The impact of childhood adversity on the persistence of psychotic symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The Impact of Childhood Trauma on the Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

ABSTRACT

Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental health disorder that imposes profound economic, societal, and personal burdens. The negative symptoms of schizophrenia ( i.e. , blunted affect, alogia, anhedonia, asociality, and avolition) are highly prevalent and pervasive in the psychotic disorder and pose significant resistance to available treatment options. Traumatic childhood experiences are strongly linked with the risk of developing schizophrenia. Most prior studies have primarily focused on positive symptoms of schizophrenia ( e.g. , hallucinations and delusions), whereas less attention has been given to negative symptoms. The current study investigated the relationship between childhood trauma ( i.e. , physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse and neglect) and negative symptoms in a sample of schizophrenia outpatients and healthy controls ( n = 159 participants, including 99 patients with schizophrenia). The observations from the current study revealed that schizophrenia patients experienced a significantly greater degree of childhood trauma and negative symptoms than the control individuals. The results of the current study also indicated that more severe experiences of total childhood trauma ( i.e. , summation of all trauma types), physical abuse, and emotional neglect may increase the risk of schizophrenia patients reporting negative symptoms. However, childhood sexual and emotional abuse was found to have no impact on the degree of negative symptoms experienced by schizophrenia patients. Implications and limitations of the current study are discussed. In conclusion, we found that the severity of overall childhood trauma, physical abuse, and emotional neglect may play an important role in increasing the likelihood of schizophrenia patients reporting negative symptoms.

Unraveling the Concept of Childhood Adversity in Psychosis Research: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

During the last decades, an abundance of studies has investigated childhood adversity in relation to psychosis. This systematic review critically examines the methodologies employed to investigate childhood adversity in psychosis over the past decade, including operational definitions, measurement tools and characteristics, and psychometric properties of instruments used in these studies.

STUDY DESIGN

This systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines (registration number CRD42022307096), and the search used the following electronic databases: PsychINFO, SCOPUS, Web of Science, African Index Medicus (AIM), LILACS, CINAHL, EMBASE, and MEDLINE. The search included variations and combinations of the terms targeting childhood adversity and psychosis.

STUDY RESULTS

Out of 585 identified studies published between 2010 and 2023, 341 employed a validated instrument to investigate childhood adversity. Our findings show "childhood trauma" being the most frequently examined construct, followed by "child maltreatment" or "child abuse." The short version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire was the dominant instrument. Physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse were most frequently investigated, and indeed the field appears generally to focus on child abuse and neglect over other adversities. Significant psychometric heterogeneity was observed in the selection and summarization of instrument items, with only 59% of studies documenting original psychometric validation and 22% reporting reliability in their datasets.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights substantial methodological heterogeneity in the field, pointing out biases in the research on childhood adversity and psychosis. These findings underline the need for standardized definitions and high-quality measurement tools to enhance the validity of future research in this area.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the traumatogenic phenotype hypothesis of psychosis

BACKGROUND

Developmental trauma increases psychosis risk and is associated with poor prognosis. It has been proposed that psychosis in survivors of developmental trauma gives rise to a distinct 'traumatogenic' phenotype.

AIMS

Given the implications for personalised treatment, we sought to explore the traumatogenic psychosis phenotype hypothesis in a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing psychotic presentations between adults with and without developmental trauma histories.

METHOD

We registered the systematic review on PROSPERO (CRD42019131245) and systematically searched EMBASE, Medline and PsycINFO. The outcomes of interests were quantitative and qualitative comparisons in psychotic symptom expression (positive, negative, cognitive) and other domains of psychopathology, including affect regulation, sleep, depression and anxiety, between adults with and without experience of developmental trauma.

RESULTS

Of 34 studies included (N = 13 150), 11 were meta-analysed (n = 2842). A significant relationship was found between developmental trauma and increased symptom severity for positive (Hedge's g = 0.27; 95% CI 0.10-0.44; P = 0.002), but not negative symptoms (Hedge's g = 0.13; 95% CI -0.04 to 0.30; P = 0.14). Developmental trauma was associated with greater neurocognitive, specifically executive, deficits, as well as poorer affect, dissociation and social cognition. Furthermore, psychotic symptom content thematically related to traumatic memories in survivors of developmental trauma.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings that developmental trauma is associated with more severe positive and affective symptoms, and qualitative differences in symptom expression, support the notion that there may be a traumatogenic psychosis phenotype. However, underdiagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder may also explain some of these findings. More research is needed to explore this further.

A longitudinal study of the impact of childhood adversity dimensions on social and psychological factors and symptoms of psychosis, depression, and anxiety

The present study examined three empirically-derived childhood adversity dimensions as predictors of social, psychological, and symptom outcomes across three prospective assessments of a young adult sample. Participants were assessed five times over eight years with semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. The analyses used the dimensions underlying multiple subscales from well-established childhood adversity measures administered at the first two assessment waves (described in a previous report). Outcome data pertain to the last three assessment waves, with sample sizes ranging from 89 to 169. As hypothesized, the childhood adversity dimensions demonstrated overlapping and differential longitudinal associations with the outcomes. Deprivation predicted the negative (deficit-like) dimension of psychosis, while Threat and Intrafamilial Adversity predicted the positive (psychotic-like) dimension. Depression and anxiety symptoms were predicted by different childhood adversity dimensions over time. Furthermore, Threat predicted a smaller and less diverse social network, Intrafamilial Adversity predicted anxious attachment, and Deprivation predicted a smaller social network, anxious and avoidant attachment, perceived social support, and loneliness. The three adversity dimensions combined accounted for moderate to large proportions of variance in several outcomes. These results extend prior work by identifying associations of three meaningful dimensions of childhood adversity with different risk profiles across psychological, social, and psychopathological domains. The findings enhance our understanding of the impact of childhood adversity across young adulthood.

Relationship between social cognition and emotional markers and acoustic-verbal hallucination in youth with post-traumatic stress disorder: Protocol for a prospective, 2-year, longitudinal case-control study

INTRODUCTION

Auditory-verbal hallucinatory experiences (AVH) have a 12% prevalence in the general pediatric population. Literature reports a higher risk of developing AVH in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The persistence of AVHs during adolescence represents a risk of evolution into psychotic disorders. Social cognition and emotional markers could be considered prodromes markers of this evolution. The objectives of this prospective observational study are to observe social cognition and emotional markers correlation with the presence and persistence of AVH over two years and with the evolution of PTSD and psychotic diagnosis.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This prospective case-control study, longitudinal over two years (with an interim reassessment at six months and one year), will include 40 participants aged 8 to 16 years old with a diagnosis of PTSD and without a diagnosis of psychosis according to the criteria of DSM-5 (K-SADS-PL). Subjects included are divided into two groups with AVH and without AVH matched by gender, age and diagnosis. The primary outcome measure will be the correlation between social cognition and emotional makers and the presence of AVH in the PTSD pediatric population without psychotic disorders. The social cognition marker is assessed with the NEPSY II test. The emotional marker is assessed with the Differential Emotion Scale IV and the Revised Beliefs About Voices Questionnaire. The secondary outcome measures are the correlation of these markers with the persistence of AVH and the evolution of the patient's initial diagnosis two years later.

DISCUSSION

The originality of our protocol is to explore the potential progression to psychosis from PTSD by cognitive biases. This study supports the hypothesis of connections between PTSD and AVH through sensory, emotional and cognitive biases. It proposes a continuum model from PTSD to psychotic disorder due to impaired perception like AVH.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03356028.

Factors associated with the psychosis continuum among homeless people: Comparison between natives and migrants in the SAMENTA study

Background

In the last decades, there has been a documented increase in the proportion of migrants among homeless people in Europe. While homelessness is associated with psychosis, little is known about the factors associated with psychosis among migrants in this context.

Methods

Our study analyzed data collected in the SAMENTA cross-sectional survey conducted among 859 adult French-speaking homeless people living in the Greater Paris area. We analyzed the prevalence of psychosis and psychotic-like experiences (PLE) and associated factors by migrant status, using bivariate analysis and multivariable logistic regression models.

Results

Our sample comprised 280 natives and 559 migrants in France. Psychosis was significantly more prevalent among natives (21.6 %) than among migrants (7.5 %) (p = 0.003). The total prevalence of PLE was 30.8% (95 % CI: 24.3 - 38.2), and not statistically different between groups (p = 0.215) or sex (p = 0.528). Adverse events over the past year were associated with the increased odds of psychosis in both groups and with PLE among migrants. Sexual abuse during childhood was associated with both outcomes among natives. Among migrants, exposure to war or life-threatening events increased the odds of psychosis and PLE. Increased odds of psychosis were found among migrants who had been living in France for more than 10 years (OR = 3.34, 95 % CI: 1.41-7.93, p = 0.007).

