Anthocyanins Extracted from Aronia melanocarpa Protect SH-SY5Y Cells against Amyloid-beta (1-42)-Induced Apoptosis by Regulating Ca2+ Homeostasis and Inhibiting Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Functional Activities and Mechanisms of Aronia melanocarpa in Our Health

Aronia melanocarpa, known as black chokeberry, is rich in polyphenols, comprising flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, flavanols, and flavonols, and phenolic acids, such as chlorogenic acid. These polyphenols endow Aronia melanocarpa with preventive and therapeutic properties against various human diseases. Aronia melanocarpa has beneficial effects against diseases such as diabetes, inflammation, and hypertension. Considering the diverse functional components of Aronia melanocarpa, its efficacy in disease prevention and treatment can operate through multiple pathways, offering a more robust approach to disease control. This review covers the latest research results on the functional components of Aronia melanocarpa and their effects on human diseases.

Influence of Bilberry Extract on Neuronal Cell Toxicity

Increased intake of dietary antioxidants such as anthocyanins, which are enriched in colourful fruits, is a promising alternative to reduce the risk of degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Since Amyloid β (Aβ) is one of the key components contributing to AD pathology, probably by reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction, this study investigated the preventive effect of anthocyanin-rich bilberry extract (BE) and its anthocyanin fraction (ACN) on ROS generation and cell toxicity. The results showed a significant and concentration-dependent decrease in neuroblastoma cell (SH-SY5Y) viability by BE or ACN, whereas no cell toxicity was observed in HeLa cells. Incubation with BE and ACN for 24 h diminished the generation of induced ROS levels in SH-SY5Y and HeLa cells. In addition, low concentrations of BE (1-5 µg/mL) showed protective effects against Aβ-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. In conclusion, our results suggest antioxidant and protective effects of BE and ACN, which could potentially be used to delay the course of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. Further studies are needed to clarify the high potential of anthocyanins and their in vivo metabolites on neuronal function.

Multi-target potential of newly designed tacrine-derived cholinesterase inhibitors: Synthesis, computational and pharmacological study

Simple and scalable synthetic approach was used for the preparation of thirteen novel tacrine derivatives consisting of tacrine and N-aryl-piperidine-4-carboxamide moiety connected by a five-methylene group linker. An anti-Alzheimer disease (AD) potential of newly designed tacrine derivatives was evaluated against two important AD targets, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). In vitro pharmacological evaluation showed strong ChE inhibitory activity of all compounds, with IC50 values ranging from 117.5 to 455 nM for AChE and 34 to 324 nM for BuChE. As a representative of the series with the best cytotoxicity / ChE inhibitory activity ratio, expressed as the selectivity index (SI), 2-chlorobenzoyl derivative demonstrated mixed-type inhibition on AChE and BuChE, suggesting binding to both CAS and PAS of the enzymes. It also exhibited antioxidant capacity and neuroprotective potential against amyloid-β (Aβ) toxicity in the culture of neuron-like cells. In-depth computational analysis corroborated well with in vitro ChE inhibition, illuminating that all compounds exhibit significant potential in targeting both enzymes. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that 2-chlorobenzoyl derivative, created complexes with AChE and BuChE that demonstrated sufficient stability throughout the observed MD simulation. Computationally predicted ADME properties indicated that these compounds should have good blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, an important factor for CNS-targeting drugs. Overall, all tested compounds showed promising pharmacological behavior, highlighting the multi-target potential of 2-chlorobenzoyl derivative which should be further investigated as a new lead in the drug development process.

Rutaecarpine Mitigates Cognitive Impairment by Balancing Mitochondrial Function Through Activation of the AMPK/PGC1α Pathway

Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of cognitive deficit. Rutaecarpine (Rut) is a natural alkaloid with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study explored whether Rut treatment could enhance cognitive function by improving mitochondrial function and examined the potential mechanisms underlying this ameliorative effect. We used the Morris water maze and Y-maze tests to evaluate the behavioral effects of Rut in a mouse model of cognitive impairment induced by subcutaneous injection of D-galactose (D-gal). Furthermore, we assessed the effects of Rut on mitochondrial function using cell viability assays, flow cytometry, western blotting, biochemical analysis, and immunochemical techniques in vivo and in vitro. The results indicated Rut treatment attenuated cognitive deficits and mitochondrial dysfunction in the mouse model. Similarly, it maintained the balance of mitochondrial dynamics in neurocytes and reduced oxidative stress and mitochondrial apoptosis in the HT22 cell model. Moreover, we found that these protective effects were dependent on the activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase/proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (AMPK/PGC1α) signaling pathway. Our data indicate that Rut treatment are sensitive to reversal cognitive deficits and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by D-gal; this suggests that Rut is a promising mitochondria-targeted therapeutic agent for treating cognitive impairment.

