Detection and Mapping of Cannabinoids in Single Hair Samples through Rapid Derivatization and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Applications of MALDI mass spectrometry in forensic science

Forensic chemistry literature has grown exponentially, with many analytical techniques being used to provide valuable information to help solve criminal cases. Among them, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI MS), particularly MALDI MS imaging (MALDI MSI), has shown much potential in forensic applications. Due to its high specificity, MALDI MSI can analyze a wide variety of compounds in complex samples without extensive sample preparation, providing chemical profiles and spatial distributions of given analyte(s). This review introduces MALDI MS(I) to forensic scientists with a focus on its basic principles and the applications of MALDI MS(I) to the analysis of fingerprints, drugs of abuse, and their metabolites in hair, medicine samples, animal tissues, and inks in documents.

Recent advances in the chromatographic analysis of endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids in biological samples

Endocannabinoid system, including endocannabinoid neurotransmitters (eCBs), has gained much attention over the last years due to its involvement with the pathophysiology of diseases and the potential use of Cannabis sativa (marijuana). The identification of eCBs and phytocannabinoids in biological samples for forensic, clinical, or therapeutic drug monitoring purposes constitutes a still significant challenge. In this scoping review, the recent advantages, and limitations of the eCBs and phytocannabinoids quantification in biological samples are described. Published studies from 2018-2023 were searched in 8 databases, and after screening and exclusions, the selected 38 articles had their data tabulated, summarized, and analyzed. The main characteristics of the eCBs and phytocannabinoids analyzed and the potential use of each biological sample were described, indicating gaps in the literature that still need to be explored. Well-established and innovative sample preparation protocols, and chromatographic separations, such as GC, HPLC, and UHPLC, are reviewed highlighting their respective advantages, drawbacks, and challenges. Lastly, future approaches, challenges, and tendencies in the quantification analysis of cannabinoids are discussed.

Validation and Quantitation of Fifteen Cannabinoids in Cannabis and Marketed Products Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet/Photodiode Array Method

Background: Cannabis sativa is a psychoactive plant indigenous to Central and South Asia, traditionally used both for recreational and religious purposes, in addition to folk medicine. Cannabis is a rich source of natural compounds, the most important of which are commonly known as cannabinoids that cause a variety of effects through interaction with the endocannabinoid system. Materials and Methods: In this study, a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet/photodiode array (PDA) method was developed and validated for the analysis of 15 cannabinoids in cannabis plant materials and cannabis-based marketed products. These cannabinoids are cannabidivarinic acid, cannabidivarin, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, cannabigerol, cannabidiol, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid, cannabinol, delta-9-tetrahyrocannabinol, delta-8-tetrahyrocannabinol, cannabicyclol, cannabichromene, delta-9-tetrahyrocannabinolic acid A, and cannabichromenic acid. The separation was carried out using a reversed-phase Luna® C18(2) column and a mobile phase consisting of 75% acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid in water. A PDA detector was used, and data were extracted at λ=220 nm. Principal component analysis of cannabis four varieties was performed. Results: The method was linear over the calibration range of 5-75 μg/mL with R2>0.999 for all cannabinoids. This method was sensitive and gave good baseline separation of all examined cannabinoids with limits of detection ranging between 0.2 and 1.6 μg/mL and limits of quantification ranging between 0.6 and 4.8 μg/mL. The average recoveries for all cannabinoids were between 81% and 104%. The measured repeatability and intermediate precisions (% relative standard deviation) in all varieties ranged from 0.35% to 9.84% and 1.11% to 5.26%, respectively. Conclusions: The proposed method is sensitive, selective, reproducible, and accurate. It can be applied for the simultaneous determination of these cannabinoids in the C. sativa biomass and cannabis-derived marketed products.

Analysis of the Correlation between Cholesterol Levels in Blood Using Clinical Data and Hair Using Mass Spectrometry Imaging

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a technique that visualizes the distribution of molecules by ionizing the components on the surface of a sample and directly detecting them. Previously, MSI using hair has primarily been used in the forensic field to detect illegal drugs. On the other hand, there are few examples of using this technology for health monitoring. In this study, hair and clinical data were collected from 24 subjects, and the correlation between blood cholesterol levels and cholesterol detected from cross-sectional hair slices was analyzed. As a result, a positive correlation with a correlation coefficient of 0.43 was observed between blood cholesterol and cholesterol detected from hair. Furthermore, when comparing the results of fluorescence staining (FS) of hair cholesterol with Filipin III and the MSI results, it was found that while FS could visualize detailed hair structures, there were cases where the results differed from MSI, possibly due to some cholesterol loss during the staining process. In the future, if various disease biomarkers can be detected using hair MSI, it could potentially become a non-invasive diagnostic method.

Online Charge-Generation Derivatization by Electrochemical Radical Cations of Thianthrene: Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Estrogens in Biological Tissues

Estrogens play a significant role in endocrinology and oncology. Although separation methods coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) have emerged as a powerful tool for studying estrogens, imaging the spatial distributions of estrogens is crucial but remains challenging due to its low endogenous concentration and poor ionization efficiency. Charge-generation derivatization, such as N-alkylpyridinium quaternization and S-methyl thioetherification, represents a method wherein neutral molecules involving analytes and derivatization reagents undergo chemical reactions to establish permanent charges directly onto the analytes to improve detection sensitivity. Here, we developed a novel derivatization reagent, thianthrene (TT), which enabled oxidization to radical cations ([TT]•+) using an electrochemical method and completed the online charge-generation derivatization of estrogens on a mass spectrometry imaging platform. In this strategy, [TT]•+ can efficiently and selectively derivatize estrogens via an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. Results indicated that derivatization with [TT]•+ can significantly enhance imaging sensitivity (3 orders of magnitude), enabling the visualization of estrogen and its metabolites in ovarian and breast tissues. Furthermore, a higher mass intensity of these estrogens was captured in breast para-cancerous tissues than in cancerous tissues, which might provide estrogens spatial dimension information for further research on the initiation and progression of breast cancer.