Conclusion

Differences were found in the factors associated with the psychosis continuum by migrant status, they highlight the impact of experiences related to migration. Prospective studies are needed to better understand these underlying pathways.

Children's early signs and developmental trajectories of psychotic-like experiences

INTRODUCTION

Children who experience persistent psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) are at a higher risk of developing psychotic disorder later in life. The developmental trajectories of PLEs are influenced by various factors. Therefore, it is important to identify early characteristics that can distinguish and predict between different developmental trajectories of PLEs.

METHODS

Using PLEs scores from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) data across three waves, we categorized participants into five distinct PLEs trajectories groups: persistent group (n = 47), remitting group (n = 185), increasing group (n = 117), remittent group (n = 21), and no PLEs group (n = 4,476). We utilized linear mixed-effect models and generalized linear mixed-effect models to examine the differences in baseline characteristics, including psychological and behavioral problems, suicidality, trauma experiences, developmental milestones, cognitive function, physical health, family income, family history of mental illness, and brain structureamong these PLEs trajectory groups.

RESULTS

We found that psychological and behavioral problems (such as DSM-oriented scales/externalizing/ADHD/social/attention/thought problems) assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were associated with all PLEs groups. The persistent PLEs group had greater ADHD/social/thought problems and suicidal behavior compared to the remitting PLEs group. Comparing with the no PLEs group, poor cognitive function, abnormal brain structure (such as temporal lobe and supramarginal gyrus), more trauma experiences, and lower family income were found in only one of the PLEs groups, but not all PLEs groups.

CONCLUSION

The development of PLEs is accompanied by changes in many domains, implying a dynamic and complex developmental process. Given that psychological and behavioral problems can predict the emergence of PLEs at any time and can be regarded as risk factors for persistent PLEs, thereby enabling early precisely interventions, it is important to place greater emphasis on assessing psychological and behavioral problems.

Childhood abuse v. neglect and risk for major psychiatric disorders

BACKGROUND

Childhood maltreatment (CM) is a strong risk factor for psychiatric disorders but serves in its current definitions as an umbrella for various fundamentally different childhood experiences. As first step toward a more refined analysis of the impact of CM, our objective is to revisit the relation of abuse and neglect, major subtypes of CM, with symptoms across disorders.

METHODS

Three longitudinal studies of major depressive disorder (MDD, N = 1240), bipolar disorder (BD, N = 1339), and schizophrenia (SCZ, N = 577), each including controls (N = 881), were analyzed. Multivariate regression models were used to examine the relation between exposure to abuse, neglect, or their combination to the odds for MDD, BD, SCZ, and symptoms across disorders. Bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) was used to probe causality, using genetic instruments of abuse and neglect derived from UK Biobank data (N = 143 473).

RESULTS

Abuse was the stronger risk factor for SCZ (OR 3.51, 95% CI 2.17-5.67) and neglect for BD (OR 2.69, 95% CI 2.09-3.46). Combined CM was related to increased risk exceeding additive effects of abuse and neglect for MDD (RERI = 1.4) and BD (RERI = 1.1). Across disorders, abuse was associated with hallucinations (OR 2.16, 95% CI 1.55-3.01) and suicide attempts (OR 2.16, 95% CI 1.55-3.01) whereas neglect was associated with agitation (OR 1.24, 95% CI 1.02-1.51) and reduced need for sleep (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.08-2.48). MR analyses were consistent with a bidirectional causal effect of abuse with SCZ (IVWforward = 0.13, 95% CI 0.01-0.24).

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood abuse and neglect are associated with different risks to psychiatric symptoms and disorders. Unraveling the origin of these differences may advance understanding of disease etiology and ultimately facilitate development of improved personalized treatment strategies.

Adverse childhood experiences among people with schizophrenia at comprehensive specialized hospitals in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia: a comparative study

Background

People who have encountered adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are predisposed to developing schizophrenia, experiencing exacerbated symptoms, and facing an elevated risk of disease relapse. It is imperative to evaluate the prevalence of ACEs to comprehend the specific attributes of this condition and enable the implementation of suitable interventions.

Aims

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of ACEs and its determinants among people with schizophrenia and the patient attendants in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Method

A comparative cross-sectional study was carried out at the Comprehensive Specialized Hospitals in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, from April 26 to June 10, 2023. A total of 291 individuals with schizophrenia and 293 individuals from the patient attendants were selected using a systematic random sampling method. A proportional odds model ordinal logistic regression analysis was used to identify the factors associated with ACEs.

Results

The occurrence of at least one ACE among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia was 69.4%, while patient attendants had a 46.8%, as indicated by the Chi-square test, which showed a significant difference at p <0.05. The study findings indicated that individuals with schizophrenia who have encountered four or more ACEs are more inclined to have lower educational attainment (AOR: 4.69 [1.94 - 11.61]), low resilient coping mechanisms (AOR: 2.07 [1.11 - 3.90]), and poor social support (AOR: 3.93 [2.13 - 7.32]). Conversely, factors such as rural residency, illiteracy, and heightened attachment-related anxiety were found to be notably associated with the patient attendants.

Conclusion

In this study, the substantial prevalence of ACEs emphasized the necessity for ACE screening and the implementation of evidence-based interventions to address and alleviate the overall burden of ACEs.

Psychosis superspectrum I: Nosology, etiology, and lifespan development

This review describes the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) model of psychosis-related psychopathology, the psychosis superspectrum. The HiTOP psychosis superspectrum was developed to address shortcomings of traditional diagnoses for psychotic disorders and related conditions including low reliability, arbitrary boundaries between psychopathology and normality, high symptom co-occurrence, and heterogeneity within diagnostic categories. The psychosis superspectrum is a transdiagnostic dimensional model comprising two spectra-psychoticism and detachment-which are in turn broken down into fourteen narrow components, and two auxiliary domains-cognition and functional impairment. The structure of the spectra and their components are shown to parallel the genetic structure of psychosis and related traits. Psychoticism and detachment have distinct patterns of association with urbanicity, migrant and ethnic minority status, childhood adversity, and cannabis use. The superspectrum also provides a useful model for describing the emergence and course of psychosis, as components of the superspectrum are relatively stable over time. Changes in psychoticism predict the onset of psychosis-related psychopathology, whereas changes in detachment and cognition define later course. Implications of the superspectrum for genetic, socio-environmental, and longitudinal research are discussed. A companion review focuses on neurobiology, treatment response, and clinical utility of the superspectrum, and future research directions.

The role of epigenetic mechanisms in the long-term effects of early-life adversity and mother-infant relationship on physiology and behavior of offspring in laboratory rats and mice

Maternal care during the early postnatal period of altricial mammals is a key factor in the survival and adaptation of offspring to environmental conditions. Natural variations in maternal care and experimental manipulations with maternal-child relationships modeling early-life adversity (ELA) in laboratory rats and mice have a strong long-term influence on the physiology and behavior of offspring in rats and mice. This literature review is devoted to the latest research on the role of epigenetic mechanisms in these effects of ELA and mother-infant relationship, with a focus on the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. An important part of this review is dedicated to pharmacological interventions and epigenetic editing as tools for studying the causal role of epigenetic mechanisms in the development of physiological and behavioral profiles. A special section of the manuscript will discuss the translational potential of the discussed research.

Trauma therapies for psychosis: A state-of-the-art review

BACKGROUND

Traumatic events, particularly childhood interpersonal victimisation, have been found to play a causal role in the occurrence of psychosis and shape the phenomenology of psychotic experiences. Higher rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other trauma-related mental health problems are also found in people with psychosis diagnoses compared to the general population. It is, therefore, imperative that therapists are willing and able to address trauma and its consequences when supporting recovery from distressing psychosis.

METHOD

This paper will support this need by providing a state-of-the-art overview of the safety, acceptability and effects of trauma therapies for psychosis.

RESULTS

We will first introduce how seminal cognitive-behavioural models of psychosis shed light on the mechanisms by which trauma may give rise to psychotic experiences, including a putative role for trauma-related emotions, beliefs and episodic memories. The initial application of prolonged exposure and eye movement and desensitation and reprocessing therapy (EMDR) for treating PTSD in psychosis will be described, followed by consideration of integrative approaches. These integrative approaches aim to address the impact of trauma on both post-traumatic stress symptoms and trauma-related psychosis. Integrative approaches include EMDR for psychosis (EMDRp) and trauma-focused Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for psychosis (tf-CBTp). Finally, emerging dialogic approaches for targeting trauma-related voice-hearing will be considered, demonstrating the potential value of adopting co-produced (Talking with Voices) and digitally augmented (AVATAR) therapies.