Health Benefits of Antioxidant Bioactive Compounds in the Fruits and Leaves of Lonicera caerulea L. and Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliot

Lonicera caerulaea L. and Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliot fruits are frequently used for their health benefits as they are rich in bioactive compounds. They are recognized as a source of natural and valuable phytonutrients, which makes them a superfood. L. caerulea presents antioxidant activity three to five times higher than other berries which are more commonly consumed, such as blackberries or strawberries. In addition, their ascorbic acid level is the highest among fruits. The species A. melanocarpa is considered one of the richest known sources of antioxidants, surpassing currants, cranberries, blueberries, elderberries, and gooseberries, and contains one of the highest amounts of sorbitol. The non-edible leaves of genus Aronia became more extensively analyzed as a byproduct or waste material due to their high polyphenol, flavonoid, and phenolic acid content, along with a small amount of anthocyanins, which are used as ingredients in nutraceuticals, herbal teas, bio-cosmetics, cosmeceuticals, food and by the pharmaceutical industry. These plants are a rich source of vitamins, tocopherols, folic acid, and carotenoids. However, they remain outside of mainstream fruit consumption, being well known only to a small audience. This review aims to shed light on L. caerulaea and A. melanocarpa and their bioactive compounds as healthy superfoods with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic effects, and hepato-, cardio-, and neuro-protective potential. In this view, we hope to promote their cultivation and processing, increase their commercial availability, and also highlight the ability of these species to be used as potential nutraceutical sources, helpful for human health.

Plant-Based Antioxidants for Prevention and Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases: Phytotherapeutic Potential of Laurus nobilis, Aronia melanocarpa, and Celastrol

With the progress of medicine, especially in the last century, life expectancy increased considerably. As a result, age-related diseases also increased, especially malignancies and degenerative diseases of the central nervous system. The incidence and prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases steadily increased over the years, but despite efforts to uncover the pathophysiological processes behind these conditions, they remain elusive. Among the many theories, oxidative stress was proposed to be involved in neurodegenerative processes and to play an important role in the morbidity and progression of various neurodegenerative disorders. Accordingly, a number of studies discovered the potential of natural plant constituents to have significant antioxidant activity. This review focused on several plant-based antioxidants that showed promising results in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Laurus nobilis, Aronia melanocarpa, and celastrol, a chemical compound isolated from the root extracts of Tripterygium wilfordii and T. regelii, are all known to be rich in antioxidant polyphenols.

Effects of Aronia melanocarpa and Hypericum perforatum aqueous extracts on hexavalent chromium induced toxicity in rat's thyrocytes

BACKGROUND

Hexavalent chromium known as oxidizing agent is able to form reactive oxygen species. Aronia melanocarpa and Hypericum perforatum are two plants known for their antioxidant effects. Our study aimed to establish if CrVI induces apoptosis and structural changes in thyrocytes and if its effect can be counteracted by the administration of both extracts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats divided in five groups: C - distilled water (DW), Cr - 75 mg/L CrVI in DW for 3 months, Cr 2 - 75 mg/L CrVI in DW for 3 months followed by 1 month DW, CrA - 3 months 75 mg/L CrVI in DW and 1 month Aronia 2.5% extract, CrH - 3 months 75 mg/L CrVI in DW and 1 month Hypericum 2.5% extract. Histological assessment and qRT-PCR for evaluation of BAX and Bcl2 protein levels performed on thyroid samples.

RESULTS

The Cr and Cr2 groups were those with altered cytoarchitecture: increase in the diameter of many thyroid follicles, a decrease in their number, a decrease in the height of the follicular cells. The histological examination of the CrH group revealed almost recovery of structural architecture. The BAX gene levels were higher in the Cr and Cr2 groups indicating the apoptotic activity of chromium. In extract receiving groups the BAX gene expressions were significantly lower, but the lowest level presented the CrH group. Bcl2 gene expression levels indicate antiapoptotic activity being elevated in the Cr group, followed by CrA, Cr2, and CrH groups. The BAX/Bcl2 ratio which significantly increased in the case of the Cr and Cr2 group compared to the groups that were administered the two plant extracts.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study confirm that CrVI has toxic effects on thyroid endocrine cells and H. perforatum has stronger antioxidant properties against the action of hexavalent chromium in thyrocytes than A. melanocarpa.

