < 0.01, respectively). NK cell activity after Shirodhara treatment showed a significant correlation with anxiolysis and the depth of Trance of ASC (r = 0.33, p < 0.05, r = 0.56, p < 0.01, respectively). CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that Shirodhara has anxiolytic and ASC-inducing effects, and it promotes a decrease of noradrenaline and exhibits a sympatholytic effect, resulting in the activation of peripheral foot skin circulation and immunopotentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Uebaba
- Department of Presymptomatic Health Promotion, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan.
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Horstmann S, Dose T, Lucae S, Kloiber S, Menke A, Hennings J, Spieler D, Uhr M, Holsboer F, Ising M. Suppressive effect of mirtazapine on the HPA system in acutely depressed women seems to be transient and not related to antidepressant action. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009; 34:238-248. [PMID: 18926641 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2008] [Revised: 08/18/2008] [Accepted: 09/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Impaired regulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system is a consistent finding among patients with depression, which can be most sensitively detected with the combined dexamethasone (dex)/corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) test. The majority of patients with acute depression shows an exaggerated plasma corticotrophin (ACTH) and cortisol response to this test that normalizes gradually during successful antidepressant therapy. In contrast, persistently high HPA-responses to this challenge are prognostically less favorable. It has been recently questioned, whether this observation applies also to treatment with the atypical antidepressant mirtazapine, as patients treated with this drug showed a distinct attenuation of the endocrine response to the dex/CRH test already after 1 week of treatment. In the present study, we investigated whether the attenuating effect of mirtazapine on the HPA system is an acute pharmacological reaction disappearing after physiological adaptation or whether this effect is related to the antidepressant action of the drug. We examined plasma ACTH and cortisol responses to the dex/CRH test in acutely depressed inpatients treated either with mirtazapine (n=55) or a monoamine reuptake inhibitor (n=105) according to doctor's choice and compared the test results with healthy controls (n=40). Patients treated with monoamine reuptake inhibitors received either selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) or the combined serotonin and noradrenalin reuptake inhibitor venlafaxine. We found increased plasma ACTH and cortisol responses to the dex/CRH test in depressed patients compared with healthy controls, but also significantly (p=.017) attenuated plasma cortisol secretion in the mirtazapine group compared to the group of monoamine reuptake inhibitor treated patients. This effect was not significant in male patients. Furthermore this effect was independent of the psychopathological state, but depended on treatment duration. Patient treatment with mirtazapine for up to 7 days resulted in dex/CRH test outcome that was indistinguishable from controls. This effect, however waned as it was not observable in patients treated for a longer period. These results suggest that short-term administration of mirtazapine has immediate but only transient suppressive effects on the HPA system predominantly in women. Our results confirm that dex/CRH tests can be used as predictors of clinical course also under mirtazapine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Horstmann
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany.
| | - Tatjana Dose
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Susanne Lucae
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Kloiber
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Menke
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Hennings
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Derek Spieler
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Manfred Uhr
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Holsboer
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Marcus Ising
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany
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Ma S, Mifflin SW, Cunningham JT, Morilak DA. Chronic intermittent hypoxia sensitizes acute hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress reactivity and Fos induction in the rat locus coeruleus in response to subsequent immobilization stress. Neuroscience 2008; 154:1639-47. [PMID: 18554809 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Revised: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 04/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is associated with several pathophysiological conditions, including hypertension, obesity, insulin resistance, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) dysregulation, and other endocrine and metabolic disturbances comprising the "metabolic syndrome." Repeated episodes of hypoxia in OSA may represent a chronic intermittent stress, leading to HPA dysregulation. Alterations in HPA reactivity could then contribute to or exacerbate other pathophysiological processes. We showed previously that another metabolic stressor, chronic intermittent cold stress, enhanced noradrenergic facilitation of acute HPA stress reactivity. In this study, we investigated whether chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), a rat model for the arterial hypoxemia that accompanies OSA, similarly sensitizes the HPA response to novel acute stress. Rats were exposed to CIH (alternating cycles of normoxia [3 min at 21% O(2)] and hypoxia [3 min at 10% O(2)], repeated continuously for 8 h/day during the light portion of the cycle for 7 days). On the day after the final CIH exposure, there were no differences in baseline plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), but the peak ACTH response to 30 min acute immobilization stress was greater in CIH-stressed rats than in controls. Induction of Fos expression by acute immobilization stress was comparable following CIH in several HPA-modulatory brain regions, including the paraventricular nucleus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and amygdala. Fos induction was attenuated in lateral hypothalamus, an HPA-inhibitory region. By contrast, acute Fos induction was enhanced in noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus following CIH exposure. Thus, similar to chronic cold stress, CIH sensitized acute HPA and noradrenergic stress reactivity. Plasticity in the acute stress response is important for long-term adaptation, but may also contribute to pathophysiological conditions associated with states of chronic or repeated stress, such as OSA. Determining the neural mechanisms underlying these adaptations may help us better understand the etiology of such disorders, and inform the development of more effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ma
- Department of Pharmacology and Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, MC 7764, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA
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16
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Janssens K, Krylyshkina O, Hersmus N, Vankelecom H, Denef C. Beta1-adrenoceptor expression in rat anterior pituitary gonadotrophs and in mouse alphaT3-1 and LbetaT2 gonadotrophic cell lines. Endocrinology 2008; 149:2313-24. [PMID: 18202120 DOI: 10.1210/en.2007-1396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The rat anterior pituitary expresses beta(2)-adrenoceptors (ARs) on somatotrophs, lactotrophs, and corticotrophs. The present study investigates whether beta(1)-ARs exist in the anterior pituitary, in which cell type(s) they are found, and whether they are regulated by glucocorticoids. As determined by quantitative RT-PCR and Western immunoblotting, the rat anterior pituitary expressed beta(1)-AR mRNA and protein. Unlike the beta(2)-AR, expression decreased to very low levels after 5-d aggregate cell culture but was strongly up-regulated in a dose- and time-dependent manner by dexamethasone (DEX). Glucocorticoids attenuated isoproterenol-induced down-regulation of beta(1)-AR mRNA levels. As examined by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, beta(1)-AR immunoreactivity was detected in a subpopulation of gonadotrophs, but not in somatotrophs, lactotrophs, corticotrophs, thyrotrophs, or folliculo-stellate cells. beta(1)-AR-immunoreactivity cells were often surrounded by cup-shaped lactotrophs. Consistent with these findings, beta(1)-AR mRNA was considerably more abundant in the gonadotrophic alphaT3-1 and LbetaT2 cell lines than in the GHFT, GH3, and TtT/GF cell lines. DEX did not affect expression level in the cell lines. DEX also failed to up-regulate beta(1)-AR mRNA levels in aggregates from a subpopulation enriched in large gonadotrophs obtained by gradient sedimentation. In contrast, excessive DEX-dependent up-regulation of beta(1)-AR mRNA was found in a subpopulation enriched in small nonhormonal cells. The present data indicate that beta(1)-AR is expressed in a subpopulation of gonadotrophs with a topographical relationship to lactotrophs. However, the glucocorticoid-induced up-regulation does not seem to occur directly in the gonadotrophs but within (an)other unidentified cell type(s), or is transduced by that cell type on gonadotrophs.
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MESH Headings
- Adrenergic beta-1 Receptor Agonists
- Adrenergic beta-2 Receptor Agonists
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Dexamethasone/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Glucocorticoids/pharmacology
- Glycoprotein Hormones, alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Gonadotrophs/drug effects
- Gonadotrophs/metabolism
- Isoproterenol/pharmacology
- Luteinizing Hormone, beta Subunit/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Pituitary Gland, Anterior/drug effects
- Pituitary Gland, Anterior/metabolism
- Pituitary Gland, Intermediate/drug effects
- Pituitary Gland, Intermediate/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptors, Adrenergic, beta-1/genetics
- Receptors, Adrenergic, beta-1/metabolism
- Receptors, Adrenergic, beta-2/genetics
- Receptors, Adrenergic, beta-2/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristel Janssens
- Laboratory of Cell Pharmacology, University of Leuven, Medical School, Gasthuisberg, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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17
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Dunn AJ, Swiergiel AH. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor and noradrenaline in stress-related responses, and the inter-relationships between the two systems. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 583:186-93. [PMID: 18281033 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2007] [Revised: 11/19/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Substantial evidence indicates that brain neurons containing and secreting noradrenaline and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) are activated during stress, and that physiological and behavioural responses observed during stress can be induced by exogenous administration of CRF and adrenoceptor agonists. This review focusses on the evidence for the involvement of these two factors in stress-related responses, and the inter-relationships between them. The possible abnormalities of these two systems in depressive illness are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J Dunn
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Neuroscience, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA.