CONCLUSION

We will conclude by reflecting on current issues in the area, and implications for research and clinical practice.

Cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis: The end of the line or time for a new approach?

PURPOSE

Following its introduction in the early 1990s, cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis (CBTp) has been evaluated in a large number of clinical trials and is now established as a recommended treatment in the UK National Health Service and elsewhere in the world. Meta-analyses, however, indicate modest effects compared to treatment as usual or comparison therapies such as supportive counselling. Here, we seek to identify factors impacting the effectiveness of CBTp, and avenues for future psychotherapy research that may improve outcomes.

METHOD

We outline two recent umbrella reviews and discuss factors likely to impact the effectiveness of CBTp.

RESULTS

Modest effect sizes from meta-analyses mask heterogeneous outcomes, with some people benefiting and others possibly being harmed by therapy. Common factors such as the therapeutic alliance play an important role in determining outcomes but have been largely neglected by CBTp researchers. There is also the promise of improving outcomes by identifying and targeting the psychological mechanisms that either maintain psychotic symptoms (e.g. worry) or are causally implicated (e.g. trauma).

CONCLUSIONS

It is unlikely that everyone with psychosis will be equally responsive to the same therapeutic protocols. We need a new, personalised psychotherapy approach to CBTp research and practice, and can learn from research for anxiety and depression examining predictors of therapeutic response to inform treatment decisions. Precision psychological therapies informed by a combination of individual characteristics, common factors and a focus on specific mechanisms will require new research strategies and are likely to lead to improved outcomes for people with psychosis.

Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin

Childhood trauma has been linked to schizophrenia, but underlying biological mechanisms remain elusive. This study explored the potential role of plasma oxytocin as a mediator in the relationship between childhood trauma and the psychopathology of schizophrenia. 160 patients with schizophrenia and 80 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were assessed for childhood trauma experiences using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and structured interviews. Psychopathology was evaluated using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale and plasma oxytocin levels were measured. Results showed that patients with schizophrenia had lower oxytocin levels and higher childhood trauma scores than healthy controls. There was a significant correlation between childhood trauma scores and psychopathology, with plasma oxytocin levels being inversely associated with psychopathology, except for positive symptoms. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that both childhood trauma scores and plasma oxytocin levels significantly predicted psychopathology. Plasma oxytocin levels partially mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and schizophrenia psychopathology. This study underscores the potential role of oxytocin in bridging the gap between childhood trauma and schizophrenia.

Time on our side: An exploratory investigation of the relationship between psychiatric disorder and time attitudes

Time attitudes indicate how individuals feel about the past, present, and future. A growing body of research has demonstrated that scores on the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes Scale relate meaningfully to a variety of measures of well-being and psychiatric symptomatology. To date, no study has examined how (if at all) Time Attitudes scores relate to psychiatric disorder. The present study used an existing clinical cohort (N = 68) and assessed the associations among time attitudes, lifetime disorder, and a retrospective measure of childhood trauma. Preliminary analyses revealed that mean scores of the six time attitudes in the present study did not differ substantially from scores reported in a recent meta-analysis. Correlations between time attitude scores and retrospective trauma scores were particularly large for past negative and past positive. Individuals with no past or current disorder reported substantially higher positive attitudes and substantially lower negative attitudes than those without a disorder across all three time periods with interpretable effect sizes. Finally, past negative time attitudes scores were significantly associated with lifetime mood or anxiety disorder, prior to adjustment for scores on self-reported childhood trauma. These results suggest that time attitudes could be a variable of consequence beyond feelings of general well-being and beyond psychiatric symptoms. More studies with larger sample sizes are required in order to examine the relationship between time attitudes and psychiatric disorder.

Pediatric traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for psychosis and psychotic symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Psychosis is one of the most disabling psychiatric disorders. Pediatric traumatic brain injury (pTBI) has been cited as a developmental risk factor for psychosis, however this association has never been assessed meta-analytically.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between pTBI and subsequent psychotic disorders/symptoms was performed. The study was pre-registered (CRD42022360772) adopting a random-effects model to estimate meta-analytic odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) using the Paule-Mandel estimator. Subgroup (study location, study design, psychotic disorder v. subthreshold symptoms, assessment type, and adult v. adolescent onset) and meta-regression (quality of evidence) analyses were also performed. The robustness of findings was assessed through sensitivity analyses. The meta-analysis is available online as a computational notebook with an open dataset.

RESULTS

We identified 10 relevant studies and eight were included in the meta-analysis. Based on a pooled sample size of 479686, the pooled OR for the association between pTBI and psychosis outcomes was 1.80 (95% CI 1.11-2.95). There were no subgroup effects and no outliers. Both psychotic disorder and subthreshold symptoms were associated with pTBI. The overall association remained robust after removal of low-quality studies, however the OR reduced to 1.43 (95% CI 1.04-1.98). A leave-one-out sensitivity analysis showed the association was robust to removal of all but one study which changed the estimate to marginally non-significant.

CONCLUSIONS

We report cautious meta-analytic evidence for a positive association between pTBI and future psychosis. New evidence will be key in determining long-term reliability of this finding.

Childhood Adversity and Emerging Psychotic Experiences: A Network Perspective

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Childhood adversity is associated with a myriad of psychiatric symptoms, including psychotic experiences (PEs), and with multiple psychological processes that may all mediate these associations.

STUDY DESIGN

Using a network approach, the present study examined the complex interactions between childhood adversity, PEs, other psychiatric symptoms, and multiple psychological mediators (ie, activity-related and social stress, negative affect, loneliness, threat anticipation, maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation, attachment insecurity) in a general population, adolescent sample (n = 865, age 12-20, 67% female).

STUDY RESULTS

Centrality analyses revealed a pivotal role of depression, anxiety, negative affect, and loneliness within the network and a bridging role of threat anticipation between childhood adversity and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation. By constructing shortest path networks, we found multiple existing paths between different categories of childhood adversity and PEs, with symptoms of general psychopathology (ie, anxiety, hostility, and somatization) as the main connective component. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness and stability of the networks. Longitudinal analysis in a subsample with Wave 2 data (n = 161) further found that variables with higher centrality (ie, depression, negative affect, and loneliness) better predicted follow-up PEs.

CONCLUSIONS

Pathways linking childhood adversity to PEs are complex, with multifaceted psychological and symptom-symptom interactions. They underscore the transdiagnostic, heterotypic nature of mental ill-health in young people experiencing PEs, in agreement with current clinical recommendations.

How first-episode psychosis patients' subjective beliefs about their childhood trauma's causal effect provide support for potential schizophrenia subtypes

BACKGROUND

Childhood and adolescent trauma is a risk factor for developing psychosis-spectrum disorders. The current study aimed to assess how childhood trauma might predict psychosis symptomatology, and how patients' beliefs of whether trauma is the cause of psychosis might affect this association.

METHODS

Ninety-six first-episode psychosis patients were assessed for childhood traumatic experiences with the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey, and for psychosis symptoms with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale.

RESULTS

Non-interpersonal trauma predicted higher positive symptoms, whereas more trauma domains experienced predicted lower negative symptoms. Almost half of the participants believed trauma to be related to psychosis, were 12 times more likely to reexperience trauma through psychosis, and had higher excitative and emotional symptoms. Non-interpersonal trauma also predicted higher positive symptoms in this group. Those who did not believe trauma to be the cause of psychosis had higher negative symptoms, and a negative dose-response was found for negative and disorganised symptoms, in which more trauma domains experienced predicted lower scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Results imply two traumagenic pathways to psychosis, one characterised by positive, excitative, and emotional symptoms, and one negative subtype, characterised by negative and disorganised symptoms. Clinical implications for how findings might contribute to better treatments are discussed.

The role of threat anticipation in the development of psychopathology in adolescence: findings from the SIGMA Study

Childhood adversity is associated with psychopathology. First evidence in adults suggests that threat anticipation, i.e., an enhanced anticipation of unpleasant events creating an enduring sense of threat, may be a putative mechanism linking childhood adversity to psychopathology. This study aimed to test the indirect effect of childhood adversity on psychopathology via threat anticipation in a large community sample of adolescents. We measured childhood trauma and bullying victimization (as indicators of childhood adversity), threat anticipation, general psychopathology and prodromal psychotic symptoms in adolescents aged 12-16 years (full sample size N = 1682; minimum sample size in the complete case sample N = 449) in wave I of the SIGMA study. We found strong evidence that childhood adversity (e.g. childhood trauma, adj. β (aβ) = 0.54, p < .001) and threat anticipation (e.g. aβ = 0.36, p < .001) were associated with general psychopathology and prodromal psychotic symptoms. Moreover, there was evidence that the association between childhood adversity, general psychopathology and prodromal psychotic symptoms is mediated via pathways through threat anticipation (e.g. childhood trauma, aβindirect effect = 0.13, p < .001). Threat anticipation may be a potential mechanism linking childhood adversity and psychopathology in adolescents.