Anthocyanins from Aronia melanocarpa Bound to Amylopectin Nanoparticles: Tissue Distribution and In Vivo Oxidative Damage Protection

The in vivo applications of anthocyanins are limited by their instability. Nano-encapsulation using amylopectin nanoparticles (APNPs) stabilizes anthocyanins to deliver them to tissues to ameliorate their physiological functions. Herein, rats are fed four Aronia melanocarpa anthocyanins encapsulated with APNPs, and their subsequent distributions and bioactivity in nine tissues are revealed using UHPLC-MS. Among digestive tissues, the concentration of the APNP-protected cyanidin 3-O-arabinoside in the stomach is 134.54% of that of the free anthocyanin, while among non-digestive tissues, the APNP-protected cyanidin 3-O-glucoside concentration in the lungs improved by 125.49%. Concentration maxima "double peaks" in the liver and kidney arise from different modes of transport. Sustained release of anthocyanins from anthocyanin-APNPs and stable concentration curves suggest controlled delivery, with most APNPs consumed in the digestive system. APNPs did not affect the overall anthocyanin absorption time or tissues. The superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde concentrations indicate that APNPs enhance the oxidative damage protection in vivo.

Enzymatic acylation of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside in raspberry anthocyanins for intelligent packaging: Improvement of stability, lipophilicity and functional properties

Anthocyanins (ACNs) as one category of water-soluble flavonoid pigments are increasingly employed in pH sensing indicator applications for monitoring food freshness. Nevertheless, considering that anthocyanins are sensitive to environmental factors, their practical applications in food industries are still rather limited. In order to improve the stability of anthocyanins and capitalize upon their application in pH-color responsive intelligent packaging, this study aims to graft octanoic aid onto raspberry anthocyanins catalyzed by immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B (Novozymes 435). Structural analyses based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), UV-Vis, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) revealed that octanoic acid was regioselective grafted onto the 6-OH position of its glucoside. The acylation efficiency of C3G by octanoic acid up to 47.1%. The octanoic acid moiety was found to improve lipophilicity, antioxidant activity and stability of C3G. In addition, acylated derivative also maintained the pH-color response characteristics of nature ACNs and exhibited excellent NH3 response properties. These results indicated that acylated anthocyanins exhibit potential application as intelligent packaging indicator for monitoring food freshness.

Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC.: A review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and traditional use

BACKGROUND

The traditional Chinese medicine Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (PG, balloon flower) has medicinal and culinary value. It consists of a variety of chemical components including triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, polyphenols, polyethylene glycols, volatile oils and mineral components, which have medicinal and edible value.

PURPOSE

The ultimate goal of this review is to summarize the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of published literature up to March 2022 was conducted using the PubMed, China Knowledge Network and Web of Science databases to identify original research related to PG, its active ingredients and pharmacological activities.

RESULTS

Triterpene saponins are the primary bioactive compounds of PG. To date, 76 triterpene saponin compounds have been isolated and identified from PG. In addition, there are other biological components, such as flavonoids, polyacetylene and phenolic acids. These extracts possess antitussive, immunostimulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, antiobesity, antidepressant, and cardiovascular system activities. The mechanisms of expression of these pharmacological effects include inhibition of the expression of proteins such as MDM and p53, inhibition of the activation of enzymes, such as AKT, the secretion of inflammatory factors, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 and IL-1β, and activation of the AMPK pathway.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the chemical composition, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanism, toxicity and uses of PG in local and traditional medicine over the last 12 years. PG contains a wide range of chemical components, among which triterpene saponins, especially platycoside D (PD), play a strong role in pharmacological activity, representing a natural phytomedicine with low toxicity that has applications in food, animal feed and cosmetics. Therefore, PG has value for exploitation and is an excellent choice for treating various diseases.