Formation of multiple ion types during MALDI imaging mass spectrometry analysis of Mitragyna speciosa alkaloids in dosed rat brain tissue

Mitragyna speciosa, more commonly known as kratom, has emerged as an alternative to treat chronic pain and addiction. However, the alkaloid components of kratom, which are the major contributors to kratom's pharmaceutical properties, have not yet been fully investigated. In this study, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging mass spectrometry was used to map the biodistribution of three alkaloids (corynantheidine, mitragynine, and speciogynine) in rat brain tissues. The alkaloids produced three main ion types during MALDI analysis: [M + H]+, [M - H]+, and [M - 3H]+. Contrary to previous reports suggesting that the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types form during laser ablation, these ion types can also be produced during the MALDI matrix application process. Several strategies are proposed to accurately map the biodistribution of the alkaloids. Due to differences in the relative abundances of the ions in different biological regions of the tissue, differences in ionization efficiencies of the ions, and potential overlap of the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types with endogenous metabolites of the same empirical formula, a matrix that mainly produces the [M + H]+ ion type is optimal for accurate mapping of the alkaloids. Alternatively, the most abundant ion type can be mapped or the intensities of all ion types can be summed together to generate a composite image. The accuracy of each of these approaches is explored and validated.

Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens

Cannabis and associated substances are some of the most frequently abused drugs across the globe, mainly due to their anxiolytic and euphorigenic properties. Nowadays, the analysis of hair samples has been given high importance in forensic and analytical sciences and in clinical studies because they are associated with a low risk of infection, do not require complicated storage conditions, and offer a broad window of non-invasive detection. Analysis of hair samples is very easy compared to the analysis of blood, urine, and saliva samples. This review places particular emphasis on methodologies of analyzing hair samples containing cannabis, with a special focus on the preparation of samples for analysis, which involves screening and extraction techniques, followed by confirmatory assays. Through this manuscript, we have presented an overview of the available literature on the screening of cannabis using mass spectroscopy techniques. We have presented a detailed overview of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique, to establish it as a suitable method for the analysis of cannabis from hair samples.

Absorbance-Transmittance Excitation Emission Matrix Method for Quantification of Major Cannabinoids and Corresponding Acids: A Rapid Alternative to Chromatography for Rapid Chemotype Discrimination of Cannabis sativa Varieties

Background: Phytocannabinoids naturally occur in the cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa), and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) predominate. There is a need for rapid inexpensive methods to quantify total THC (for statutory definition) and THC-CBD ratio (for classification into three chemotypes). This study explores the capabilities of a spectroscopic technique that combines ultraviolet-visible and fluorescence, absorbance-transmittance excitation emission matrix (A-TEEM). Methods: The A-TEEM technique classifies 49 dry flower extracts into three C. sativa chemotypes, and quantifies the total THC-CBD ratio, using validated gas chromatography (GC)-flame ionization (FID) and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) methods for reference. Multivariate methods used are principal components analysis for a chemotype classification, extreme gradient boost (XGB) discriminant analysis (DA) to classify unknown samples by chemotype, and XGB regression to quantify total THC and CBD content using GC-FID and HPLC data on the same samples. Results: The A-TEEM technique provides robust classification of C. sativa samples, predicting chemotype classification, defined by THC-CBD content, of unknown samples with 100% accuracy. In addition, A-TEEM can quantify total THC and CBD levels relevant to statutory determination, with limit of quantifications (LOQs) of 0.061% (THC) and 0.059% (CBD), and high cross-validation (>0.99) and prediction (>0.99), using a GC-FID method for reference data; and LOQs of 0.026% (THC) and 0.080% (CBD) with high cross-validation (>0.98) and prediction (>0.98), using an HPLC method for reference data. A-TEEM is highly predictive in separately quantifying acid and neutral forms of THC and CBD with HPLC reference data. Conclusions: The A-TEEM technique provides a sensitive method for the qualitative and quantitative characterization of the major cannabinoids in solution, with LOQs comparable with GC-FID and HPLC, and high values of cross-validation and prediction. As a spectroscopic technique, it is rapid, with data acquisition <45 sec per measurement; sample preparation is simple, requiring only solvent extraction. A-TEEM has the sensitivity to resolve and quantify cannabinoids in solution based on their unique spectral characteristics. Discrimination of legal and illegal chemotypes can be rapidly verified using XGB DA, and quantitation of statutory levels of total THC and total CBD comparable with GC-FID and HPLC can be obtained using XBD regression.

Reactive Paper Spray Ionization Mass Spectrometry for Rapid Detection of Estrogens in Cosmetics

Rapid detection of harmful estrogens in cosmetics is essential in protecting public health. To reduce time-consuming pretreatment and analytical procedures, a novel reactive paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (RPSI-MS) methodology was developed. RPSI-MS is suitable for quantitatively analyzing estrogens in cosmetics by utilizing an online derivatization reaction between estrogens and 2-fluoro-1-methyl-pyridinium-p-toluene-sulfonate (FluMP). Using estradiol valerate as the internal standard (I.S.), three estrogens, estradiol, estriol, and ethinyloestradiol, in cosmetics were quantitatively characterized within minutes. Multiple parameters were optimized including FluMP concentration and volume, triethylamine amount as well as the drying time. The three estrogens displayed good linearity ranging from 0.002 to 1 μg/mL, with R2 above 0.99. The recovery results of all the estrogens were within 80~111%. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.001 μg/mL for the three estrogens. Compared to conventional paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PSI-MS), extraction is not required and the detection sensitivity of RPSI-MS was improved by 34,000, 80,000, and 1400 times for estradiol, estriol, and ethinyloestradiol, respectively. The protocol established in this paper is sensitive, eco-friendly, and suitable for rapid testing of estrogens in cosmetics.