Childhood trauma is linked to abnormal static-dynamic brain topology in adolescents with major depressive disorder

Childhood trauma is a leading risk factor for adolescents developing major depressive disorder (MDD); however, the underlying neuroimaging mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association among childhood trauma, MDD and brain dysfunctions by combining static and dynamic brain network models. We recruited 46 first-episode drug-naïve adolescent MDD patients with childhood trauma (MDD-CT), 53 MDD patients without childhood trauma (MDD-nCT), and 90 healthy controls (HCs) for resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans; all participants were aged 13-18 years. Compared to the HCs and MDD-nCT groups, the MDD-CT group exhibited significantly higher global and local efficiency in static brain networks and significantly higher temporal correlation coefficients in dynamic brain network models at the whole-brain level, and altered the local efficiency of default mode network (DMN) and temporal correlation coefficients of DMN, salience (SAN), and attention (ATN) networks at the local perspective. Correlation analysis indicated that altered brain network features and clinical symptoms, childhood trauma, and particularly emotional neglect were highly correlated in adolescents with MDD. This study may provide new evidence for the dysconnectivity hypothesis regarding the associations between childhood trauma and MDD in adolescents from the perspectives of both static and dynamic brain topology.

The impact of cumulative obstetric complications and childhood trauma on brain volume in young people with psychotic experiences

Psychotic experiences (PEs) occur in 5-10% of the general population and are associated with exposure to childhood trauma and obstetric complications. However, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these associations are unclear. Using the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), we studied 138 young people aged 20 with PEs (n = 49 suspected, n = 53 definite, n = 36 psychotic disorder) and 275 controls. Voxel-based morphometry assessed whether MRI measures of grey matter volume were associated with (i) PEs, (ii) cumulative childhood psychological trauma (weighted summary score of 6 trauma types), (iii) cumulative pre/peri-natal risk factors for psychosis (weighted summary score of 16 risk factors), and (iv) the interaction between PEs and cumulative trauma or pre/peri-natal risk. PEs were associated with smaller left posterior cingulate (pFWE < 0.001, Z = 4.19) and thalamus volumes (pFWE = 0.006, Z = 3.91). Cumulative pre/perinatal risk was associated with smaller left subgenual cingulate volume (pFWE < 0.001, Z = 4.54). A significant interaction between PEs and cumulative pre/perinatal risk found larger striatum (pFWE = 0.04, Z = 3.89) and smaller right insula volume extending into the supramarginal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus (pFWE = 0.002, Z = 4.79), specifically in those with definite PEs and psychotic disorder. Cumulative childhood trauma was associated with larger left dorsal striatum (pFWE = 0.002, Z = 3.65), right prefrontal cortex (pFWE < 0.001, Z = 4.63) and smaller left insula volume in all participants (pFWE = 0.03, Z = 3.60), and there was no interaction with PEs group. In summary, pre/peri-natal risk factors and childhood psychological trauma impact similar brain pathways, namely smaller insula and larger striatum volumes. The effect of pre/perinatal risk was greatest in those with more severe PEs, whereas effects of trauma were seen in all participants. In conclusion, environmental risk factors affect brain networks implicated in schizophrenia, which may increase an individual's propensity to develop later psychotic disorders.

The impact of adversities across the lifespan on psychological symptom profiles in late adulthood: a latent profile analysis

People commonly face adverse circumstances throughout life, which increases risk for psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety, depression, psychosis, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Adversities may occur during different periods in life. Especially adversity during early periods has been suggested to put individuals at risk for adverse mental health outcomes. Here, we investigated whether timing of adversity during the prenatal period, childhood, or mid-to-late adulthood differentially impacted classification into late adulthood symptom profiles. We performed sex-stratified Latent Profile Analysis to identify latent profiles regarding anxious, depressive, psychotic, and PTSD symptoms in n = 568 Dutch famine birth cohort members (n = 294 women, n = 274 men, mean age(SD) = 72.9(0.8)). Cross-sectional late adulthood symptomatology, childhood traumatic maltreatment, and adulthood trauma were based on self-report questionnaires. Prenatal adversity was considered present when individuals were prenatally exposed to the 1944-45 Dutch famine. In both men and women we identified one anxious/depressive profile and three profiles with approximately equal severity of all symptom types within each profile, yet differentiating in overall severity (low, mild, high) between profiles. We additionally found a PTSD symptom profile in women. In men, logistic regression models showed significant associations between prenatal, childhood and adulthood adversity, and profile classification, with differential effects depending on timing and most profound effects of child maltreatment. In women, childhood and adulthood adversity significantly increased classification probability into almost all profiles, with no significant effect of prenatal adversity. These findings support a time-dependent and sex-specific impact of adversity during different periods across the lifespan on psychological health, with consequences into late adulthood.

Childhood adversity and recurrence of psychotic experiences during adolescence: the role of mediation in an analysis of a population-based longitudinal cohort study

BACKGROUND

Psychotic experiences (PEs) are relatively common in childhood and adolescence and are associated with increased risk of functional issues and psychiatric illness in young adulthood, and PEs that recur are associated with increased risk of poorer psychiatric and functional outcomes. Childhood adversity is a well-established risk factor for PEs. The aim of this study was to investigate (1) the relationship between childhood adversity and recurring PEs in adolescence and (2) candidate mediators of that relationship.

METHODS

We used data from Cohort '98 of the Growing Up in Ireland study (n = 6039) at three time points (ages 9, 13 and 17) to investigate the relationship between childhood adversity (parent-reported at age 9), recurring PEs (measured using a subset of the Adolescent Psychotic-like Symptoms Screener at ages 13 and 17). The mediating roles of parent-child relationship, internalising and externalising difficulties, self-concept, physical activity, dietary quality, perceived neighbourhood safety and friendship quantity were investigated using the KHB path decomposition method.

RESULTS

Childhood adversity was associated with an increased risk of recurring PEs with a population attributable fraction of 23%. Internalising difficulties and self-concept explained 13% of the relationship between childhood adversity and PEs suggesting a partial mediation. A significant direct effect remained between childhood adversity and recurring PEs.

CONCLUSIONS

The established relationship between childhood adversity and PEs may be mainly driven by the relationship between childhood adversity and recurring PEs. Internalising difficulties and self-concept together mediate part of the relationship between childhood adversity and recurring PEs.

Psychotic experiences, suicidality and non-suicidal self-injury in adolescents: Independent findings from two cohorts

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have shown that psychotic experiences are prospectively associated with an increased risk of suicidality. However, it is unclear whether this association is causal or arises from shared risk factors. Furthermore, little is known about the association between psychotic experiences and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI).

METHODS

We used data from two independent samples of young adolescents, which we analyzed separately. In a population-based cohort, data on hallucinatory experiences and suicidality were collected at ages 10 and 14 years (N = 3435). In a cross-sectional study of a population oversampled for elevated psychopathology levels, psychotic experiences, suicidality, and NSSI were assessed at age 15 years (N = 910). Analyses were adjusted for sociodemographic covariates, maternal psychopathology, intelligence, childhood adversity, and mental health problems.

RESULTS

Psychotic experiences were prospectively associated with an increased risk of suicidality, even when considering self-harm ideation at baseline. Furthermore, persistent and incident, but not remittent, patterns of psychotic experiences were related to an increased burden of suicidality. Self-harm ideation was also prospectively associated with the risk for psychotic experiences, although of smaller magnitude and only by self-report. Among at-risk adolescents, psychotic experiences were cross-sectionally associated with a greater burden of suicidality and a higher frequency of NSSI events, with more extensive tissue damage.

CONCLUSION

Psychotic experiences are longitudinally associated with suicidality beyond the effects of shared risk factors. We also found modest support for reverse temporality, which warrants further investigation. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of assessing psychotic experiences as an index of risk for suicidality and NSSI.

Psychotic-like experiences in non-clinical subgroups with and without specific beliefs

BACKGROUND

Assuming a transdiagnostic and extended psychosis phenotype, psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and psychotic symptoms are on a phenomenological and temporal continuum between clinical and non-clinical populations. Recent research points towards differences in PLE proneness in different subgroups and clinical impact of different PLE subtypes. This study examines the prevalence of PLEs in three groups of individuals with and without specific sets of beliefs aiming to elucidate the question whether proneness to PLEs varies according to traditional versus less traditional supernatural beliefs.