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18
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Abstract
Noradrenaline or serotonin (5-HT) reuptake-inhibiting antidepressants such as reboxetine or citalopram acutely stimulate cortisol and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) secretion in healthy volunteers, whereas mirtazapine acutely inhibits the ACTH and cortisol release, probably due to its antagonism at central 5-HT(2) and/or H(1) receptors. These differential effects of antidepressants on cortisol and ACTH secretion in healthy subjects after single administration are also reflected by their different time course in the down-regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis hyperactivity in depressed patients as assessed by serial dexamethasone (DEX)/corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) tests: Reuptake-inhibiting antidepressants such as reboxetine gradually normalise HPA axis hyperactivity in depressed patients during several weeks of treatment via up-regulation of mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor function and by step-by-step restoration of the disturbed feedback control. By contrast, mirtazapine markedly reduces HPA axis activity in depressed patients within 1 week, but there is a partial re-enhancement of HPA hormone secretion after several weeks of therapy. In all studies performed to date, the short-term effects of daily treatment with antidepressants on the DEX/CRH test results are comparable in responders and nonresponders. Moreover, a reduction in HPA axis activity is not necessarily followed by a favourable clinical response and some depressed patients keep on showing nonsuppression in the DEX/CRH test despite clinical improvement. Therefore, the importance of HPA axis dysregulation for the short-term efficacy of antidepressants continues to be a matter of debate. However, there are convincing data suggesting that persisting nonsuppression in the DEX/CRH test despite clinical remission predicts an enhanced risk for relapse of depressive symptomatology with respect to the medium- and long-term outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Schüle
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
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19
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Pasquali R, Vicennati V, Cacciari M, Pagotto U. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity in Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1083:111-28. [PMID: 17148736 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1367.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A hypothetical role of glucocorticoids in human obesity has been suggested since the abdominal obesity phenotype and syndromes of endogenous or exogenous hypercortisolism share several clinical, metabolic, and cardiovascular similarities. An emerging body of evidence indicates that both neuroendocrine dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis as well as peripheral alterations of cortisol metabolism may play a role in the pathophysiology of abdominal obesity. Major alterations of the HPA axis in vivo may be identified in different ways. They include evaluation of hormone concentrations: (a) in basal conditions, in blood, urine, or saliva samples; (b) during dynamic studies following stimulation with different neuropeptides or psychological stress challenges, or suppression with inhibiting agents of the HPA axis at different levels; and (c) after mixed meals or meals containing different nutrient compositions. In addition, alteration of peripheral cortisol metabolism can be detected by direct measurement of cortisol metabolites in urine, although this is a matter of more complex investigation. Alterations of the HPA axis in abdominal obesity are associated with insulin resistance, which suggests a direct responsibility of these hormonal alterations in the susceptibility of affected patients to develop both metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. According to available data, no single marker probably has the power to detect subtle alterations of the HPA axis in conditions, such as the abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome. On the contrary, they indicate the need for multiple parameters. At present, evaluation of urinary free cortisol, particularly during the night-time, and salivary-free cortisol appear to be promising for these purposes, whereas dynamic tests should be reserved for specific clinical settings, involving well-characterized patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Pasquali
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Centre for Applied Biomedical Research (C.R.B.A.), S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy.
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20
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Radikova Z, Penesova A, Cizmarova E, Huckova M, Kvetnansky R, Vigas M, Koska J. Decreased pituitary response to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in young lean male patients with essential hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2006; 20:510-6. [PMID: 16617309 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1002026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Essential hypertension is associated with changes in central catecholaminergic pathways which might also be reflected in the pituitary response to stress stimuli. The aim of this study was to determine whether the response of pituitary hormones, cortisol, plasma renin activity, aldosterone and catecholamines to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia is changed in hypertension. We studied 22 young lean male patients with newly diagnosed untreated essential hypertension and 19 healthy normotensive, age- and body mass index (BMI)-matched controls. All subjects underwent an insulin tolerance test (0.1 IU insulin/kg body weight intravenously) with blood sampling before and 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 min after insulin administration. Increased baseline levels of norepinephrine (P<0.05), increased response of norepinephrine (P<0.001) and decreased response of growth hormone (P<0.001), prolactin (P<0.001), adrenocorticotropic hormone (P<0.05) and cortisol (P<0.001) were found in hypertensive patients when compared to normotensive controls. Increased norepinephrine levels and a decreased pituitary response to metabolic stress stimuli may represent another manifestation of chronically increased sympathetic tone in early hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Radikova
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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21
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Wheldon A, Savine RL, Sönksen PH, Holt RIG. Exercising in the cold inhibits growth hormone secretion by reducing the rise in core body temperature. Growth Horm IGF Res 2006; 16:125-131. [PMID: 16644256 DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2006.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2005] [Revised: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 02/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ambient temperature alters exercise induced GH secretion. It is unknown whether temperature affects GH secretion at exercise intensities above the anaerobic threshold when other factors may override the relationship seen at lower intensities. DESIGN Cross-over study of ambient temperature on exercise induced GH in swimmers and rowers. SETTING St Thomas Hospital, London. SUBJECTS Ten healthy men (age 21.7+/-0.8 yrs). Five swimmers and five rowers. INTERVENTION Forty-minute exercise test at 105% of anaerobic threshold at room temperature (RT) and at 4 degrees C. MEASUREMENTS Cutaneous and core body temperature. Serum GH concentration. RESULTS Cutaneous body temperature increased during exercise at RT but decreased in the cold. Although core temperature rose in both settings, the rise was greater at RT (p=0.021). GH increased at both temperatures but the onset was delayed by the cold. Peak GH tended to be higher at RT (17.4+/-3.6 microg/L vs. 9.5+/-1.5 microg/L, p=0.07). Total GH secretion was greater at RT (353.3+/-99.1 microg min/L) than 4 degrees C (128.3+/-21.0 microg min/L), p=0.038. Change in core temperature correlated with log peak GH (r=0.66, p=0.039) and log incremental GH (r=0.67, p=0.032) when exercising at 4 degrees C. There was no difference between swimmers and rowers. CONCLUSIONS Exercise at 4 degrees C reduces GH secretion during exercise at intensities above the anaerobic threshold. A change in core body temperature may be one mechanism by which exercise induces GH secretion. The difference in GH between swimmers and rowers during their respective events relates to the conditions under which they compete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Wheldon
- Department of Medicine, Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Medicine, King's College London, London SE1 7EH, UK
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22
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Ma S, Morilak DA. Chronic intermittent cold stress sensitises the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to a novel acute stress by enhancing noradrenergic influence in the rat paraventricular nucleus. J Neuroendocrinol 2005; 17:761-9. [PMID: 16219005 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2005.01372.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chronic intermittent cold stress sensitises activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by novel acute stress. We have shown that enhanced noradrenergic function in limbic forebrain contributes to HPA sensitisation. In the present study, we investigated whether chronic intermittent cold also induced changes in noradrenergic function in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), the primary mediator of the HPA stress response. Rats were exposed to chronic intermittent cold (7 days, 6 h per day, 4 degrees C). On the day after final cold exposure, there were no differences in baseline plasma ACTH, but the peak ACTH response to 30 min of acute immobilisation stress was greater in cold-stressed rats compared to controls. Bilateral microinjection of the alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor antagonist benoxathian into the PVN reduced acute stress-induced adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) levels by approximately 25% in controls. Furthermore, in cold-stressed rats, all of the sensitisation of the ACTH response was blocked by benoxathian, to a level comparable to benoxathian-treated controls. In a second study using microdialysis to measure norepinephrine release in the PVN, there were no differences in either baseline or acute stress-induced increases in norepinephrine release in the PVN of cold-stressed rats compared to controls. Thus, in a third study, we tested potential alterations in postsynaptic alpha(1)-receptor sensitivity after chronic cold stress. Dose-dependent activation of ACTH secretion by microinjection of the alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor agonist, phenylephrine, into the PVN was significantly enhanced in cold-stressed rats compared to controls. Thus, the sensitised HPA response to acute stress after chronic intermittent cold exposure is at least partly attributable to an enhanced response to alpha1-adrenergic receptor activation in the PVN. Chronic stress-induced plasticity in the acute stress response may be important for stress adaptation, but may also contribute to pathophysiological conditions associated with stress. Thus, understanding the neural mechanisms underlying such adaptations may help us understand the aetiology of such disorders, and contribute to the future development of more effective treatment or prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ma
- Department of Pharmacology and Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA
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Spencer TJ, Newcorn JH, Kratochvil CJ, Ruff D, Michelson D, Biederman J. Effects of atomoxetine on growth after 2-year treatment among pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 2005; 116:e74-80. [PMID: 15995021 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2004-0624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is maintained typically over periods of months or years and, as a result, the potential effects on growth of pharmacotherapy for this disorder have been an area of concern. This meta-analysis examined the effect on growth of atomoxetine, now approved in the United States for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. METHODS Patients (N = 412) were 6 to 16 years of age at the start of the treatment period and received atomoxetine treatment (maximal dose: 1.8 mg/kg per day) for >or=2 years. Weight and height measurements were analyzed both as actual values and after conversion to percentiles and z scores with growth charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Expected weight and height at the end point were calculated through extrapolation from patients' baseline percentiles with the growth charts. RESULTS Results indicated that, after 2 years, observed weight and height were close to those predicted on the basis of the patients' baseline weight and height. Weight increased an average of 10.8 kg, a decrease relative to baseline normative weight of 2.7 percentiles, corresponding to 0.87 kg. Height increased an average of 13.3 cm, a decrease relative to baseline normative heights of 2.2 percentiles, corresponding to 0.44 cm. For both weight and height, the quartile of patients who were smallest at baseline had an increase in end-point percentile, whereas patients in the highest quartile had a decrease. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggested that, at the group level, there was only a minimal effect on height after 2 years of treatment with atomoxetine and, for patients most at risk (the lowest quartile), there seemed to be no effect.