Rapid Testing of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Its Metabolite On-Site Using a Label-Free Ratiometric Fluorescence Assay on a Smartphone

Excessive consumption of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) severely endangers human health and has raised public safety concerns. However, its quantification by readily rapid tools with simplicity and low cost is still challenging. Herein, we found that a G-rich THC aptamer (THC1.2) can tightly bind to thioflavin T (ThT) with strong fluorescence, which would be specifically quenched in the presence of THC. Based on that, a label-free ratiometric fluorescent sensor for the sensing of THC and its metabolite (THC-COOH) based on THC1.2/ThT as a color emitter and red CdTe quantum dots as reference fluorescence was constructed. Notably, a transition of the fluorescent color of the ratiometric probe from green to red can be instantly observed upon the increased concentration of THC and THC-COOH. Furthermore, a portable smartphone-based fluorescence device integrated with a self-programmed Python program was fabricated and used to accomplish on-site monitoring of THC and THC-COOH within 5 min. Under optimized conditions, this ratiometric fluorescent sensor allowed for an instant response toward THC and its metabolite with considerable limits of detection of 97 and 254 nM, respectively. The established sensor has been successfully applied to urine and saliva samples and exhibited satisfactory recoveries (88-116%). This ratiometric fluorescent sensor can be used for the simultaneous detection of THC and THC-COOH with the advantages of rapidness, low cost, ease of operation, and portability, providing a promising strategy for on-site detection and facilitating law enforcement regulation and roadside control of THC.

Determination of cannabinoids in human cerumen samples by use of UPLC-MS/MS as a potential biomarker for drug use

A quantitative analytical procedure was developed and validated by the use of Ultra- Performance Liquid Chromatography tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for the determination of Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabinol (CBN), Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), Cannabichromene (CBC), Cannabigerol (CBG) and 11-Nor- 9- Carboxy- Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in an unconventional biological matrix, cerumen. All the investigated calibration curves were characterized by high correlation values (R² ≥ 0.9965). The LODs and LOQs ranged from 0.004 to 0.009 μg g^-1 and 0.012-0.029 μg g^-1, respectively. Intra-assay and inter-assay precision were found to be 0.6-2.5%, and 0.8-2.2%, respectively. All recovery values of cannabinoids, with the use of the optimum cotton swab, at low (0.008 μg g^-1 of cerumen), medium (0.037 μg g^-1of cerumen) and high (0.16 μg g^-1 of cerumen) control levels, were estimated to be above 86%. The method developed here permitted the analysis of real cerumen samples obtained from fourteen cannabis users. In twelve out of fourteen cases, Δ⁹-THC was found to be positive, while in six cases, three major cannabinoids, CBN, CBG and Δ⁹-THC were quantified at concentrations 0.02-0.21 μg g^-1, 0.01-0.24 μg g^-1 and 0.01-4.86 μg g^-1, respectively. Subject #8 has the highest amount of the detected substances in both left and right ear, with Δ⁹-THC at a concentration of 1.85 and 4.86 μg g^-1, CBG 0.06 and 0.24 μg g^-1, CBN 0.10 and 0.21 μg g^-1, respectively. In addition, a detection window for the substances Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabinol and Cannabigerol, in cerumen, was defined with success. In this case, Δ⁹-THC reached a maximum detection frame of up to fifteen days after smoking 0.5 g of marijuana cigarette. ANOVA-one-way analysis also indicated that the average earwax production of non-cannabis users differs significantly from the one of cannabis users (p = 0.048, <0.05). On the other hand, no significant difference was noticed between male and female users as the p value exceeded 0.05. In addition, no significant effect was observed on earwax production in regard to age, frequency and the last time of use (p > 0.05). These last three factors proved to have a significant impact on cannabinoids concentrations, since p values were less than 0.05.

Morphological and chemical profiling for forensic hair examination: A review of quantitative methods

Within the past two decades, there have been many studies for quantitative analysis on human hair samples. Microscopical and chemical analysis techniques have been used to analyze various aspects of hair regarding biological, chemical, anthropological, cosmetic, and forensic applications. Studies have attempted to develop quantification methods to increase the evidentiary value of hair in forensic casework. The literature reviewed in this paper provides some of the current techniques used for forensic examinations and quantitative methods. Although microscopical analysis has been scrutinized in the past, using chemical and microscopical techniques can provide a myriad of information. The extraction of DNA from hair provides high-value evidence; however, it may not be readily available and may yield inconclusive results. Hair analysis can be used for many forensic applications such as comparison, toxicology, and exposure analysis. In this article, we will review published research material regarding chemical and microscopical techniques for human hair analysis. Aspects considered for this review were the sample size requirement for analysis and the destructive nature of the instrumental method. This review will focus on both macro and micro quantitative methods for human hair analysis.

Matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization-mass spectrometric imaging of psilocybin and its analogues in psychedelic mushrooms using a cesium chloride-coated target plate

Fungi with hallucinogenic properties and neurotoxicity have been listed as prohibited drugs in recent years, but there is a lack of in situ quantification of psilocybin and analogues in these samples to avoid the decomposition of these psychoactive tryptamines in time-consuming sample preparation. In this study, matrix-assisted laser-desorption/ionization (MALDI)-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT ICR) mass spectrometric imaging (MSI) was used to analyze the distribution of psilocybin and its analogues in hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms. A cesium chloride (CsCl)-coated target plate was prepared to improve the detection sensitivity and reduce the interference of other compounds or decomposition products with very similar m/z values in MALDI-FT ICR MS analysis. Psilocybin and other tryptamines with structurally similar compounds, including psilocin, baeocystin, tryptophan, tryptamine, and aeruginascin, were identified and imaged in the psilocybe tissue section; the semiquantitative analysis of the distribution of psilocybin was also investigated using a homemade 75-well CsCl-coated plate; and the target plate can be placed on the mass spectrometry target carrier along with the indium-tin oxide (ITO) conductive slide, which can simultaneously carry out matrix vapor deposition, thus ensuring the parallelism between the standards and samples in the pretreatment experiment and MSI. The contents of psilocybin and its analogues in the psilocybe tissue section can be evaluated from the color changes corresponding to different concentration standard curves. Furthermore, a comprehensive comparison between MALDI-FT ICR MS and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF MS) analysis was performed for quantification and validation. This study reduces the decomposition in time-consuming sample pretreatment and provides a powerful tool for drug abuse control and forensic analysis.