METHODS

The anonymized 16-item version of the Prodromal Questionnaire (PQ-16) was used to assess PLEs in three groups including individuals with religious beliefs (RB), belief in esoterism and paranormal phenomena (EB), and those embedded in scientific evidence approach and scepticism towards para-scientific theories (non-believers, NB). Male and female participants between 18 and 90 years were eligible for participation.

RESULTS

The sample comprised 159 individuals including 41 RB individuals, 43 EB individuals, and 75 NB individuals. The mean PQ-16 score of the EB individuals (6.86 ± 4.13) was significantly higher compared to NB individuals (3.43 ± 2.99) and to RB individuals (3.38 ± 3.23) with almost twice the score (both p-values < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the PQ-16 scores of the NB group and the RB group (p = 0.935). No significant impact of age (p = 0.330) and gender (p = 0.061) was found on the PQ16-Score. Group affiliation to esoterism was associated with a higher PQ-16 score compared to group affiliation to religious beliefs (p < 0.001) and group affiliation to scepticism (p = 0.011), while the latter two did not differ significantly (p = 0.735). No significant difference was found between the three groups in the degree of distress related to the affirmatively answered PQ-16 items (p = 0.74).

CONCLUSION

Under the assumption of a transdiagnostic psychosis phenotype, our findings provide more insight which subgroups within non-clinical samples have a higher likelihood of reporting PLEs.

Prevalence, incidence, and persistence of psychotic experiences in the general population: results of a 9-year follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Psychotic experiences (PEs) frequently occur and are associated with a range of negative health outcomes. Prospective studies on PEs are scarce, and to date no study investigated PE prevalence, incidence, persistence, their risk indicators, and psychiatric comorbidity, in one dataset. Furthermore, most studies are based on self-report, and it is unclear how this compares to clinical interviews.

METHODS

Data are used from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study-2 (NEMESIS-2), a psychiatric cohort study among a representative sample of adults (baseline characteristics: N = 6646; 49.6% female; 18-64 years). Results are presented for self-reported and clinically validated PEs. Associations are assessed for mental disorders, socio-demographic, vulnerability, physical health, and substance use factors.

RESULTS

Based on self-report, at baseline 16.5% of respondents had at least one PE in their lifetime, of those, 30.1% also reported a PE at 3-year follow-up. 4.8% had a first PE at 3-year follow up. The 3-year prevalence of PE was associated with almost all studied risk indicators. Generally, the strongest associations were found for mental health disorders. Prevalence and incidence rates were two to three times higher in self-report than in clinical interview but results on associated factors were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

Validated prevalence and incidence estimates of PE are substantially lower than self-reported figures but results on associated factors were similar. Therefore, future studies on associations of PEs can rely on relatively inexpensive self-reports of PEs. The associations between PE and mental disorders underline the importance of assessment of PE in general practice.

Early Childhood Neurocognition in Relation to Middle Childhood Psychotic Experiences in Children at Familial High Risk of Schizophrenia or Bipolar Disorder and Population-Based Controls: The Danish High Risk and Resilience Study

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Familial high-risk (FHR) studies examining longitudinal associations between neurocognition and psychotic experiences are currently lacking. We hypothesized neurocognitive impairments at age 7 to be associated with increased risk of psychotic experiences from age 7 to 11 in children at familial high risk of schizophrenia (FHR-SZ) or bipolar disorder (FHR-BP) and population-based controls (PBC), and further, impaired functioning in some neurocognitive functions to be associated with greater risk of psychotic experiences in children at FHR-SZ or FHR-BP relative to PBC.

STUDY DESIGN

Neurocognition was assessed at age 7 (early childhood) and psychotic experiences from age 7 to 11 (middle childhood) in 449 children from the Danish High Risk and Resilience Study. The neurocognitive assessment covered intelligence, processing speed, attention, visuospatial and verbal memory, working memory, and set-shifting. Psychotic experiences were assessed through face-to-face interviews with the primary caregiver and the child.

STUDY RESULTS

Set-shifting impairments at age 7 were associated with greater risk of psychotic experiences from age 7 to 11 in children at FHR-SZ. Children at FHR-BP and PBC showed no differential associations. Working memory and visuospatial memory impairments were related to increased risk of psychotic experiences across the cohort. However, adjusting for concurrent psychopathology attenuated these findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Early childhood neurocognitive impairments are risk markers of middle childhood psychotic experiences, of which impaired set-shifting appears to further increase the risk of psychotic experiences in children at FHR-SZ. More research is needed to examine longitudinal associations between neurocognitive impairments and psychotic experiences in FHR samples.

Childhood adversities and mental disorders in first-year college students: results from the World Mental Health International College Student Initiative

BACKGROUND

This study investigates associations of several dimensions of childhood adversities (CAs) with lifetime mental disorders, 12-month disorder persistence, and impairment among incoming college students.

METHODS

Data come from the World Mental Health International College Student Initiative (WMH-ICS). Web-based surveys conducted in nine countries (n = 20 427) assessed lifetime and 12-month mental disorders, 12-month role impairment, and seven types of CAs occurring before the age of 18: parental psychopathology, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, bullying victimization, and dating violence. Poisson regressions estimated associations using three dimensions of CA exposure: type, number, and frequency.

RESULTS

Overall, 75.8% of students reported exposure to at least one CA. In multivariate regression models, lifetime onset and 12-month mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders were all associated with either the type, number, or frequency of CAs. In contrast, none of these associations was significant when predicting disorder persistence. Of the three CA dimensions examined, only frequency was associated with severe role impairment among students with 12-month disorders. Population-attributable risk simulations suggest that 18.7-57.5% of 12-month disorders and 16.3% of severe role impairment among those with disorders were associated with these CAs.

CONCLUSION

CAs are associated with an elevated risk of onset and impairment among 12-month cases of diverse mental disorders but are not involved in disorder persistence. Future research on the associations of CAs with psychopathology should include fine-grained assessments of CA exposure and attempt to trace out modifiable intervention targets linked to mechanisms of associations with lifetime psychopathology and burden of 12-month mental disorders.

EMDR versus waiting list in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis with post-traumatic stress symptoms: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is highly prevalent in the individuals at clinical-high risk for psychosis (CHR). The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy and safety of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) in individuals at CHR with comorbid PTSD or subthreshold PTSD in a randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Fifty-seven individuals at CHR with PTSD or subthreshold PTSD formed the study sample. The eligible participants were randomly assigned to a 12 weeks EMDR treatment (N = 28) or a waiting list condition (WL, N = 29). The structured interview for psychosis risk syndrome (SIPS), the clinician administered post-traumatic stress disorder scale (CAPS) and a battery of self-rating inventories covering depressive, anxiety and suicidal symptoms were administered.

RESULTS

Twenty-six participants in the EMDR group and all the participants in the WL group completed the study. The analyses of covariance revealed greater reduction of the mean scores on CAPS (F = 23.2, Partial η² = 0.3, P < 0.001), SIPS positive scales (F = 17.8, Partial η² = 0.25, P < 0.001) and all the self-rating inventories in the EMDR group than in the WL group. Participants in the EMDR group were more likely to achieve remission of CHR compared to those in the WL group at endpoint (60.7 % vs. 31 %, P = 0.025).

CONCLUSIONS

EMDR treatment not only effectively improved traumatic symptoms, but also significantly reduced the attenuated psychotic symptoms and resulted in a higher remission rate of CHR. This study highlighted the necessity of adding a trauma-focused component to the present approach of early intervention in psychosis.

V. Hegelstad W, Joa I, Opjordsmoen SE, Rund BR, Røssberg JI, Simonsen E, Johannessen JO, Larsen TK, Haahr UH, McGlashan TH, Friis S, Melle I. Childhood trauma, antipsychotic medication, and symptom remission in first-episode psychosis

BACKGROUND

To what extent psychotic symptoms in first-episode psychosis (FEP) with a history of childhood interpersonal trauma (CIT) are less responsive to antipsychotic medication is not known. In this longitudinal study, we compare symptom trajectories and remission over the first 2 years of treatment in FEP with and without CIT and examine if differences are linked to the use of antipsychotics.

METHODS

FEP (N = 191) were recruited from in- and outpatient services 1997-2000, and assessed at baseline, 3 months, 1 and 2 years. Inclusion criteria were 15-65 years, actively psychotic with a DSM-IV diagnosis of psychotic disorder and no previous adequate treatment for psychosis. Antipsychotic medication is reported as defined daily dosage (DDD). CIT (<18) was assessed with the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey, and symptomatic remission based on scores from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale.