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Cohrs S, Pohlmann K, Guan Z, Jordan W, Meier A, Huether G, Rüther E, Rodenbeck A. Quetiapine reduces nocturnal urinary cortisol excretion in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 174:414-20. [PMID: 14735295 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-003-1766-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2003] [Accepted: 12/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction is a frequent finding in psychiatric disorders, including psychotic depression and schizophrenia. Conflicting results exist concerning the influence of antipsychotics on the HPA-axis. OBJECTIVE Therefore, this double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized cross-over study investigated the effect of quetiapine on nocturnal urinary cortisol and melatonin excretion in 13 healthy male subjects under conditions of undisturbed and experimentally disturbed sleep. METHODS Volunteers were studied 3 times for 3 consecutive nights (N0, adaptation; N1, standard sleep conditions; N2, acoustic stress) 4 days apart. Placebo, quetiapine 25 mg or quetiapine 100 mg was administered orally 1 h before bedtime on nights 1 and 2. Urine produced during the 8-h bedtime period was collected for later determination of cortisol and melatonin concentrations by standard radioimmunoassays. RESULTS MANOVA showed a significant effect for N1 vs. N2 with elevated total amount of cortisol ( p<0.005) and melatonin ( p<0.05) excretion after acoustic stress. Both quetiapine 25 mg and 100 mg significantly ( p<0.0005) reduced the total amount of cortisol excretion in comparison to placebo. No interaction effect of stress condition was observed. There was no effect of quetiapine on melatonin levels. CONCLUSION The significant reduction of nocturnal cortisol excretion following quetiapine reflects a decreased activity of the HPA-axis in healthy subjects. This finding may be an important aspect in quetiapine's mode of action in different patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Cohrs
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, von-Siebold Strasse 5, 37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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25
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Giordano R, Grottoli S, Brossa P, Pellegrino M, Destefanis S, Lanfranco F, Gianotti L, Ghigo E, Arvat E. Alprazolam (a benzodiazepine activating GABA receptor) reduces the neuroendocrine responses to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in humans. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 59:314-20. [PMID: 12919154 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2003.01847.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alprazolam (ALP), a benzodiazepine-activating GABAergic receptor, possesses clear centrally mediated inhibitory effects on ACTH and cortisol secretion that could reflect an inhibitory influence on CRH- and/or AVP-secreting neurones. An inhibitory effect of ALP on catecholamine release has also been shown while its effect on GH secretion is unclear. To further clarify the neuroendocrine actions of ALP, we studied the ALP effects on the neurohormonal responses to hypoglycaemia in a group of normal subjects. DESIGN In eight normal subjects [four women and four men, 22-34 years old, body mass index (BMI) 20-25 kg/m2] the ACTH, cortisol, GH, adrenaline (A) and noradrenaline (NA) responses to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia [ITT, 0.1 UI/kg regular insulin intravenously (i.v.) at 0 min] preceded by placebo or ALP (0.02 mg/kg orally at -90 min) were studied in two sessions at least 10 days apart. MEASUREMENTS Blood samples were taken basely at -90 and 0 min and every 15 min up to +120 min. ACTH, cortisol, GH, A and NA level were assayed at each time point in both sessions. RESULTS All subjects experienced hypoglycaemia (plasma glucose levels below 2.2 mmol/l). After placebo ITT induced clear-cut increases in ACTH (peak vs. baseline, mean +/- SEM: 27.9 +/- 3.9 vs. 7.1 +/- 1.5 pmol/l), cortisol (438.1 +/- 32.0 vs. 237.7 +/- 19.3 nmol/l) and GH (38.1 +/- 9.7 vs. 5.7 +/- 2.0 micro g/l) levels (P < 0.05). Marked increase in A (6627.2 +/- 116.7 vs. 263.7 +/- 71.4 pmol/l) and NA (3.8 +/- 1.5 vs. 1.6 +/- 1.0 nmol/l) levels were also recorded (P < 0.05). Pretreatment with ALP significantly inhibited the ACTH peak response to ITT (17.8 +/- 5.0 pmol/l, P < 0.05), while the cortisol response showed a non significant reduction (342.1 +/- 38.7 nmol/l). ALP also significantly reduced the GH (21.7 +/- 4.7 micro g/l, P < 0.02) and A (3828.0 +/- 1400.7 pmol/l, P < 0.02) responses to ITT. On the contrary, ALP lowered basal NA levels (P < 0.05) but did not significantly affect its response to ITT (2.2 +/- 1.2 nmol/l). Glucose changes induced by ITT were not modified by ALP. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that GABAergic activation by alprazolam significantly inhibits the neuroendocrine and adrenomedullary responses to hypoglycaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Giordano
- Divisions of Endocrinology and Nuclear Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Turin, Italy
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Seo DO, Lee S, Rivier C. Role of specific adrenergic receptors in mediating the adrenocorticotropic hormone response to increased nitric oxide levels. J Neuroendocrinol 2003; 15:530-7. [PMID: 12694379 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01027.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the role played by catecholamine-dependent pathways in modulating the ability of the nitric oxide (NO) donor 3-morpholino-sydnonimine (SIN-1) to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) following its intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) or intravenous (i.v.) injection. We first showed that the nonspecific adrenergic agonist noradrenaline, the alpha- or beta-adrenergic agonists phenylephrine or dobutamine, or the noradrenergic uptake inhibitor desipramine, all significantly stimulated ACTH secretion by freely moving, nonanaesthetized rats. We then observed that destruction of noradrenergic nerve endings with the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine, respectively abolished and significantly decreased the ACTH response to the i.c.v. or i.v. administration of SIN-1. Finally, we sought to identify the type of adrenergic receptor(s) mediating the influence of catecholamines. beta-Adrenergic receptors did not appear to be involved in the stimulatory effect of SIN-1 regardless of its route of injection. By contrast, alpha 2-adrenergic receptors played an important role in the ACTH response to i.v. or i.c.v. administered SIN-1. Collectively, these results indicate that while hypothalamic alpha 1- and beta-adrenergic receptors are important for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, only alpha 2-adrenergic receptors are involved in modulating the ability of NO to release ACTH. Our laboratory and others have previously reported that NO increased hypothalamic noradrenaline levels, while conversely noradrenaline up-regulated levels of NO synthase, the enzyme responsible for NO formation; and that injection of corticotropin-releasing factor into the brain ventricles releases catecholamines and stimulates NO formation. Taken together with these observations, our results point to complex functional relationships between NO, catecholamines and the HPA axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D O Seo
- The Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Schüle C, Baghai T, Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger C, Laakmann G. Endocrinological effects of mirtazapine in healthy volunteers. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26:1253-61. [PMID: 12502011 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(02)00264-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Unlike other antidepressants, mirtazapine does not inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine or serotonin (5-HT) but acts as an antagonist at presynaptic alpha2-receptors and at postsynaptic 5-HT2, 5-HT3 and histamine H1-receptors. In the present investigation, the influence of acute oral administration of 15-mg mirtazapine on the cortisol (COR), adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) secretion was examined in 12 healthy male subjects, compared to placebo. METHODS After insertion of an intravenous catheter, both the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and the heart rate were recorded and blood samples were drawn 1 h prior to the administration of mirtazapine or placebo (7:00 a.m.), at time of administration (8:00 a.m.) and during 5 h thereafter in periods of 30 min. Concentrations of COR, ACTH, GH and PRL were measured in each blood sample by double antibody radioimmunoassay and chemiluminescence immunoassay methods. The area under the curve (AUC; 0-300 min after mirtazapine or placebo administration) was used as parameter for the COR, ACTH, GH and PRL response. Furthermore, the urinary free cortisol excretion (UFC) was determined beginning at 8:00 a.m. (time of administration of placebo or mirtazapine) up to 8:00 a.m. the day after. RESULTS Two-sided t-tests for paired samples revealed significantly lower COR AUC, ACTH AUC, UFC and PRL AUC values after 15-mg mirtazapine compared to placebo, whereas no significant differences were found with respect to GH AUC, MAP and heart rate. CONCLUSIONS Since the acute inhibition of COR secretion in the healthy volunteers was paralleled by a simultaneous decrease of ACTH release, central mechanisms (e.g., inhibition of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) output) are suggested to be responsible for the inhibitory effects of mirtazapine on COR secretion. Our results are of particular interest in the light of the hypercortisolism observed in depressed patients and new pharmacological approaches such as CRH1 receptor antagonists.