Cellular Antioxidant Effect of an Aronia Extract and Its Polyphenolic Fractions Enriched in Proanthocyanidins, Phenolic Acids, and Anthocyanins

Oxidative stress and chronic inflammation contribute to some chronic diseases. Aronia berries are rich in polyphenols. The aim of the present study was to characterize the cellular antioxidant effect of an aronia extract to reflect the potential physiological in vivo effect. Cellular in vitro assays in three cell lines (Caco-2, HepG2, and SH-SY5Y) were used to measure the antioxidant effect of AE, in three enriched polyphenolic fractions (A1: anthocyanins and phenolic acids; A2: oligomeric proanthocyanidins; A3: polymeric proanthocyanidins), pure polyphenols and microbial metabolites. Both direct (intracellular and membrane radical scavenging, catalase-like effect) and indirect (NRF2/ARE) antioxidant effects were assessed. AE exerted an intracellular free radical scavenging activity in the three cell lines, and A2 and A3 fractions showed a higher effect in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells. AE also exhibited a catalase-like activity, with the A3 fraction having a significant higher activity. Only A1 fraction activated the NRF2/ARE pathway. Quercetin and caffeic acid are the most potent antioxidant polyphenols, whereas cyanidin and 5-(3',4'-dihydroxyphenyl)-γ-valerolactone showed the highest antioxidant effect among polyphenol metabolites. AE rich in polyphenols possesses broad cellular antioxidant effects, and proanthocyanidins are major contributors. Polyphenol metabolites may contribute to the overall antioxidant effect of such extract in vivo.

Effect of Aronia melanocarpa fruit juice on glucose tolerance, lipid metabolism, and obesity in a rat model of metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a serious health condition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of polyphenol-rich Aronia melanocarpa fruit juice (AMFJ) on glucose tolerance, triglyceride levels, and adipose tissue in rats with MS induced by high-fat high-fructose (HFHF) diet. Fifty rats were allocated in 5 groups: control, MS, MS+AMFJ2.5, MS+AMFJ5, and MS+AMFJ10. In the course of 10 weeks, the control group was on a regular rat diet while the other groups received HFHF diet. During the experiment, control and MS groups were treated daily orally with distilled water (10.0 mL kg−1) and the other three groups – with AMFJ at doses of 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mL kg−1, respectively. In MS rats, glucose intolerance, hypertriglyceridemia, visceral obesity, and increased adipocyte size were observed. In AMFJ-treated groups, the serum glucose and triglycerides, as well as visceral fat and adipocyte size decreased significantly and did not differ from those of the control group. AMFJ at doses 2.5 and 5.0 mL kg−1 showed an anti-apoptotic activity in adipocytes, while at the dose of 10 mL kg−1 a pro-apoptotic effect was detected. In conclusion, AMFJ could antagonise most of the negative consequences of HFHF diet on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in a rat MS model.

Black carrot anthocyanins exhibit neuroprotective effects against MPP+ induced cell death and cytotoxicity via inhibition of oxidative stress mediated apoptosis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common chronic neurodegenerative disease induced by the death of dopaminergic neurons. Anthocyanins are naturally found antioxidants and well-known for their preventive effects in neurodegenerative disorders. Black carrots (Daucus carota L. ssp. sativus var. atrorubens Alef.) are a rich source of anthocyanins predominantly including acylated cyanidin-based derivatives making them more stable. However, there have been no reports analysing the neuroprotective role of black carrot anthocyanins (BCA) on PD. In order to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of BCA, human SH-SY5Y cells were treated with MPP+ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) to induce PD associated cell death and cytotoxicity. Anthocyanins were extracted from black carrots and the composition was determined by HPLC-DAD. SH-SY5Y cells were co-incubated with BCA (2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 µg/ml) and 0.5 mM MPP+ to determine the neuroprotective effect of BCA against MPP+ induced cell death and cytotoxicity. Results indicate that BCA concentrations did not have any adverse effect on cell viability. BCA revealed its cytoprotective effect, especially at higher concentrations (50, 100 µg/ml) by increasing metabolic activity and decreasing membrane damage. BCA exhibited antioxidant activity via scavenging MPP+ induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and protecting dopaminergic neurons from ROS mediated apoptosis. These results suggest a neuroprotective effect of BCA due to its high antioxidant and antiapoptotic activity, along with the absence of cytotoxicity. The elevated stability of BCA together with potential neuroprotective effects may shed light to future studies in order to elucidate the mechanism and further neuro-therapeutic potential of BCA which is promising as a neuroprotective agent.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-021-00500-4.