RESULTS

CIT (n = 63, 33%) was not associated with symptomatic remission at 2 years follow-up (71% in remission, 14% in relapse), or time to first remission (CIT 12/ no-CIT 9 weeks, p = 0.51). Those with CIT had significantly more severe positive, depressive, and excited symptoms. FEP with physical (N = 39, 20%) or emotional abuse (N = 22, 14, 7%) had higher DDD at 1 year (p < 0.05). Mean DDD did not excerpt a significant between-group effect on symptom trajectories of positive symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Results indicate that antipsychotic medication is equally beneficial in the achievement of symptomatic remission in FEP after 2 years independent of CIT. Still, FEP patients with CIT had more severe positive, depressive, and excited symptoms throughout.

Associations among psychosis, mood, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A network analysis

The associations among psychotic experiences (i.e., hallucinations and delusions), trauma exposure, and posttraumatic stress symptoms are complex and multidirectional. Using network analysis to understand how psychotic experiences and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) relate to one another may identify new interventional targets to treat comorbidity and its underlying pathological processes. This study aimed to use network analysis to examine the associations among psychotic experiences; negative symptoms of psychosis; and symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. In this population-based cohort study, 4,472 participants (36.7% male) were assessed for psychotic experiences, negative symptoms of psychosis, PTSD, anxiety, and depression at age 23 (M = 23.86 years, SD = 0.520) or 24 years (M = 24.03, SD = 0.848). Associations among symptoms were assessed via network analysis. Exploratory graph analysis identified three clusters of densely connected symptoms within the overall network: psychotic experiences; PTSD symptoms; and depressive and anxiety symptoms and negative symptoms of psychosis. Psychotic experiences had the strongest associations with other symptoms in the network, and symptoms of anxiety played a key role in bridging psychotic experiences, symptoms of PTSD, and depressive symptoms. Consistent with the stress reactivity and affective models for psychotic experiences, the results suggest that symptoms of anxiety and emotional distress (e.g., hyperarousal, panic) may have a key role in the development and maintenance of psychotic experiences and symptoms of PTSD. Targeting these symptoms may ameliorate symptom burden transdiagnostically.

Association of early life stress and cognitive performance in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls

As core symptoms of schizophrenia, cognitive deficits contribute substantially to poor outcomes. Early life stress (ELS) can negatively affect cognition in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls, but the exact nature of the mediating factors is unclear. Therefore, we investigated how ELS, education, and symptom burden are related to cognitive performance. The sample comprised 215 patients with schizophrenia (age, 42.9 ± 12.0 years; 66.0 % male) and 197 healthy controls (age, 38.5 ± 16.4 years; 39.3 % male) from the PsyCourse Study. ELS was assessed with the Childhood Trauma Screener (CTS). We used analyses of covariance and correlation analyses to investigate the association of total ELS load and ELS subtypes with cognitive performance. ELS was reported by 52.1 % of patients and 24.9 % of controls. Independent of ELS, cognitive performance on neuropsychological tests was lower in patients than controls (p < 0.001). ELS load was more closely associated with neurocognitive deficits (cognitive composite score) in controls (r = -0.305, p < 0.001) than in patients (r = -0.163, p = 0.033). Moreover, the higher the ELS load, the more cognitive deficits were found in controls (r = -0.200, p = 0.006), while in patients, this correlation was not significant after adjusting for PANSS. ELS load was more strongly associated with cognitive deficits in healthy controls than in patients. In patients, disease-related positive and negative symptoms may mask the effects of ELS-related cognitive deficits. ELS subtypes were associated with impairments in various cognitive domains. Cognitive deficits appear to be mediated through higher symptom burden and lower educational level.

Childhood family risks and mental health of older adults in China: The moderating effect of age

Introduction

Childhood family risks (CFRs) are believed to have long-arm effects on people's mental health. However, it is unclear whether age can alleviate these long-arm effects.

Aim

This study aimed to explore the relationship between CFRs and the mental health of older adults (mean [M] = 62.10, standard deviation [SD] = 8.02) in China and investigate whether age could moderate this relationship.

Methods

This cross-sectional, survey-based study used data from the Chinese General Social Survey conducted in 2015, and the data of 4,237 respondents were included in the final analysis. Mental health was measured by two items, namely negative and positive emotions. The step-by-step regression procedure and moderation analysis technique were used.

Results

For older adults in China, CFRs were significantly negatively associated with their mental health (β = -0.046, t = -2.690, p < 0.01), age was positively correlated with their mental health (β = 0.115, t = 7.157, p < 0.01), and age significantly moderated the relationship between CFRs and mental health (β = 0.277, t = 2.172, p < 0.05). As age increases, the correlation between CFRs and mental health decreases, and when age is one SD above the M, CFRs are no longer significantly associated with the mental health level (b _simple = -0.01, t = -0.077, p > 0.05).

Conclusion

This study showed that CFRs were negatively associated with the mental health level of older Chinese adults, and age could significantly moderate the association. Therefore, it is essential to take preventive measures in advance to protect people's mental health and teach older adults to use emotion-regulation techniques to weaken the association between CFRs and mental health.

Associations between exposure to early childhood adversities and middle childhood psychotic experiences in children at familial high risk of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and population-based controls: The Danish high risk and resilience study - VIA 7 and VIA 11

BACKGROUND

Exposure to adversities in early childhood is associated with psychotic experiences and disorders in adulthood. We aimed to examine whether early childhood adversities are associated with middle childhood psychotic experiences in a cohort of children at familial high risk of schizophrenia (FHR-SZ), bipolar disorder (FHR-BP) and population-based controls (controls).

METHODS

Four hundred and forty-six children from The Danish High Risk and Resilience Study - VIA7 and VIA11 participated in this study (FHR-SZ = 170; FHR-BP = 103; controls = 173). Exposure to early childhood adversities and psychotic experiences were assessed using face-to-face interviews. Having childhood adversities assessed at baseline (age 7) was used as predictor. Psychotic experiences assessed at follow-up (age 11) were used as outcome.

RESULTS

Across the sample, exposure to early childhood interpersonal adversities was associated with an increased risk for any middle childhood psychotic experiences and subclinical delusions when adjusting for relevant confounders (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.0-3.1, p = 0.05; OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.6-5.6, p < 0.001). There was no significant dose-response effect of exposure to multiple types of childhood adversities on any psychotic experiences. There were no interaction effects between early childhood adversities and FHR on middle childhood psychotic experiences. Exploratory analyses revealed that experiencing domestic violence in early childhood was associated with any middle childhood psychotic experiences (OR 2.8, 95% CI 1.5-5.1, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to interpersonal adversities during early childhood is associated with an increased risk for middle childhood psychotic experiences including specifically subclinical delusions. Future studies should examine associations between exposure to childhood adversities and conversion to psychosis within this cohort.

Investigating Specific Associations Between Childhood Victimization Profiles and Positive Psychosis Symptoms: The Mediating Roles of Anxiety, Depression, and Schema

Background

Childhood trauma is a risk factor for psychosis. It is proposed this is due to traumatic events giving rise to psychological mechanisms that are implicated in the development and maintenance of symptoms. Investigation of the psychological mechanisms accounting for relationships between trauma and psychosis will be assisted by focusing on specific trauma profiles, hallucination modalities, and delusion subtypes.

Study Design

In 171 adults with schizophrenia-spectrum diagnoses and high-conviction delusions, associations between childhood trauma classes, and hallucination and delusion factors, were tested using structural equation models (SEMs). Anxiety, depression, and negative schema were examined as potential mediators of trauma class-psychosis symptom factor links.

Study Results

Significant associations were found between the emotional abuse/neglect and poly-victimization classes with persecutory delusions and delusions of influence, that were all mediated through anxiety (β = 1.24-0.23, P = < .05). There was an association between the physical abuse class and grandiose/religious delusions that was not explained by the mediators (β = 1.86, P = < .05). Trauma class was not significantly associated with any hallucination modality (β = 0.004-1.46, P = > .05).

Conclusions

In a sample of people with strongly held delusions, this study demonstrates that childhood victimization is associated with delusions of influence and grandiose beliefs, as well as with persecutory delusions in psychosis. Consistent with previous findings, the potent, mediating role of anxiety supports affective pathway theories and the utility of targeting threat-related processes when treating trauma effects in psychosis.