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Vicennati V, Ceroni L, Gagliardi L, Gambineri A, Pasquali R. Comment: response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis to high-protein/fat and high-carbohydrate meals in women with different obesity phenotypes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:3984-8. [PMID: 12161547 DOI: 10.1210/jcem.87.8.8718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Subjects with abdominal obesity are characterized by hyperactivation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Food intake, particularly at noon, is a well-known inducer of HPA axis activation. Whether obese subjects present an abnormal response to meals containing different macronutrient proportions is at present unknown. Therefore, this study was carried out to investigate the effect of a high-lipid/protein meal (HLP-meal) and a high-carbohydrate meal (HCHO-meal) on the HPA axis activity in women with different obesity phenotypes. Nondepressed, noncomplicated obese (body mass index greater than 28 kg/m(2)) women with abdominal (A-BFD) (n = 10) and peripheral body fat distribution (P-BFD) (n = 9) and a group of 11 normal-weight controls were investigated in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. They were randomly given an 800-kcal HCHO-meal (containing 89% carbohydrates, 11% proteins, 0% lipids), and an 800-kcal HLP-meal (containing 53% lipids, 43% proteins, 4% carbohydrates), which were eaten within 15 min at noon, with an interval of 2 d between each meal. Blood samples for ACTH, cortisol, glucose, and insulin were obtained at 15-min intervals before and after each meal. Baseline hormone and glucose concentrations in the three groups were similar. After the HLP-meal, ACTH tended to similarly but insignificantly increase in all groups, whereas cortisol increased significantly (P < 0.05) in the P-BFD group and insignificantly in the other groups. Conversely, both ACTH and cortisol significantly (P < 0.05) increased only in the A-BFD group, without any significant changes in both controls and P-BFD women. The analysis of the interaction between meals and groups clearly indicated that the cortisol response to the HLP-meal and the HCHO-meal was significantly different (P < 0.025) between the two obese groups, the A-BFD group being characterized by a significantly lower response to the HLP-meal and a significantly higher response to the HCHO-meal, compared with the P-BFD group. Considering all groups together and after adjusting for body mass index, a highly significant relationship was found between cortisol-area under the curve and ACTH-area under the curve after each meal test. However, no relationships were found between changes in ACTH and cortisol and those of glucose, insulin, and the glucose:insulin ratio after each meal. Therefore, our data demonstrate that the response of the HPA axis to meals containing different macronutrient proportions may depend on the pattern of body fat distribution. We also suggest that the activation of the HPA axis following the ingestion of large amounts of carbohydrates may have some pathophysiological relevance, specifically in women with the abdominal obesity phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Vicennati
- Endocrine Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, University Alma Mater of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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Pullinen T, Mero A, Huttunen P, Pakarinen A, Komi PV. Resistance exercise-induced hormonal responses in men, women, and pubescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:806-13. [PMID: 11984299 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200205000-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study was designed to investigate the acute plasma catecholamine (CA) response to resistance exercise and its association with serum testosterone (TES), cortisol (COR), and growth hormone (GH) concentration changes. METHODS Six men, six women, and six adolescent boys (14 +/- 0 yr) performed five sets of 10 knee extensions with 40% of one-repetition maximum followed by two sets performed to exhaustion. Arterialized venous blood was sampled before, during, and after the exercise for the hormone analysis. External work performed (Wext), average EMG normalized for maximal EMG, exercise-induced maximal voluntary contraction decline, and plasma volume change (deltaPV) were also determined. RESULTS No differences between groups were observed in Wext relative to lean body mass, average EMG, or in exercise-induced fatigue. Plasma norepinephrine (NE) concentrations were similar in the three groups. However, peak plasma epinephrine (E) increase from preexercise was about twice as high in boys (5.0 +/- 2.6 nmol.L-1 as in men (2.5 +/- 0.8 nmol.L-1] and in women (2.1 +/- 0.6 nmol.L-1) (P < 0.05). The deltaPV could explain a significant increase in serum TES concentration in men, and increases in GH concentrations in every group, but not that of COR observed only in boys. No correlation between the CA concentration changes and those of the other hormones were observed even if the groups were combined. CONCLUSION No associations between the CA and the other hormone responses were observed. However, the results may suggest a trend for higher stress response to this particular exercise in the boys than in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teemu Pullinen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Gaffney BT, Hügel HM, Rich PA. Panax ginseng and Eleutherococcus senticosus may exaggerate an already existing biphasic response to stress via inhibition of enzymes which limit the binding of stress hormones to their receptors. Med Hypotheses 2001; 56:567-72. [PMID: 11388770 DOI: 10.1054/mehy.2000.1163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A mechanism of action for Panax ginseng (PG) and Eleutherococcus senticosus (ES) is proposed which explains how they could produce the paradoxical effect of sometimes increasing and sometimes decreasing the stress response. The mechanism suggests that this biphasic effect results from increased occupancy of positive and negative feedback stress hormone receptors by their natural ligands due to inhibition of specific enzymes which function to limit receptor occupancy. Specifically, it is suggested that PG inhibits 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase one and ES inhibits catechol- O -methyl transferase, both of which reside in close proximity to stress hormone receptors and catalyse the degradation of stress hormones into inactive compounds. In addition, it is suggested that the increased energy said to result from PG and ES may be a consequence of their increasing the occupancy of stress hormone receptors which function to redistribute the body's energy reserves from regeneration to activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B T Gaffney
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Science, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences and Nursing, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Bundoora Campus, Melbourne, Australia.