Rapid Detection of Estrogens in Cosmetics by Chemical Derivatization and Paper-Spray Ionization Mass-Spectrometry

Estrogens in personal care products are harmful to customers. Conventional methods such as HPLC and LC-MS require tedious sample pretreatment and long analytical time. Paper-spray ionization mass spectrometry (PSI-MS) is a powerful tool for the determination of compounds with little time and minimal pretreatment procedures. Since most estrogens show poor responses in PSI-MS, we developed a chemical derivatization and PSI-MS method to determinate three estrogens: estradiol, estriol and ethinyloestradiol with estradiol valerate as the internal standard (I.S.). After derivatization with 2-fluoro-1-methyl-pyridinium-p-toluene-sulfonate, the three estrogens could be quantified in seconds. This method showed good linearity in the range of 0.1~30 μg·mL^-1, with R² > 0.999. Their recovery results were all between 85%~115%. The limits of detection (LOD) were 0.04 μg·mL^-1, 0.02 μg·mL^-1 and 0.02 μg·mL^-1 for estradiol, estriol and ethinyloestradiol respectively, which improved around 200, 2000, and 900 times compared to non-derivative PSI-MS. The method could quantitatively determine estrogens in cosmetics.

Molecular Networking and On-Tissue Chemical Derivatization for Enhanced Identification and Visualization of Steroid Glycosides by MALDI Mass Spectrometry Imaging

Spatial metabolomics describes the spatially resolved analysis of interconnected pathways, biochemical reactions, and transport processes of small molecules in the spatial context of tissues and cells. However, a broad range of metabolite classes (e.g., steroids) show low intrinsic ionization efficiencies in mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) experiments, thus restricting the spatial characterization of metabolic networks. Additionally, decomposing complex metabolite networks into chemical compound classes and molecular annotations remains a major bottleneck due to the absence of repository-scaled databases. Here, we describe a multimodal mass-spectrometry-based method combining computational metabolome mining tools and high-resolution on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD) MSI for the spatially resolved analysis of metabolic networks at the low micrometer scale. Applied to plant toxin sequestration in Danaus plexippus as a model system, we first utilized liquid chromatography (LC)-MS-based molecular networking in combination with artificial intelligence (AI)-driven chemical characterization to facilitate the structural elucidation and molecular identification of 32 different steroidal glycosides for the host-plant Asclepias curassavica. These comprehensive metabolite annotations guided the subsequent matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI MSI) analysis of cardiac-glycoside sequestration in D. plexippus. We developed a spatial-context-preserving OTCD protocol, which improved cardiac glycoside ion yields by at least 1 order of magnitude compared to results with untreated samples. To illustrate the potential of this method, we visualized previously inaccessible (sub)cellular distributions (2 and 5 μm pixel size) of steroidal glycosides in D. plexippus, thereby providing a novel insight into the sequestration of toxic metabolites and guiding future metabolomics research of other complex sample systems.

Single sample preparation for the simultaneous extraction of drugs, pharmaceuticals, cannabinoids and endogenous steroids in hair

Recently, we published a multi-analyte method for the simultaneous analysis of 116 drugs and pharmaceuticals including different substance groups like opioids, stimulants, benzodiazepines, z-drugs, antidepressants and neuroleptics based on a single sample workup followed by a single analytical measurement with LC-MS/MS. However, in some cases, additional analysis of further substance groups, such as cannabinoids and endogenous steroids, is required, which are analyzed in our laboratory using separate sample preparation and separate analytical methods. The goal of this study was to use the knowledge from the different sample preparations and combine them into a single sample preparation and extraction workflow for the simultaneous extraction of drugs, pharmaceuticals, cannabinoids, and endogenous steroids to be analyzed with the appropriate analytical methods. A partial validation of selected parameters such as selectivity, linearity, limit of quantification (LOQ), accuracy, precision and robustness for the different analytical methods was carried out and revalidated. In addition, comparative measurements of quality controls and authentic pools were performed and statistically evaluated using the unpaired t-test or the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test. The results using the newly established sample preparation and extraction were in good agreement with the original data. In conclusion, the newly established sample preparation is suitable for the combined extraction of drugs, pharmaceuticals, cannabinoids and endogenous steroids, and gives reliable results for quantification of various substances.

On-tissue chemical derivatization in mass spectrometry imaging

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) combines molecular and spatial information in a valuable tool for a wide range of applications. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is at the forefront of MSI ionization due to its wide availability and increasing improvement in spatial resolution and analysis speed. However, ionization suppression, low concentrations, and endogenous and methodological interferences cause visualization problems for certain molecules. Chemical derivatization (CD) has proven a viable solution to these issues when applied in mass spectrometry platforms. Chemical tagging of target analytes with larger, precharged moieties aids ionization efficiency and removes analytes from areas of potential isobaric interferences. Here, we address the application of CD on tissue samples for MSI analysis, termed on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD). MALDI MSI will remain the focus platform due to its popularity, however, alternative ionization techniques such as liquid extraction surface analysis and desorption electrospray ionization will also be recognized. OTCD reagent selection, application, and optimization methods will be discussed in detail. MSI with OTCD is a powerful tool to study the spatial distribution of poorly ionizable molecules within tissues. Most importantly, the use of OTCD-MSI facilitates the analysis of previously inaccessible biologically relevant molecules through the adaptation of existing CD methods. Though further experimental optimization steps are necessary, the benefits of this technique are extensive.