Impact of Childhood Adversity, as Early Life Distress, on Cytokine Alterations in Schizophrenia

Even though inflammation theory has been introduced in the pathophysiology of psychosis almost a century ago, many of its aspects have remained unelucidated. Numerous studies have shown cytokine dysregulation in schizophrenia and a predominance of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but on another side, various cytokines in a pro-inflammatory group have different trends in all subtypes of schizophrenia. Alterations are also present in anti-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines, but findings are still not consistent. On the other hand, it is well known that abuse and neglect in childhood may be predictors of psychotic disorders, and childhood adversity is also associated with alterations of the immune and inflammatory response (through various mechanisms including HPA dysregulation as well). This review aims to analyze conducted studies and elucidate the link between childhood abuse, schizophrenia, and cytokine alterations. Putting together this complex psycho-immunological puzzle for the subgroup of schizophrenia-diagnosed patients with distinct immunological abnormalities and a history of childhood abuse can help us to answer the question about the future treatment of these patients.

Correlation Between Aggressive Behavior and Impulsive and Aggressive Personality Traits in Stable Patients with Schizophrenia

Purpose

To explore the correlation between aggressive behavior and impulsive and aggressive personality traits in inpatients with schizophrenia.

Methods

In total, 367 inpatients with schizophrenia were divided into two groups: the aggressive group and the non-aggressive group. We assessed inpatients' psychotic symptoms as well as their aggressive and impulsive personality traits using the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire.

Results

Compared with the scores of inpatients in the non-aggressive group, the total Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, subscale, and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale behavioral factor scores in those in the aggressive group were higher (p < 0.05). The results of logistic regression analysis suggested that a high Positive and Negative Symptom Scale positive factor score (odds ratio = 1.07) and a high Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire physical aggression score (odds ratio = 1.02) were risk factors for aggressive behavior.

Conclusion

Hospitalized patients with schizophrenia with more severe positive symptoms and aggressive traits may be more prone to aggressive behavior.

A Prospective Cohort Study on the Intergenerational Transmission of Childhood Adversity and Subsequent Risk of Psychotic Experiences in Adolescence

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Previous studies have shown a robust relationship between childhood adversity and subsequent psychotic symptoms. However, the role of familial risk factors underlying this relationship remains largely unclear. Here, we tested whether offspring childhood adversity and postnatal maternal psychopathology mediated the relationship between maternal childhood adversity and offspring psychotic experiences.

STUDY DESIGN

N = 3068 mother-offspring dyads were included. Maternal history of childhood adversity was retrospectively assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire during pregnancy. Maternal psychopathology was assessed during and after pregnancy. Twenty-four offspring childhood adversities were assessed by maternal interview when the child was 10 years old. Offspring psychotic experiences were examined using self-report at 14 years. Structural equation mediation models were conducted to explore whether maternal postnatal psychopathology and offspring childhood adversities sequentially mediated the relationship between maternal childhood adversity and offspring psychotic experiences. Analyses were adjusted for sociodemographic confounders.

STUDY RESULTS

Maternal history of childhood adversity was associated with offspring childhood adversities (β = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.09 to 0.16). Offspring childhood adversity mediated the association of maternal childhood adversity with offspring hallucinations (βindirect effect = 0.008, 95% CI: 0.002 to 0.014, proportion mediated = 16.3%) and delusions (βindirect effect = 0.006, 95% CI: 0.000 to 0.012, proportion mediated = 13.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Intergenerational transmission of childhood adversity can be considered of relevance in the etiology of psychosis vulnerability and can potentially serve as a modifiable risk factor.

Rumination mediates the relationship between childhood trauma and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia patients

Rumination and childhood trauma are related to depressive symptoms in clinical and non-clinical individuals. This is the first study aimed to test the mediating effect of rumination on the relationship between childhood trauma and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia patients. A total of 313 schizophrenia patients were recruited in the present study. The 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD-17) was adopted to evaluate depressive symptoms, the short-form Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-SF) and the 10-item Ruminative response scale (RRS-10) were utilized to assess the childhood trauma and rumination in patients, respectively. Our results showed that 168 schizophrenia patients (53.67%) had comorbid depressive symptoms. These patients with depressive symptoms had higher levels of childhood trauma [both CTQ-SF total scores and emotional abuse (EA), emotional neglect (EN), physical neglect (PN) subscale scores] and rumination (both RRS-10 total scores and brooding, reflection subscale scores) compared to patients without depressive symptoms. The stepwise logistic regression analysis identified that EN (OR 1.196, P = 0.003), PN (OR 1.1294, P < 0.001), brooding (OR 1.291, P < 0.001) and reflection (OR 1.481, P < 0.001) could independently predict the depressive symptoms in schizophrenia patients. Moreover, RRS-10 and its subscale scores could mediate the relationship between depressive symptoms and childhood trauma, especially EA, EN and PN in schizophrenia. Our preliminary findings suggest that the rigorous assessment and psychosocial interventions of rumination are important to alleviate the influence of childhood trauma on depressive symptoms in schizophrenia patients.

Hallucinations and Brain Morphology Across Early Adolescence: A Longitudinal Neuroimaging Study

BACKGROUND

Psychotic disorders have been widely associated with structural brain abnormalities. However, it is unclear whether brain structure predicts psychotic experiences in youth from the general population, owing to an overall paucity of studies and predominantly cross-sectional designs. Here, the authors investigated longitudinal associations between brain morphology and hallucinations from childhood to early adolescence.

METHODS

This study was embedded in the population-based Generation R Study. Children underwent structural neuroimaging at age 10 years (N = 2042); a subsample received a second scan at age 14 years (n = 964). Hallucinations were assessed at ages 10 and 14 years and studied as a binary variable. Cross-lagged panel models and generalized linear mixed-effects models were fitted to examine longitudinal associations between brain morphology and hallucinations.

RESULTS

Smaller total gray and white matter volumes and total cortical surface area at baseline were associated with a higher occurrence of hallucinations between ages 10 and 14 years. The regions associated with hallucinations were widespread, including the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, as well as the insula and cingulate cortex. Analyses of subcortical structures revealed that smaller baseline hippocampal volumes were longitudinally associated with hallucinations, although this association was no longer significant following adjustment for intracranial volume. No evidence for reverse temporality was observed (i.e., hallucinations predicting brain differences).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this longitudinal study suggest that global structural brain differences are associated with the development of hallucinations. These results extend findings from clinical populations and provide evidence for a neurodevelopmental vulnerability across the psychosis continuum.

Trauma and psychosis: The mediating role of premorbid adjustment and recent stressful events in a 3-year longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Some of the most-studied environmental factors that can contribute to the development of psychosis are the adversities experienced at an early age. Among these, childhood interpersonal trauma (CIT) has been considered especially influential in the onset of the disease. The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between CIT and the first episode of psychosis (FEP), as well as the relationship between CIT and clinical and functional outcomes 3 years after illness onset.

METHODS

A total of 278 patients with a FEP and 52 healthy controls were studied. Logistic regression analysis was carried out to examine the explained variation by CIT at the beginning of psychosis. Recent stressful events and premorbid adjustment related to CIT, were introduced in path analyses to determine their mediating effects between CIT and the disease and its clinical and functional results.

RESULTS

Mediation analyses showed that CIT was indirectly associated with belonging to the FEP group through recent stressful events (Effect = 0.981; SE = 0.323; CI = 0.485 to 1.761). Premorbid academic adjustment in late adolescence mediated the relationship between CIT and clinical and functional outcomes, specifically in the measurements of the Scales for Assessment of Positive and Negative Symptoms, in the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, and in the Disability Assessment Scale.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that early traumatic experiences play an important role in the FEP. Early intervention that promotes good academic adjustment during adolescence and/or avoids retraumatisation could positively impact both the onset and the course of psychotic illness.

Early adversities accelerate epigenetic aging into adulthood: a 10-year, within-subject analysis

BACKGROUND

Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify whether early adversities are associated with advanced methylation age or if they actually accelerate methylation aging. This study test whether different dimensions of childhood adversity accelerate biological aging from childhood to adulthood, and, if so, via which mechanisms.

METHODS

381 participants provided one blood sample in childhood (average age 15.0; SD = 2.3) and another in young adulthood (average age 23.1; SD = 2.8). Participants and their parents provided a median of 6 childhood assessments (total = 1,950 childhood observations), reporting exposures to different types of adversity dimensions (i.e. threat, material deprivation, loss, unpredictability). The blood samples were assayed to estimate DNA methylation age in both childhood and adulthood and also change in methylation age across this period.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional associations between the childhood adversity dimensions and childhood measures of methylation age were non-significant. In contrast, multiple adversity dimensions were associated with accelerated within-person change in methylation age from adolescence to young adulthood. These associations attenuated in model testing all dimensions at the same time. Accelerated aging increased with increasing number of childhood adversities: Individuals with highest number of adversities experienced 2+ additional years of methylation aging compared to those with no exposure to childhood adversities. The association between total childhood adversity exposure and accelerated aging was partially explained by childhood depressive symptoms, but not anxiety or behavioral symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Early adversities accelerate epigenetic aging long after they occur, in proportion to the total number of such experiences, and in a manner consistent with a shared effect that crosses multiple early dimensions of risk.