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Al-Damluji S, Shen WB, White S, Barnard EA. alpha(1B) adrenergic receptors in gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurones: relation to Transport-P. Br J Pharmacol 2001; 132:336-44. [PMID: 11156594 PMCID: PMC1572539 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0703781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
1. Peptidergic neurones accumulate amines via an unusual uptake process, designated Transport-P. [(3)H]-prazosin binds to alpha(1) adrenoceptors on these cells and is displaceable by unlabelled prazosin in concentrations up to 10(-7) M. However, at greater concentrations of prazosin, there is a paradoxical accumulation of [(3)H]-prazosin which we have attributed to Transport-P. Uptake of prazosin via Transport-P is detectable at 10(-10) M prazosin concentration, is linear up to 10(-7) M and at greater concentrations becomes non-linear. In contrast, in noradrenergic neurones, noradrenaline uptake is linear and saturates above 10(-7) M. In noradrenergic neurones and in non-neuronal cells, there is no uptake of prazosin in concentrations up to 10(-6) M, suggesting that Transport-P is a specialised function of peptidergic neurones. 2. Using a mouse peptidergic (gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, GnRH) neuronal cell line which possesses Transport-P, we have studied the interaction of alpha(1) adrenoceptors with Transport-P. Polymerase chain reactions and DNA sequencing of the products demonstrated that only the alpha(1B) sub-type of adrenoceptors is present in GnRH cells. 3. In COS cells transfected with alpha(1b) adrenoceptor cDNA and in DDT(1) MF-2 cells which express native alpha(1B) adrenoceptors, [(3)H]-prazosin was displaced by unlabelled prazosin in a normal equilibrium process, with no prazosin paradox in concentrations up to 10(-6) M. In DDT(1) MF-2 cells, [(3)H]-prazosin was displaced likewise by a series of alpha(1) adrenergic agonists, none of which increased the binding of [(3)H]-prazosin. Hence, the prazosin paradox is not due to some function of alpha(1) adrenoceptors, such as internalization of ligand-receptor complexes. 4. In neurones which possess Transport-P, transfection with alpha(1b) adrenoceptor cDNA resulted in over-expression of alpha(1B) adrenoceptors, but the prazosin paradox was unaltered. Thus, alpha(1) adrenoceptors and Transport-P mediate distinct functions in peptidergic neurones.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Al-Damluji
- Division of Endocrinology, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London
- Author for correspondence:
| | - W B Shen
- Division of Endocrinology, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London
| | - S White
- Division of Endocrinology, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London
- Author for correspondence:
| | - E A Barnard
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, London
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Kiss A, Aguilera G. Role of alpha-1-adrenergic receptors in the regulation of corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus during stress. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2000; 20:683-94. [PMID: 11100976 DOI: 10.1023/a:1007098724683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
1. The role of alpha1-adrenergic receptors on CRH mRNA levels in the PVN was studied in control and stressed rats receiving i.c.v. injections of the alpha1-adrenergic agonist, methoxamine, or the alpha1- antagonist, prazosin. 2. Plasma ACTH increased significantly 60 min and 4 hr after a single injection of methoxamine (100 microg, i.c.v.). No desensitization of this response was observed after repeated injections every 6 hr for 24 hr. Concomitantly, POMC mRNA in the anterior pituitary increased by 25% at 4 hr after a single injection and by 96% after repeated injections. 3. CRH mRNA levels in the PVN increased by 131% after repeated injections for 24 hr, but were unchanged 4 hr after a single injection. Central alpha-adrenergic blockade with prazosin did not prevent the increases in CRH mRNA following 4 hr of acute stress, but significantly reduced the increases observed 24 hr after an i.c.v. injection of 75 microg of colchicine or after repeated i.p. hypertonic saline injections every 8 hr. 4. These studies demonstrate that while alpha1-adrenergic receptors contribute to longterm increases of CRH mRNA levels in the PVN during prolonged stress, other factors are likely to be involved in the stimulation of CRH mRNA following acute stimulation.
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MESH Headings
- Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/administration & dosage
- Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/pharmacology
- Animals
- Cerebral Ventricles/drug effects
- Cerebral Ventricles/physiology
- Colchicine/pharmacology
- Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Injections, Intraventricular
- Male
- Methoxamine/administration & dosage
- Methoxamine/pharmacology
- Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus/physiology
- Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus/physiopathology
- Pituitary Gland, Anterior/metabolism
- Prazosin/administration & dosage
- Prazosin/pharmacology
- Pro-Opiomelanocortin/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-1/drug effects
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-1/physiology
- Restraint, Physical
- Stress, Psychological/genetics
- Stress, Psychological/physiopathology
- Transcription, Genetic/drug effects
- Transcription, Genetic/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kiss
- Section on Endocrine Physiology, Developmental Endocrinology Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Alexander SL, Irvine CH. The effect of the alpha-2-adrenergic agonist, clonidine, on secretion patterns and rates of adrenocorticotropic hormone and its secretagogues in the horse. J Neuroendocrinol 2000; 12:874-80. [PMID: 10971812 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2826.2000.00542.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-2-adrenoceptor activation may lower adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by reducing secretagogue input and/or increasing the release of an inhibitory factor (CIF). To investigate this, we gave clonidine, an alpha-2-agonist, to seven horses, and collected pituitary venous blood every minute for 20 min before treatment and 40 min after treatment. Six horses were given saline vehicle. Mean secretion rates of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) and ACTH were calculated before and during four 5-min then two 10-min periods after clonidine or saline. Reduction in ACTH secretion without corresponding changes in CRH and/or AVP would imply the presence of CIF. Secretion rates of ACTH (P = 0.008) and AVP (P = 0.0005) fell after clonidine and remained lower than baseline values for 20 min and 10 min, respectively. The CRH secretion rate decreased slightly but not significantly after clonidine. In controls, hormone secretion rates did not alter during the experiment. Multiple linear regression showed that CRH and AVP secretion accounted for 69% (treated) or 45% (controls) of the variation in ACTH secretion (P < 0.0001 for each). CRH alone contributed 80% (treated) or 76% (controls) of the fit to this model, which is consistent with the concept that CRH 'sets the gain' of the response of corticotrophs to fluctuations in AVP. Accordingly, minute-to-minute changes in pituitary concentrations of AVP and ACTH were synchronous when all data were considered (% concordant changes: controls, 68%, P < 0.0001; treated, 76%, P < 0.0001) and the percentage of concordant movement was unaffected by clonidine (before 72%; after 73%; P = 0.80). In treated horses but not controls, the ratio between the secretion rates of ACTH and AVP fell (P = 0.009), while the ACTH : CRH ratio tended to fall after clonidine, implying reduced responsiveness to stimulation. Moreover, one horse showed a drop in ACTH and a rise in CRH and AVP secretion after clonidine. We conclude that in horses alpha-2-adrenoceptor activation lowers ACTH secretion primarily by reducing the secretion of AVP and possibly CRH. While there was some evidence that a CIF may participate in the clonidine-induced suppression of ACTH, the subtlety of the discordance between ACTH and its secretagogues in most horses and the rarity of complete dissociation indicate that it does not play a major role.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Alexander
- Department of Endocrinology, Christchurch Public Hospital, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Daftary SS, Boudaba C, Tasker JG. Noradrenergic regulation of parvocellular neurons in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Neuroscience 2000; 96:743-51. [PMID: 10727792 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenergic projections to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus have been implicated in the secretory regulation of several anterior pituitary hormones, including adrenocorticotropin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, growth hormone and prolactin. In an attempt to elucidate the effects of norepinephrine on the central control of pituitary hormone secretion, we looked at the actions of norepinephrine on the electrical properties of putative parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus using whole-cell current-clamp recordings in hypothalamic slices. About half (51%) of the putative parvocellular neurons recorded responded to norepinephrine with either a synaptic excitation or a direct inhibition. Norepinephrine (30-300microM) caused a marked increase in the frequency of excitatory postsynaptic potentials in about 36% of the parvocellular neurons recorded. The increase in excitatory postsynaptic potentials was blocked by prazosin (10microM), but not by propranolol (10microM) or timolol (20microM), indicating that it was mediated by alpha(1)-adrenoreceptor activation. It was also blocked by ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists, suggesting that the excitatory postsynaptic potentials were caused by glutamate release. The increase in excitatory postsynaptic potentials was completely abolished by tetrodotoxin, indicating the spike dependence of the norepinephrine-induced glutamate release. In a separate group comprising 14% of the parvocellular neurons recorded, norepinephrine elicited a hyperpolarization (6.2+/-0.69mV) that was blocked by the beta-adrenoreceptor antagonists, propranolol (10microM) and timolol (20microM), but not by the alpha(1)-receptor antagonist, prazosin (10microM). This response was not blocked by tetrodotoxin (1.5-3microM), suggesting that it was caused by a direct postsynaptic action of norepinephrine. The topographic distribution within the paraventricular nucleus of the norepinephrine-responsive and non-responsive parvocellular neurons was mapped based on intracellular biocytin labeling and neurophysin immunohistochemistry. These data indicate that one parvocellular subpopulation, consisting of about 36% of the paraventricular parvocellular neurons, receives an excitatory input from norepinephrine-sensitive local glutamatergic interneurons, while a second, separate subpopulation, representing about 14% of the parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus, responds directly to norepinephrine with a beta-adrenoreceptor-mediated inhibition. This suggests that excitatory inputs to parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nucleus are mediated mainly by an intrahypothalamic glutamatergic relay, and that only a relatively small subset of paraventricular parvocellular neurons receives direct noradrenergic inputs, which are primarily inhibitory.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Daftary
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
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35
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Pasquali R, Vicennati V, Calzoni F, Gnudi U, Gambineri A, Ceroni L, Cortelli P, Menozzi R, Sinisi R, Rio GD. alpha2-adrenoceptor regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in obesity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000; 52:413-21. [PMID: 10762283 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.00871.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abdominal obesity is associated with hyper-responsiveness of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis to stimulatory neuropeptides and to stress. Catecholamines are involved in the regulation of the HPA axis, particularly during stress, via alpha-adrenoceptor modulation. DESIGN In this study, we investigated the effects of pre-treatment with an alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist, clonidine (2 microg/kg over 10 minutes) and antagonist, yohimbine (0.125 mg/kg bolus, followed by 0. 001 mg/kg/minutes per 90 minutes infusion) on the HPA axis, measured by ACTH and cortisol response to combined CRH (human, 100 microg) plus AVP (0.3 IU) administration, and on noradrenalin (NA) and adrenalin (A) blood levels, in a group of obese women with abdominal (A-BFD) or peripheral (P-BFD) body fat distribution and in nonobese controls. RESULTS During the control CRH + AVP test the ACTH but not the cortisol response was higher (P < 0.05) in obese A-BFD women than in controls, with minor and transient variations of NA levels. Neither the control test nor clonidine or yohimbine influenced basal or post CRH + AVP A concentrations. Clonidine pretreatment similarly and significantly decreased NA levels in all women and, compared to the control test, marginally influenced the ACTH response to CRH + AVP. Conversely, during yohimbine infusion NA levels steadily and similarly increased to values more or less double baseline values in all groups. Compared to the control test, however, the ACTH response to the CRH + AVP test performed during yohimbine infusion significantly decreased in the control subjects whereas a tendency to a further increase occurred in the obese groups and, specifically, in the A-BFD group significantly (P < 0.05) more than in the P-BFD group. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that alpha2-adrenoceptor regulation of the HPA axis is different in obese and nonobese women, particularly in stressed conditions. We suggest that the abnormal ACTH response to CRH + AVP challenge with increased noradrenergic tone may represent a specific pathophysiological aspect of the abnormal response to stress or to other specific stimulatory factors in obese women, particularly those with abdominal body fat distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Pasquali
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Internal Medicine & Gastroenterology, S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy.