Spatial localization of β-unsaturated aldehyde markers in murine diabetic kidney tissue by mass spectrometry imaging

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Limitations in current diagnosis and screening methods have sparked a search for more specific and conclusive biomarkers. Hyperglycemic conditions generate a plethora of harmful molecules in circulation and within tissues. Oxidative stress generates reactive α-dicarbonyls and β-unsaturated hydroxyhexenals, which react with proteins to form advanced glycation end products. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) enables the detection and spatial localization of molecules in biological tissue sections. Here, for the first time, the localization and semiquantitative analysis of “reactive aldehydes” (RAs) 4-hydroxyhexenal (4-HHE), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and 4-oxo-2-nonenal (4-ONE) in the kidney tissues of a diabetic mouse model is presented. Ionization efficiency was enhanced through on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD) using Girard’s reagent T (GT), forming positively charged hydrazone derivatives. MSI analysis was performed using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) coupled with Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR). RA levels were elevated in diabetic kidney tissues compared to lean controls and localized throughout the kidney sections at a spatial resolution of 100 µm. This was confirmed by liquid extraction surface analysis–MSI (LESA-MSI) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). This method identified β-unsaturated aldehydes as “potential” biomarkers of DN and demonstrated the capability of OTCD-MSI for detection and localization of poorly ionizable molecules by adapting existing chemical derivatization methods. Untargeted exploratory distribution analysis of some precursor lipids was also assessed using MALDI-FT-ICR-MSI.

Micro-segmental hair analysis: detailed procedures and applications in forensic toxicology

PURPOSE

Since the 1980s, the detection sensitivity of mass spectrometers has increased by improving the analysis of drugs in hair. Accordingly, the number of hair strands required for the analysis has decreased. The length of the hair segment used in the analysis has also shortened. In 2016, micro-segmental hair analysis (MSA), which cuts a single hair strand at a 0.4-mm interval corresponding to a hair growth length of approximately one day, was developed. The advantage of MSA is that the analytical results provide powerful evidence of drug use in the investigation of drug-related crimes and detailed information about the mechanism of drug uptake into hair. This review article focuses on the MSA technique and its applications in forensic toxicology.

METHODS

Multiple databases, such as SciFinder, PubMed, and Google, were utilized to collect relevant reports referring to MSA and drug analysis in hair. The experiences of our research group on the MSA were also included in this review.

RESULTS

The analytical results provide a detailed drug distribution profile in a hair strand, which is useful for examining the mechanism of drug uptake into hair in detail. Additionally, the analytical method has been used for various scenarios in forensic toxicology, such as the estimation of days of drug consumption and death.

CONCLUSIONS

The detailed procedures are summarized so that beginners can use the analytical method in their laboratories. Moreover, some application examples are presented, and the limitations of the current analytical method and future perspectives are described.

Advances in MALDI Mass Spectrometry Imaging Single Cell and Tissues

Compared with conventional optical microscopy techniques, mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) or imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) is a powerful, label-free analytical technique, which can sensitively and simultaneously detect, quantify, and map hundreds of biomolecules, such as peptides, proteins, lipid, and other organic compounds in cells and tissues. So far, although several soft ionization techniques, such as desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) have been used for imaging biomolecules, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is still the most widespread MSI scanning method. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive review of MALDI-MSI with an emphasis on its advances of the instrumentation, methods, application, and future directions in single cell and biological tissues.

Mapping the Chemistry of Hair Strands by Mass Spectrometry Imaging-A Review

Hair can record chemical information reflecting our living conditions, and, therefore, strands of hair have become a potent analytical target within the biological and forensic sciences. While early efforts focused on analyzing complete hair strands in bulk, high spatial resolution mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) has recently come to the forefront of chemical hair-strand analysis. MSI techniques offer a localized analysis, requiring fewer de-contamination procedures per default and making it possible to map the distribution of analytes on and within individual hair strands. Applying the techniques to hair samples has proven particularly useful in investigations quantifying the exposure to, and uptake of, toxins or drugs. Overall, MSI, combined with optimized sample preparation protocols, has improved precision and accuracy for identifying several elemental and molecular species in single strands of hair. Here, we review different sample preparation protocols and use cases with a view to make the methodology more accessible to researchers outside of the field of forensic science. We conclude that—although some challenges remain, including contamination issues and matrix effects—MSI offers unique opportunities for obtaining highly resolved spatial information of several compounds simultaneously across hair surfaces.

Study of the Distribution of Acetaminophen and Its Metabolites in Rats, from the Whole-Body to Isolated Organ Levels, by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry Imaging after On-Tissue Chemical Derivatization

During drug development, detailed investigations of the pharmacokinetic profile of the drug are required to characterize its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion properties. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is an established technique for studies of the distribution of drugs and their metabolites. It has advantages over autoradiography, which is conventionally used for distribution studies: it does not require the radiolabeling of drugs and can distinguish between the drug and its metabolites directly in the tissue. However, its lack of sensitivity in certain cases remains challenging. Novel procedures, such as on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD), could be developed to increase sensitivity. We used OTCD to enhance the sensitivity of MALDI-MSI for one of the most widely used drugs, acetaminophen, and to study its distribution in tissues. Without derivatization, this drug and some of its metabolites are undetectable by MALDI-MSI in the tissues of treated rats. We used 2-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium p-toluene sulfonate as a derivatization reagent, to increase the ionization yield of acetaminophen and some of its metabolites. The OTCD protocol made it possible to study the distribution of acetaminophen and its metabolites in whole-body sections at a spatial resolution of 400 μm and in complex anatomical structures, such as the testis and epididymis, at a spatial resolution <50 μm. The OTCD is also shown to be compatible with the quantification of acetaminophen by MALDI-MSI in whole-body tissues. This protocol could be applied to other molecules bearing phenol groups and presenting a low ionization efficiency.