Trauma-focused therapies for post-traumatic stress in psychosis: study protocol for the RE.PROCESS randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Many people with psychotic disorders experience symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In recent years, several trauma-focused therapies (TFTs), including cognitive restructuring (CR), prolonged exposure (PE), and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) have been studied and found to be safe and effective in reducing PTSD symptoms in individuals with psychosis. However, studies were conducted in different countries, with varying inclusion criteria, therapy duration, control groups, and trial outcomes. RE.PROCESS will be the first study to compare the impact of CR, PE, and EMDR with a waiting list control condition within the same context.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This is the protocol of a pragmatic, single-blind, multicentre, superiority randomized controlled trial, in which CR, PE, and EMDR are compared to a waiting list control condition for TFT (WL) in a naturalistic treatment setting. Inclusion criteria are as follows: age ≥ 16 years; meeting full DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for PTSD on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5), with a total CAPS score ≥ 23; and a psychotic disorder in the schizophrenia spectrum confirmed by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5). Participants (N=200) will be randomly allocated to 16 sessions of one of the TFTs or WL, in addition to receiving treatment as usual (TAU) for psychosis. The primary objective is to compare the effects of CR, PE, and EMDR to WL on researcher-rated severity of PTSD symptoms over time from baseline to 6-month follow-up. Secondary objectives are to examine these effects at the separate time-points (i.e., mid-treatment, post-treatment, and at 6-month follow-up) and to test the effects for clinician-rated presence of PTSD diagnosis, and self-rated severity of (complex) PTSD symptoms.

DISCUSSION

This is the first RCT to directly compare the effects of CR, PE, and EMDR within the same context to TAU on PTSD symptoms in individuals with psychosis and PTSD. Secondary effects on clinical and functional outcomes will be investigated both directly after therapy and long term.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN ISRCTN56150327 . Registered 18 June 2019.

Childhood adversity increases risk of psychotic experiences in patients with substance use disorder

INTRODUCTION

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increase the risk of psychotic experiences (PE), but little is known about heterogeneities of this association in different developmental stages, dimensions, or whether they are affected by substance use disorder (SUD). This study examines the association between different types of ACEs at various developmental stages and lifetime PE in patients with SUD in Chile.

METHODS

We included 399 consenting adults in outpatient or residential SUD treatment programs. Sociodemographic data and information about PE and ACEs were obtained by trained clinical psychologists.

RESULTS

Patients reporting PE experienced more ACEs compared to patients without PE (4.2 versus 3.4). They also experienced more complex adversities (41.8% versus 25.1%), had more psychiatric comorbidities (85% versus 70.4%), and reported using more substances (mean 4.5 versus 3.9). Adjusted association between ACEs and PE showed the highest OR for arrests (1.88), sexual abuse (1.81), alcohol abuse by parents (1.48), school exclusion (1.39), foster or residential care (18.3).

CONCLUSION

Early exposure to ACEs is a risk factor for later PE among patients with SUD. Type of ACE and the period when they occurred is important, suggesting the existence of critical periods where the individual is more susceptible to adverse environmental stimuli.

Schizophrenia: the new etiological synthesis

Schizophrenia has been an evolutionary paradox: it has high heritability, but it is associated with decreased reproductive success. The causal genetic variants underlying schizophrenia are thought to be under weak negative selection. To unravel this paradox, many evolutionary explanations have been suggested for schizophrenia. We critically discuss the constellation of evolutionary hypotheses for schizophrenia, highlighting the lack of empirical support for most existing evolutionary hypotheses-with the exception of the relatively well supported evolutionary mismatch hypothesis. It posits that evolutionarily novel features of contemporary environments, such as chronic stress, low-grade systemic inflammation, and gut dysbiosis, increase susceptibility to schizophrenia. Environmental factors such as microbial infections (e.g., Toxoplasma gondii) can better predict the onset of schizophrenia than polygenic risk scores. However, researchers have not been able to explain why only a small minority of infected people develop schizophrenia. The new etiological synthesis of schizophrenia indicates that an interaction between host genotype, microbe infection, and chronic stress causes schizophrenia, with neuroinflammation and gut dysbiosis mediating this etiological pathway. Instead of just alleviating symptoms with drugs, the parasite x genotype x stress model emphasizes that schizophrenia treatment should focus on detecting and treating possible underlying microbial infection(s), neuroinflammation, gut dysbiosis, and chronic stress.

Schizophrenia Polygenic Risk and Experiences of Childhood Adversity: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Schizophrenia has been robustly associated with multiple genetic and environmental risk factors. Childhood adversity is one of the most widely replicated environmental risk factors for schizophrenia, but it is unclear if schizophrenia genetic risk alleles contribute to this association.

STUDY DESIGN

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we assessed the evidence for gene-environment correlation (genes influence likelihood of environmental exposure) between schizophrenia polygenic risk score (PRS) and reported childhood adversity. We also assessed the evidence for a gene-environment interaction (genes influence sensitivity to environmental exposure) in relation to the outcome of schizophrenia and/or psychosis. This study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42020182812). Following PRISMA guidelines, a search for relevant literature was conducted using Cochrane, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus databases until February 2022. All studies that examined the association between schizophrenia PRS and childhood adversity were included.

STUDY RESULTS

Seventeen of 650 identified studies met the inclusion criteria and were assessed against the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for quality. The meta-analysis found evidence for gene-environment correlation between schizophrenia PRS and childhood adversity (r = .02; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.03; P = .001), but the effect was small and therefore likely to explain only a small proportion of the association between childhood adversity and psychosis. The 4 studies that investigated a gene-environment interaction between schizophrenia PRS and childhood adversity in increasing risk of psychosis reported inconsistent results.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that a gene-environment correlation could explain a small proportion of the relationship between reported childhood adversity and psychosis.

Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences: The Role of Etiological, Evaluation, and Implementation Research

Research on adverse childhood experiences is a vital part of the data-to-action link and the development of evidence-based public health and violence prevention practice. Etiological research helps to elucidate the key risk and protective factors for adverse childhood experiences and outcome research examines the consequences of exposure to them. Evaluation research is critical to building the evidence base for strategies that are likely to have a significant impact on preventing and reducing adverse experiences during childhood. Implementation research efforts inform the movement and scale-up of evidence-based findings to public health practice. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Division of Violence Prevention located in the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control is investing in a number of research initiatives that are designed to advance what is known about the causes and consequences of adverse childhood experiences (i.e., etiological research), the strategies that are effective at reducing and preventing them (i.e., evaluation research), and how to best adapt and scale effective strategies (i.e., implementation research). This article complements the other articles in this Special Supplement by briefly providing a review of reviews for each of these areas and highlighting recent research investments and strategic directions by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the area of child abuse and neglect and adverse childhood experience prevention. Research investments are critical to advancing the evidence base on the prevention of adverse childhood experiences and to ensure safe, stable, and nurturing relationships and environments so that all children can live to their fullest potential.

A narrative review of psychological theories of post-traumatic stress disorder, voice hearing, and other psychotic symptoms

BACKGROUND

Most voice hearers report childhood trauma. Many voice hearers report comorbid post-traumatic stress symptoms and that the content of their voices (auditory verbal hallucinations) is directly (voices repeat phrases spoken by perpetrators) or indirectly (voice content and trauma is thematically similar) related to their trauma. The factors that maintain trauma-related voices are unknown, and there is limited research in this area. This study aimed to identify potential maintaining factors of trauma-related voices by reviewing models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and positive symptoms of psychosis.

METHOD

Models of PTSD and positive symptoms were reviewed to identify potential factors that are unique and common to both sets of symptoms.

RESULTS

We reviewed 10 models of PTSD, 4 models of positive symptoms, and 2 trauma-informed models of voice hearing. One model provided a theoretical explanation of different types of trauma-related voices. Twenty-one factors were extracted from 16 theoretical models. No existing model incorporated all these factors.

DISCUSSION

Existing PTSD and positive symptom models present a range of common and unique factors. There may be value in extending existing integrative models to include a broader range of potential factors that could explain different pathways to, and expressions of, trauma-related voices. A future research agenda is presented to investigate how such an extension could lead to more complete individualized case formulations and targeted treatments.