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Bailey AR, von Engelhardt N, Von Englehardt N, Leng G, Smith RG, Dickson SL. Growth hormone secretagogue activation of the arcuate nucleus and brainstem occurs via a non-noradrenergic pathway. J Neuroendocrinol 2000; 12:191-7. [PMID: 10718914 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2826.2000.00398.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenergic systems are integrally involved in the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary gland and in regulating the activity of hypothalamic growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurones. GH secretagogues act at both the pituitary and the hypothalamus to facilitate the release of GH. In male rats, using the induction of Fos protein as an indicator of neuronal activation, we examined whether neurones in the brainstem, the main noradrenergic input to the hypothalamus, were activated by systemic administration of peptide and non-peptide GH secretagogues. In addition, we examined the effects of chronic central noradrenaline depletion upon GH secretagogue-induced activation of the arcuate nucleus. Systemic injection of the GH secretagogues, GHRP-6 and MK-0677 induced Fos protein expression in a population of area postrema cells, but less than 10% of these cells were noradrenergic. Depletion of hypothalamic noradrenaline by the specific neurotoxin, 5-ADMP, did not alter GH secretagogue-induced activation of Fos protein in the arcuate nucleus compared to vehicle-treated controls. We conclude that the central actions of GH secretagogues involve the activation of non-noradrenergic cells in the area postrema and that GH secretagogue-induced activation of the arcuate nucleus occurs independently of noradrenergic tone.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Bailey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Medical School, George Square, Edinburgh, UK.
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Miyahara S, Komori T, Fujiwara R, Shizuya K, Yamamoto M, Ohmori M, Okazaki Y. Effects of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA expression in the hypothalamus and midbrain of the rat. Brain Res 1999; 843:130-5. [PMID: 10528119 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01926-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA expression in the rat brain using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). After rats had been restrained for 10, 30, 60, 120 or 240 min, the hypothalamus and midbrain were removed immediately and alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA levels in these regions were determined by RT-PCR. Blood samples were also collected for simultaneous measurement of serum adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone. Restraint stress resulted in a variety of changes in the hypothalamus and midbrain. In the hypothalamus, 30 and 60 min of stress resulted in a significant fall in the level of alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA relative to the control. This was associated with a rise in serum ACTH and corticosterone. In the midbrain, significant elevation of alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA was noted after 60, 120 and 240 min of restraint stress. Our findings indicated that the influence of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA level in the hypothalamus is different to that of the midbrain region in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Miyahara
- Department of Psychiatry, Mie University School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
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Abstract
Selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective drugs for the treatment of several neuropsychiatric disorders associated with reduced serotonergic function. Serotonergic neurons play an important role in the regulation of neuroendocrine function. This review will discuss the acute and chronic effects of SSRIs on neuroendocrine function. Acute administration of SSRIs increases the secretion of several hormones, but chronic treatment with SSRIs does not alter basal blood levels of hormones. However, adaptive changes are induced by long-term treatment with SSRIs in serotonergic, noradrenergic and peptidergic neural function. These adaptive changes, particularly in the function of specific post-synaptic receptor systems, can be examined from altered adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, oxytocin, vasopressin, prolactin, growth hormone (GH) and renin responses to challenges with specific agonists. Neuroendocrine challenge tests both in experimental animals and in humans indicate that chronic SSRIs produce an increase in serotonergic terminal function, accompanied by desensitization of post-synaptic 5-HT1A receptor-mediated ACTH, cortisol, GH and oxytocin responses, and by supersensitivity of post-synaptic 5-HT2A (and/or 5-HT2C) receptor-mediated secretion of hormones. Chronic exposure to SSRIs does not alter the neuroendocrine stress-response and produces inconsistent changes in alpha2 adrenoceptor-mediated GH secretion. Overall, the effects of SSRIs on neuroendocrine function are dependent on adaptive changes in specific neurotransmitter systems that regulate the secretion of specific hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Raap
- Department of Pharmacology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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Miyahara S, Komori T, Fujiwara R, Shizuya K, Yamamoto M, Ohmori M, Okazaki Y. Effects of single and repeated stresses on the expression of mRNA for alpha1-adrenoceptors in the rat hypothalamus and midbrain. Eur J Pharmacol 1999; 379:111-4. [PMID: 10499379 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(99)00498-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of single or repeated stress on the expression of mRNA for alpha1-adrenoceptors in the rat hypothalamus and midbrain using the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Single stress significantly increased the mRNA level for alpha1-adrenoceptors in the midbrain, but had no effect on mRNA levels in the hypothalamus. Repeated stress significantly decreased mRNA levels for alpha1-adrenoceptors in both regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Miyahara
- Department of Psychiatry, Mie University School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
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40
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Edén Engström B, Karlsson FA, Wide L. Gender Differences in Diurnal Growth Hormone and Epinephrine Values in Young Adults during Ambulation. Clin Chem 1999. [DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/45.8.1235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background: In the present study, the impact of gender, oral contraceptives, and ambulation on serum growth hormone (GH) and urinary catecholamines was examined in healthy young adults.
Methods: Twenty-one medical student volunteers—7 men, 7 women, and 7 women taking oral contraceptives—were investigated. Serum samples were drawn every second hour during a 24-h period. At 0800 the first morning, serum samples were drawn while subjects were in the ambulatory state; the next morning, serum samples were drawn at 0800 while the subjects were still resting in bed.
Results: During the daytime, GH concentrations were sevenfold higher in the women than in the men, a difference larger than described previously. During the night, there was no gender difference. In the morning, ambulatory GH concentrations were 28-fold higher in the women than in the men, whereas supine GH concentrations were only 4.6-fold higher in the women than in the men. Daytime urinary output of epinephrine was lower in the women than in the men, whereas there was no difference at night. Women using estrogen-containing oral contraceptives had lower epinephrine and higher GH values than women not taking oral contraceptives. In women, morning GH concentrations were higher in the ambulatory than in the resting state, whereas they were lower in the ambulatory state than in the resting state in men.