On-tissue chemical derivatization reagents for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI MSI) is a key tool for the analysis of biological tissues. It provides spatial and quantitative information about different types of analytes within tissue sections. Despite the increasing improvements of this technique, the low detection sensitivity of some compounds remains an important challenge to overcome. Poor sensitivity is related to weak ionization efficiency, low abundance of analytes and matrix ions, or endogenous interferences. On-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD) has proven to be an important solution to these issues and is increasingly employed in MALDI MSI studies. OTCD reagents, synthesized or commercially available, have been essentially used for the detection of small exogenous or endogenous molecules within tissues. Optimally, an OTCD reaction is performed in mild conditions, in an acceptable range of time, preserves the integrity of the tissues, and prevents the delocalization. In addition to their reactivity with a targeted chemical function, some OTCD reagents can also be used as a matrix, which simplifies the sample preparation procedure. In this review, we present an exhaustive overview of OTCD reagents and methods used in MALDI MSI studies.

Ocfentanil testing in hair from a fatality case: Comparative analysis of a lock of hair versus a single hair fiber

In clinical and forensic toxicology, hair analysis offers a larger window for detecting drug exposure than blood or urine. Drug measurements are generally carried out using a segmented lock of hair, but few articles report the use of a single hair to document drug exposure. Nevertheless, single hair analysis can be very useful, particularly if only small amounts of biological matrices are available. More data on analyzing new synthetic opioids (NSOs) in hair are needed to help interpretation in future cases. In this study, segmental single hair analysis is compared with segmental hair lock analysis to document an ocfentanil-related death. The hair lock and single hair analyses were performed using the LC-MS/MS method after decontamination and incubation. Ocfentanil (OcF) concentrations ranged from 42 to 150 pg/mg in the segmented hair lock, depending on the segments. The hair lock and single hair analyses showed similar results: the highest concentrations were measured in the first two centimeters and decreased from root to tip. The similar profiles obtained from both the lock of hair and the single hair demonstrate the relevance of single hair analysis in cases where very few data are available. This article describes OcF concentrations in an authentic hair sample after a documented intake of this molecule in a fatality.

Chemically heterogeneous carbon dots enhanced cholesterol detection by MALDI TOF mass spectrometry

A binary system composed of carbon dots (CDs) and N-doped CDs (N-CDs) embedded in an organic matrix was used for the analysis of cholesterol by MALDI (matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization time-of-flight) mass spectrometry, as a model for detection of small, biologically relevant molecules. The results showed that both CDs are sensitive to the cholesterol and can be used either alone or in a binary system with 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) to enhance the detection process. It was found that both COOH and NH₂ groups on CDs surface contributed to the enhancement in the cholesterol detection by MALDI mass spectrometry in the presence of inorganic cations. Nevertheless, in the presence of NaCl, N-CDs led to a better reproducibility of results. It was due to the coexistence of positive and negative charge on N-CDs surface that led to a homogeneous analyte/substrate distribution, which is an important detection parameter. The enhancing effect of carbon dots was linked to a negative Gibbs energy of the complex formation between CDs, Na⁺, cholesterol and DHB, and it was supported by theoretical calculations. Moreover, upon the addition of CDs/N-CDs, such features as a low ionization potential, vertical excitation, dipole moment and oscillator strength positively affected the cholesterol detection by MALDI in the presence of Na⁺.

Analysis of cannabinoids in conventional and alternative biological matrices by liquid chromatography: Applications and challenges

Cannabis is by far the most widely abused illicit drug globe wide. The analysis of its main psychoactive components in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices has recently gained a great attention in forensic toxicology. Literature states that its abuse causes neurocognitive impairment in the domains of attention and memory, possible macrostructural brain alterations and abnormalities of neural functioning. This suggests the necessity for the development of a sensitive and a reliable analytical method for the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in human biological specimens. In this review, we focus on a number of analytical methods that have, so far, been developed and validated, with particular attention to the new "golden standard" method of forensic analysis, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, this review provides an overview of the effective and selective methods used for the extraction and isolation of cannabinoids from (i) conventional matrices, such as blood, urine and oral fluid and (ii) alternative biological matrices, such as hair, cerumen and meconium.

Application of an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method for the detection and quantification of cannabis in cerumen samples

In this study, cerumen, a non-conventional biological secretion, was examined as an alternative matrix for forensic analyzis. A fully validated analytical UPLC-MS/MS method was developed for the detection and quantification of the most prevalent psychoactive illicit drug globe wide, Δ⁹-tethrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC, and four major cannabinoids found in cannabis Sativa. The method was validated, and standard external calibration curves were established with correlation coefficients > 0.99. A validated experimental procedure, along with a direct extraction of cannabinoids with acidified acetonitrile resulted in a short total analyzis time and a good extraction efficiency for all the analytes under study. LOD and LOQ values were determined to be 0.01-0.08 pg/mg and 0.04-0.23 pg/mg, respectively. To prove applicability of the proposed assay, volunteers were selected, and cerumen samples were examined for cannabis. The analyzis by use of UPLC-MS/MS indicated that all samples were positive, reporting recent cannabis abuse. Surprisingly, both THC and Cannabinol (CBN) were detected, and quantification was possible in 75% of the cases.