Conclusions: The secretion of GH and epinephrine is gender-dependent and differs during the daytime in a reciprocal manner, with higher GH and lower epinephrine in women than in men. Oral contraceptives appear to further increase such differences. It seems likely that the data reflect a gender difference in the utilization of substrates for energy production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Leif Wide
- Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital, S-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
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41
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Harro J, Rimm H, Harro M, Grauberg M, Karelson K, Viru AM. Association of depressiveness with blunted growth hormone response to maximal physical exercise in young healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1999; 24:505-17. [PMID: 10378238 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(99)00008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Blunted response of growth hormone secretion to several pharmacological challenges is present in depression, but much less is known about the relationship of depression and secretion of growth hormone elicited by physiological stimuli. Furthermore, it is not known whether blunted growth hormone response occurs in depressiveness as measured with psychometric scales. A total of 82 healthy male volunteers (age 18-26 years) exercised on a bicycle ergometer with incremental load to achieve their maximal performance. Before exercise, subjects filled in approbated versions of Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Scale, Cohens Perceived Stress Scale, and Schwartzers Self-Efficacy Scale. Blood samples were collected before and after exercise, and growth hormone, cortisol, and testosterone were measured by chemiluminescence immunoassay. Median perceived stress score of the subjects was identical to our population-based database median value, but the subjects had higher self-efficacy and lower depressiveness as shown by median values. In the majority of subjects, physical exercise induced remarkable increases in blood levels of the hormones. Cortisol and testosterone levels were not associated with the scores of psychometric scales. However, growth hormone response was virtually absent in high scorers (above median population score, n = 24) in BDI total score and the negative attitude subcomponent. Hence, this study demonstrates that growth hormone response to physiological stimuli is reduced in psychometrically measured depressiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Harro
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu, Estonia.
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42
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Zelena D, Kiem DT, Barna I, Makara GB. Alpha 2-adrenoreceptor subtypes regulate ACTH and beta-endorphin secretions during stress in the rat. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1999; 24:333-43. [PMID: 10101737 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00081-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The effect of different alpha 2-adrenoreceptor subtype agonists and antagonists on adrenocorticotrop hormone (ACTH) and beta-endorphin release induced by ether stress was examined. Ether inhalation-induced ACTH and beta-endorphin increase was inhibited by i.c.v. administration of 30 micrograms but not 1 and 10 micrograms clonidine (alpha 2-adrenoreceptor agonist). I.c.v. oxymetazoline (alpha 2A-adrenoreceptor agonist; 1-10-30 micrograms) or the alpha 1-agonist methoxamine (100 micrograms/rat) failed to inhibit the stress-induced rise. Pretreatment with the alpha 1/alpha 2B.C-antagonist prazosin (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) prevented the effect of clonidine on the ether stress, while the alpha 1/alpha 2A-antagonist WB-4101 (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) was unable to counteract the inhibitory effect of clonidine. Prazosin alone had no effect on the ether-induced plasma ACTH and beta-endorphin elevation. These results suggest that noradrenaline in the central nervous system may inhibit the stress-induced hypothalamo-pituitary-axis and pituitary beta-endorphin activation via alpha 2B.C-adrenoceptor subtypes and prazosin may antagonize its effect on these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Zelena
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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43
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Abstract
The secretion of growth hormone (GH) is regulated through a complex neuroendocrine control system, especially by the functional interplay of two hypothalamic hypophysiotropic hormones, GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SS), exerting stimulatory and inhibitory influences, respectively, on the somatotrope. The two hypothalamic neurohormones are subject to modulation by a host of neurotransmitters, especially the noradrenergic and cholinergic ones and other hypothalamic neuropeptides, and are the final mediators of metabolic, endocrine, neural, and immune influences for the secretion of GH. Since the identification of the GHRH peptide, recombinant DNA procedures have been used to characterize the corresponding cDNA and to clone GHRH receptor isoforms in rodent and human pituitaries. Parallel to research into the effects of SS and its analogs on endocrine and exocrine secretions, investigations into their mechanism of action have led to the discovery of five separate SS receptor genes encoding a family of G protein-coupled SS receptors, which are widely expressed in the pituitary, brain, and the periphery, and to the synthesis of analogs with subtype specificity. Better understanding of the function of GHRH, SS, and their receptors and, hence, of neural regulation of GH secretion in health and disease has been achieved with the discovery of a new class of fairly specific, orally active, small peptides and their congeners, the GH-releasing peptides, acting on specific, ubiquitous seven-transmembrane domain receptors, whose natural ligands are not yet known.
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Affiliation(s)
- E E Müller
- Department of Pharmacology, Chemotherapy, and Toxicology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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44
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Abstract
Exposure to hostile conditions initiates the secretion of several hormones, including corticosterone/cortisol, catecholamines, prolactin, oxytocin, and renin, as part of the survival mechanism. Such conditions are often referred to as "stressors" and can be divided into three categories: external conditions resulting in pain or discomfort, internal homeostatic disturbances, and learned or associative responses to the perception of impending endangerment, pain, or discomfort ("psychological stress"). The hormones released in response to stressors often are referred to as "stress hormones" and their secretion is regulated by neural circuits impinging on hypothalamic neurons that are the final output toward the pituitary gland and the kidneys. This review discusses the forebrain circuits that mediate the neuroendocrine responses to stressors and emphasizes those neuroendocrine systems that have previously received little attention as stress-sensitive hormones: renin, oxytocin, and prolactin. Anxiolytic drugs of the benzodiazepine class and other drugs that affect catecholamine, GABAA, histamine, and serotonin receptors alter the neuroendocrine stress response. The effects of these drugs are discussed in relation to their effects on forebrain neural circuits that regulate stress hormone secretion. For psychological stressors such as conditioned fear, the neural circuits mediating neuroendocrine responses involve cortical activation of the basolateral amygdala, which in turn activates the central nucleus of the amygdala. The central amygdala then activates hypothalamic neurons directly, indirectly through the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and/or possibly via circuits involving brainstem serotonergic and catecholaminergic neurons. The renin response to psychological stress, in contrast to those of ACTH and prolactin, is not mediated by the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and is not suppressed by benzodiazepine anxiolytics. Stressors that challenge cardiovascular homeostasis, such as hemorrhage, trigger a pattern of neuroendocrine responses that is similar to that observed in response to psychological stressors. These neuroendocrine responses are initiated by afferent signals from cardiovascular receptors which synapse in the medulla oblongata and are relayed either directly or indirectly to hypothalamic neurons controlling ACTH, prolactin, and oxytocin release. In contrast, forebrain pathways may not be essential for the renin response to hemorrhage. Thus current evidence indicates that although a diverse group of stressors initiate similar increases in ACTH, renin, prolactin, and oxytocin, the specific neural circuits and neurotransmitter systems involved in these responses differ for each neuroendocrine system and stressor category.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Van de Kar
- Department of Pharmacology, Loyola University of Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, 2160 South First Avenue, Maywood, Illinois, 60153, USA.
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45
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Day HE, Campeau S, Watson SJ, Akil H. Distribution of alpha 1a-, alpha 1b- and alpha 1d-adrenergic receptor mRNA in the rat brain and spinal cord. J Chem Neuroanat 1997; 13:115-39. [PMID: 9285356 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-0618(97)00042-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The technique of in situ hybridization with specific ribonucleotide probes was used to determine the distribution patterns of mRNA encoding the alpha 1a-, alpha 1b- and alpha 1d-adrenoceptor (AR) subtypes in rat brain and spinal cord. The expression pattern of alpha 1a-AR mRNA has not been reported previously, and was found to be widespread throughout the rat central nervous system. High levels were found in regions of the olfactory system, several hypothalamic nuclei, and regions of the brainstem and spinal cord, particularly in areas related to motor function. Regions expressing moderate levels of mRNA for this receptor were the septum, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, cerebral cortex, amygdala, cerebellum and pineal gland. Low expression levels were detected in the hippocampal formation. Most nuclei in the basal ganglia and thalamus expressed extremely low or undetectable levels of alpha 1a-AR mRNA. The expression patterns of the alpha 1b- and alpha 1d-AR mRNAs were similar to those described using oligonucleotide probes in earlier studies. High expression of alpha 1b-AR mRNA was noted in the pineal gland, most thalamic nuclei, lateral nucleus of the amygdala and dorsal and median raphe nuclei. Moderate expression levels were noted throughout the cerebral cortex, and in some olfactory, septal, and brainstem regions. The distribution of alpha 1d-AR mRNA was the most discrete of the three receptors examined. Expression was strong in the olfactory bulb, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, reticular thalamic nucleus, regions of the amygdala, motor nuclei of the brainstem, inferior olivary complex and spinal cord. Comparison of the distributions of the alpha 1a-, alpha 1b- and alpha 1d-AR mRNA suggests unique functional roles for each of these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Day
- Mental Health Research Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109-0720, USA
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46
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Kimber JR, Watson L, Mathias CJ. Distinction of idiopathic Parkinson's disease from multiple-system atrophy by stimulation of growth-hormone release with clonidine. Lancet 1997; 349:1877-81. [PMID: 9217760 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)10168-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Idiopathic Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disease that is difficult to distinguish from other parkinsonian syndromes such as multiple-system atrophy (MSA). In MSA, autonomic dysfunction is common and is associated with either parkinsonian or cerebellar features, or both. Differentiation of idiopathic Parkinson's disease from MSA is important because prognosis, complications, and response to therapy vary according to disorder. Our aim was to find out whether clonidine/growth hormone (GH) testing distinguishes idiopathic Parkinson's disease from MSA. METHODS Clonidine is a centrally active alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist that raises concentrations of GH in serum in healthy people and those with pure autonomic failure (with peripheral lesions), but not in those with MSA (with a central autonomic deficit). We investigated the effects of clonidine on 14 people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (without autonomic deficits). 31 people with MSA of the three different clinical forms (parkinsonian, cerebellar, and mixed), 19 people with pure autonomic failure, and 27 healthy participants. In nine people with parkinsonian MSA (MSA-P), the GH response to levodopa was also assessed. FINDINGS Clonidine raised serum GH concentrations in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (median increase 8.98 [IQR 6.6-16.6] mU/L), normal participants (13.2 [7.0-18.6] mU/L), and patients with pure autonomic failure (12.5 [5.6-18.2] mU/L). In those with MSA who had central autonomic failure, GH concentrations were unchanged (MSA-P; 0.41 [-0.30 to 2.09] mU/L and cerebellar MSA [MSA-C] 1.67 [0-4.49] mU/L). The GH response to clonidine in idiopathic Parkinson's disease was significantly different from that in MSA-P (p < 0.0002). In MSA-P, the dopamine precursor levodopa raised GH concentrations (from mean 2.7 [SE 1.0] mU/L to mean 18.2 [6.0] mU/L, p < 0.05) and GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) concentrations (from mean 20.6 [3.25] ng/L to mean 68.0 [10.6] ng/L, p < 0.05), excluding dysfunction of pituitary somatotrophs or GHRH neurons as a cause for the absent GH response to clonidine in MSA. INTERPRETATION The GH responses to clonidine clearly differentiated idiopathic Parkinson's disease from MSA-C and MSA-P. Together with the levodopa studies they indicated a specific alpha 2-adrenoceptor-hypothalamic deficit in MSA. The clonidine-GH test may provide further insight into central neurotransmitter and alpha 2-adrenoceptor-hypothalamic abnormalities in MSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Kimber
- University Department of Clinical Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery/Institute of Neurology, London, UK
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47
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Schmidt ME, Risinger RC, Hauger RL, Schouten JL, Henry M, Potter WZ. Responses to alpha 2-adrenoceptor blockade by idazoxan in healthy male and female volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997; 22:177-88. [PMID: 9203228 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(96)00045-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Seven male and five female volunteers underwent double-blind infusions of the alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist idazoxan (100 and 200 micrograms/mg) and placebo in random order. Blood pressure, plasma norepinephrine, growth hormone and subjective responses were measured. The higher dose of idazoxan produced increases in blood pressure, norepinephrine and growth hormone and slight increases in anxiety. Both subject age and sex appeared to influence the magnitude of responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Schmidt
- Section on Clinical Pharmacology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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48
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Williams AM, Morilak DA. alpha1B adrenoceptors in rat paraventricular nucleus overlap with, but do not mediate, the induction of c-Fos expression by osmotic or restraint stress. Neuroscience 1997; 76:901-13. [PMID: 9135060 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(96)00351-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A role has been suggested for hypothalamic alpha1 adrenoceptors in the acute stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Using a polyclonal antiserum against the rat alpha1B adrenergic receptor protein, we have demonstrated alpha1B receptor immunoreactivity in neurons and especially in punctate cell processes in the rat paraventricular nucleus. The distribution of alpha1B receptor immunoreactivity overlapped in part with the distributions of c-Fos immunoreactivity induced in the paraventricular nucleus by either restraint stress or hypertonic saline administration. However, intraperitoneal pretreatment with the alpha1 receptor antagonist prazosin (0.5 or 5.0 mg/kg) failed to attenuate stress-induced c-Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus. Prazosin also failed to attenuate the secretion of corticosterone following restraint stress. Thus, we conclude that neither acute secretory activity nor activation of gene transcriptional responses mediated by c-Fos in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis following these stressors are dependent upon hypothalamic alpha1 adrenergic receptors.
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MESH Headings
- Adrenergic alpha-1 Receptor Antagonists
- Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/pharmacology
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Corticosterone/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Genes, fos/physiology
- Immunohistochemistry
- Male
- Osmotic Pressure
- Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus/drug effects
- Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus/metabolism
- Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus/physiology
- Prazosin/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-1/metabolism
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-1/physiology
- Restraint, Physical
- Saline Solution, Hypertonic
- Stress, Physiological/metabolism
- Stress, Physiological/physiopathology
- Stress, Psychological/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Williams
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 78284-7764, U.S.A
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49
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Nevill ME, Holmyard DJ, Hall GM, Allsop P, van Oosterhout A, Burrin JM, Nevill AM. Growth hormone responses to treadmill sprinting in sprint- and endurance-trained athletes. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1996; 72:460-7. [PMID: 8925817 DOI: 10.1007/bf00242276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the growth hormone (GH) response to treadmill sprinting in male (M) and female (F) sprint- and endurance-trained athletes. A group of 11 sprint-trained (ST; 6M, 5F) and 12 endurance-trained (ET; 6M, 6F) athletes performed a maximal 30-s sprint on a nonmotorized treadmill. Peak power and mean power expressed in watts or in watts per kilogram body mass were higher in ST than in ET (P < 0.01) and in the men compared to the women (P < 0.01). Serum GH was greater in ST than in ET athletes, but was not statistically significantly different between the men and the women [mean peak GH: ST 72.4 (SEM 12.5) compared to ET 26.3 (SEM 4.9) mU.1(-1), P < 0.01; men 59.8 (SEM 13.3) compared to the women 35.8 (SEM 7.4) mU.1(-1), n.s.]. Plasma ammonia and blood lactate concentrations were higher and blood pH lower during 1 h of recovery after the sprint in ST compared to ET (all P < 0.01). Multiple log linear regression showed that 82% of the variation in the serum peak GH response was explained by the peak power output and peak blood lactate response to the sprint. As serum GH was still approximately ten times the basal value in ST athletes after 1 h of recovery, it is suggested that the exercise-induced increase in GH could have important physiological effects in this group of athletes, including increased protein synthesis and sparing of protein degradation leading to maintained or increased muscle mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Nevill
- Department of Physical Education, Sports Science and Recreation Management, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, England
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50
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Idänpään-Heikkilä JJ, Rauhala P, Männistö PT. Neuroendocrine effects of dexmedetomidine: evidence of cross-tolerance between a mu-opioid agonist and an alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist in growth hormone secretion of the male rat. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 1996; 78:136-42. [PMID: 8882345 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1996.tb00194.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The role of alpha 2-adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors) in the secretion of growth hormone, prolactin and thyrotropin was studied using highly selective agonists and antagonists of the alpha 2-adrenoceptor. The interplay between opiates and alpha 2-adrenergic drugs in the acute secretion of growth hormone and prolactin, as well as the possible cross-tolerance between morphine (mu-opioid receptor agonist) and dexmedetomidine (alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist) in growth hormone secretion were also evaluated. Dexmedetomidine dose-dependently increased plasma growth hormone and prolactin levels and decreased thyrotropin levels. The enhanced secretion of both growth hormone and prolactin was antagonized by atipamezole (an alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist) but not by prazosin (an alpha 1-adrenoceptor antagonist). Morphine (5 mg/kg)-induced stimulation of growth hormone secretion was antagonized by both naloxone (mu-opioid antagonist) and atipamezole. Naloxone, but not atipamezole, antagonized the morphine-induced increase in prolactin secretion. Dexmedetomidine increased growth hormone secretion in the saline pretreated rats, but did not do so in the morphine-tolerant rats. The stimulation of alpha 2-adrenoceptor enhances secretion of both growth hormone and prolactin. The adrenergic regulation of thyrotropin secretion still remains unclear. Evidently, adrenergic mechanisms are involved in the morphine-induced stimulation of growth hormone secretion, but not in the morphine-induced stimulation of prolactin secretion. In addition, there is a clear cross-tolerance between dexmedetomidine and morphine in growth hormone secretion of the rat.
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