Quantification of cannabinoids in human hair using a modified derivatization procedure and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

The aim of this work was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for detecting of the main cannabinoids, cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the primary metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ⁹ -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in hair samples. Extraction of the cannabinoids was carried out by a polymeric strong anion mixed-mode solid-phase extraction cartridge and then employing methanolic HCl followed by 2-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium-p-toluenesulfonate (FMP-TS) as a derivatization procedure of carboxyl and phenolic groups, respectively, offering enhanced sensitivity for the detection of THC-COOH in hair matrices. Formation of a methyl ester increased its lipophilicity and removed the negative charge on the carboxyl group. Calibration curves were prepared over the range of 0.02-4 pg/mg of hair for THC and CBN and 0.2-12 pg/mg of hair for THC-COOH. The extraction recovery was between 81% and 105% for all compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2 and 20 pg/mg, respectively, for both CBN and THC and 0.1 and 0.2 pg/mg, respectively, for THC-COOH, which met the society of hair testing recommendation. Intra-assay and interassay precision were always lower than 4% and 11%, respectively for these cannabinoids, whereas intra-assay and interassay bias were between +14% and -18% and +15% and -12%, respectively. Twenty-seven hair specimens from cannabis users were investigated. The concentrations of CBN, THC and THC-COOH gave ranges of (0.022-2.562 ng/mg), (0.049-0.431 ng/mg) and (0.222-4.867 pg/mg), respectively. This new method of derivatization improves the LOD to ensure detection of the metabolite.

Cannabinoids: Recent Updates on Public Perception, Adverse Reactions, Pharmacokinetics, Pretreatment Methods and Their Analysis Methods

Cannabinoids (CBDs) have been traditionally used as a folk medicine. Recently, they have been found to exhibit a high pharmacological potential. However, they are addicted and are often abused by drug users, thereby, becoming a threat to public safety. CBDs and their metabolites are usually found in trace levels in plants or in biological matrices and, are therefore not easy to be detected. Advances have been made toward accurately analyzing CBDs in plants or in biological matrices. This review aims at elucidating on the consumption of CBDs as well as its adverse effects and to provide a comprehensive overview of CBD pretreatment and detection methods. Moreover, novel pretreatment methods such as microextraction, Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged Safe and online technology as well as novel analytic methods such as ion-mobility mass spectrometry, application of high resolution mass spectrometry in nontarget screening are summarized. In addition, we discuss and compare the strengths and weaknesses of different methods and suggest their future prospect.

Sample preparation and instrumental methods for illicit drugs in environmental and biological samples: A review

Detection of illicit drugs in the environmental samples has been challenged as the consumption increases globally. Current review examines the recent developments and applications of sample preparation techniques for illicit drugs in solid, liquid, and gas samples. For solid samples, traditional sample preparation methods such as liquid-phase extraction, solid-phase extraction, and the ones with external energy including microwave-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted, and pressurized liquid extraction were commonly used. The sample preparation methods mainly applied for liquid samples were microextraction techniques including solid-phase microextraction, microextraction by packed sorbent, dispersive solid-phase extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, hollow fiber-based liquid-phase microextraction, and so on. Capillary microextraction of volatiles and airborne particulate sampling were primarily utilized to extract illicit drugs from gas samples. Besides, the paper introduced recently developed instrumental techniques applied to detect illicit drugs. Liquid chromatograph mass spectrometry and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were the most widely used methods for illicit drugs samples. In addition, the development of ambient mass spectrometry techniques, such as desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and paper spray mass spectrometry, created potential for rapid in-situ analysis.

Single hair analysis: Validation of a screening method for over 150 analytes and application on documented single-dose cases

Hair is the matrix of choice in forensic toxicology when retrospective analysis is needed. Nonetheless, due to misalignment, different growth stages and segmentation lengths of 0.5-1 cm, resolution of time is limited. By segmental analysis of single hairs, most of these factors can be compensated and resolution of time is enhanced. A method for manually segmenting single hairs in 2-mm sections and screening for 156 analytes by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry has been developed and validated. The method was applied to 15 single-dose cases concerning different pharmaceuticals by analyzing 10 hairs each, sampled 1 and 2 months after ingestion in most cases. The validation showed a lower limit of quantification of ≤1.25 pg/segment for ~90% of analytes and good accuracy. Many substances could be detected in the presented cases, whereas detection of benzodiazepines and low dosed opioids remains challenging. In positive cases, characteristic peak-shaped concentration profiles across the hairs were obtained. The segment with most coinciding peak maxima can be allocated to the time of ingestion. A method for the determination of individual hair growth rate was applied and revealed a gap between expected and actual position of peak maxima. Additionally, different localization of simultaneously administered substances was observed. These findings were tried to be explained by different routes of incorporation and may contribute to current knowledge. The presented method may directly be applied to similar questions in hair analysis, and the findings are considered important for interpreting further results in single hair analysis.

Recent developments of novel matrices and on-tissue chemical derivatization reagents for MALDI-MSI

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) is a fast-growing technique for visualization of the spatial distribution of the small molecular and macromolecular biomolecules in tissue sections. Challenges in MALDI-MSI, such as poor sensitivity for some classes of molecules or limited specificity, for instance resulting from the presence of isobaric molecules or limited resolving power of the instrument, have encouraged the MSI scientific community to improve MALDI-MSI sample preparation workflows with innovations in chemistry. Recent developments of novel small organic MALDI matrices play a part in the improvement of image quality and the expansion of the application areas of MALDI-MSI. This includes rationally designed/synthesized as well as commercially available small organic molecules whose superior matrix properties in comparison with common matrices have only recently been discovered. Furthermore, on-tissue chemical derivatization (OTCD) processes get more focused attention, because of their advantages for localization of poorly ionizable metabolites and their‚ in several cases‚ more specific imaging of metabolites in tissue sections. This review will provide an overview about the latest developments of novel small organic matrices and on-tissue chemical derivatization reagents for MALDI-MSI.

Methods for quantification of cannabinoids: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Around 144 cannabinoids have been identified in cannabis plant, among them tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most prominent ones. Because of the legal restrictions on cannabis in many countries, it is difficult to obtain standards to use in research; nonetheless, it is important to develop a cannabinoid quantification technique with pharmaceutical applications for quality control of future therapeutic cannabinoids.

METHOD

To find relevant articles for this narrative review paper, a combination of keywords such as medicinal cannabis, analytical, quantification and cannabinoids were searched for in PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Google Scholar and Cochrane Library (Wiley) databases.

RESULTS

The most common cannabinoid quantification techniques include gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). GC is often used in conjunction with mass spectrometry (MS) or flame ionization detection (FID). The major advantage of GC is terpenes quantification however, for evaluating acidic cannabinoids it needs to be derivatised. The main advantage of HPLC is the ability to quantify both acidic and neutral forms of cannabinoids without derivatisation which is often with MS or ultraviolet (UV) detectors.

CONCLUSION

Based on the information presented in this review, the ideal cannabinoid quantification method is HPLC- MS/MS for the cannabinoids.

Emerging challenges in the extraction, analysis and bioanalysis of cannabidiol and related compounds

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a bioactive terpenophenolic compound isolated from Cannabis sativa L. It is known to possess several properties of pharmaceutical interest, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, neuroprotective and anti-convulsant, being it active as a multi-target compound. From a therapeutic point of view, CBD is most commonly used for seizure disorder in children. CBD is present in both medical and fiber-type C. sativa plants, but, unlike Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), it is a non-psychoactive compound. Non-psychoactive or fiber-type C. sativa (also known as hemp) differs from the medical one, since it contains only low levels of THC and high levels of CBD and related non-psychoactive cannabinoids. In addition to medical Cannabis, which is used for many different therapeutic purposes, a great expansion of the market of hemp plant material and related products has been observed in recent years, due to its usage in many fields, including food, cosmetics and electronic cigarettes liquids (commonly known as e-liquids). In this view, this work is focused on recent advances on sample preparation strategies and analytical methods for the chemical analysis of CBD and related compounds in both C. sativa plant material, its derived products and biological samples. Since sample preparation is considered to be a crucial step in the development of reliable analytical methods for the determination of natural compounds in complex matrices, different extraction methods are discussed. As regards the analysis of CBD and related compounds, the application of both separation and non-separation methods is discussed in detail. The advantages, disadvantages and applicability of the different methodologies currently available are evaluated. The scientific interest in the development of portable devices for the reliable analysis of CBD in vegetable and biological samples is also highlighted.

Interpol review of toxicology 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in toxicology from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20.Papers%202019.pdf.

A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair

Cannabis products (marijuana, weed, hashish) are among the most widely abused psychoactive drugs in the world, due to their euphorigenic and anxiolytic properties. Recently, hair analysis is of great interest in analytical, clinical, and forensic sciences due to its non-invasiveness, negligible risk of infection and tampering, facile storage, and a wider window of detection. Hair analysis is now widely accepted as evidence in courts around the world. Hair analysis is very feasible to complement saliva, blood tests, and urinalysis. In this review, we have focused on state of the art in hair analysis of cannabis with particular attention to hair sample preparation for cannabis analysis involving pulverization, extraction and screening techniques followed by confirmatory tests (e.g., GC–MS and LC–MS/MS). We have reviewed the literature for the past 10 years’ period with special emphasis on cannabis quantification using mass spectrometry. The pros and cons of all the published methods have also been discussed along with the prospective future of cannabis analysis.

Enhanced Sensitivity Using MALDI Imaging Coupled with Laser Postionization (MALDI-2) for Pharmaceutical Research

Visualizing the distributions of drugs and their metabolites is one of the key emerging application areas of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) within pharmaceutical research. The success of a given MALDI-MSI experiment is ultimately determined by the ionization efficiency of the compounds of interest, which in many cases are too low to enable detection at relevant concentrations. In this work we have taken steps to address this challenge via the first application of laser-postionisation coupled with MALDI (so-called MALDI-2) to the analysis and imaging of pharmaceutical compounds. We demonstrate that MALDI-2 increased the signal intensities for 7 out of the 10 drug compounds analyzed by up to 2 orders of magnitude compared to conventional MALDI analysis. This gain in sensitivity enabled the distributions of drug compounds in both human cartilage and dog liver tissue to be visualized using MALDI-2, whereas little-to-no signal from tissue was obtained using conventional MALDI. This work demonstrates the vast potential of MALDI-2-MSI in pharmaceutical research and drug development and provides a valuable tool to broaden the application areas of MSI. Finally, in an effort to understand the ionization mechanism, we provide the first evidence that the preferential formation of [M + H]⁺ ions with MALDI-2 has no obvious correlation with the gas-phase proton affinity values of the analyte molecules, suggesting, as with MALDI, the occurrence of complex and yet to be elucidated ionization phenomena.

Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their Use as Therapeutic Drugs, Toxicological Aspects, and Analytical Determination

Although the medicinal properties of Cannabis species have been known for centuries, the interest on its main active secondary metabolites as therapeutic alternatives for several pathologies has grown in recent years. This potential use has been a revolution worldwide concerning public health, production, use and sale of cannabis, and has led inclusively to legislation changes in some countries. The scientific advances and concerns of the scientific community have allowed a better understanding of cannabis derivatives as pharmacological options in several conditions, such as appetite stimulation, pain treatment, skin pathologies, anticonvulsant therapy, neurodegenerative diseases, and infectious diseases. However, there is some controversy regarding the legal and ethical implications of their use and routes of administration, also concerning the adverse health consequences and deaths attributed to marijuana consumption, and these represent some of the complexities associated with the use of these compounds as therapeutic drugs. This review comprehends the main secondary metabolites of Cannabis, approaching their therapeutic potential and applications, as well as their potential risks, in order to differentiate the consumption as recreational drugs. There will be also a focus on the analytical methodologies for their analysis, in order to aid health professionals and toxicologists in cases where these compounds are present.