The effect of caspase-3 in mitochondrial apoptosis activation on degradation of structure proteins of Esox lucius during postmortem storage

This study aimed to investigate the effect of caspase-3 inhibitor in mitochondrial apoptosis activation on structure protein degradation during postmortem storage. Mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptotic factors, structure protein degradation and the myofibrillar rupture index between the control and caspase-3 inhibitor groups were determined. The results show caspase-3 inhibitor repressed the mitochondrial membrane permeability and mitochondrial swelling, as well as increased mitochondrial membrane potential, causing a decrease in the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to cytoplasm and caspase-9/3 activities (P < 0.05). Subsequently, small myofibrillar proteins (desmin and troponin-T) were susceptible to degradation, initiating texture deterioration. By contrast, giant structure proteins (titin and nebulin) were degraded during later postmortem storage, predominantly contributing to fish softening. The results further suggest that caspase-3 is involved in degradation of structure proteins during postmortem through mitochondrial apoptosis pathways.

Myricetin prevents high molecular weight Aβ1-42 oligomer-induced neurotoxicity through antioxidant effects in cell membranes and mitochondria

Excessive accumulation of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is one of the primary mechanisms that leads to neuronal death with phosphorylated tau in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Protofibrils, one of the high-molecular-weight Aβ oligomers (HMW-Aβo), are implicated to be important targets of disease modifying therapy of AD. We previously reported that phenolic compounds such as myricetin inhibit Aβ1-40, Aβ1-42, and α-synuclein aggregations, including their oligomerizations, which may exert protective effects against AD and Parkinson's disease. The purpose of this study was to clarify the detailed mechanism of the protective effect of myricetin against the neurotoxicity of HMW-Aβo in SH-SY5Y cells. To assess the effect of myricetin on HMW-Aβo-induced oxidative stress, we systematically examined the level of membrane oxidative damage by measuring cell membrane lipid peroxidation, membrane fluidity, and cell membrane potential, and the mitochondrial oxidative damage was evaluated by mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), and manganese-superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) assay in SH-SY5Y cells. Myricetin has been found to increased cell viability by suppression of HMW-Aβo-induced membrane disruption in SH-SY5Y cells, as shown in reducing membrane phospholipid peroxidation and increasing membrane fluidity and membrane resistance. Myricetin has also been found to suppress HMW-Aβo-induced mitochondria dysfunction, as demonstrated in decreasing MPT, Mn-SOD, and ATP generation, raising mitochondrial membrane potential, and increasing mitochondrial-ROS generation. These results suggest that myricetin preventing HMW-Aβo-induced neurotoxicity through multiple antioxidant functions may be developed as a disease-modifying agent against AD.

Aronia melanocarpa Ameliorates Adrenal Cytoarchitecture Against the Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Injury

Hexavalent chromium is a toxin that penetrates the cell, triggering reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Aronia melanocarpa, due to its proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins, and phenolic acid contents, is a valuable antioxidant. The aim was to observe the influence of hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) on the adrenal gland, and if this impact can be recovered by the administration of A. melanocarpa. Accordingly, 36 rats were divided into six groups: control; Aronia; Cr receiving Cr(VI) in distilled water for 3 months; CrA receiving a mix of Cr(VI) and A. melanocarpa at 2.5% aqueous extract for 3 months; Cr2 receiving, for 3 months, Cr(VI) in distilled water, and next, for 1 month, only distilled water; and respectively, CrA2 receiving, for 3 months, Cr(VI) in distilled water, followed by 1 month of Aronia at 2.5% extract administration. The adrenal gland samples were examined toward histological and molecular assessment, and results were statistically analyzed (ANOVA). Hexavalent chromium induced changes in the adrenal cortex expressed by focal or diffuse hypertrophies, cytoplasmic vacuolization (due to lipidic accumulation), and cells' shape and size alteration, including necrosis. These structural alterations were carried by Bax and Bcl2 gene expression: the Bax gene expression levels, increased significantly (p < 0.001) in all experimental groups, except the Aronia group, compared with control. In the Cr2, CrA, and CrA2 groups, notable reduction of Bax gene expression (p < 0.001) was reported compared with the Cr group. Regarding the Bcl2 gene expression (p < 0.001), a significant increase was observed in the experimental groups, compared with the control. The Bcl2 expression level had a similar pattern to Bax gene, consequently trying to compensate its overexpression. Aronia administered concomitantly, or after Cr(VI), diminished structural changes and expression of the studied genes, thus reducing the Bax/Bcl2 ratio and suggesting that the active ingredients from Aronia are capable of blocking apoptotic cascade induced by the pathway of Bax and Bcl2 proteins.

Gut Microbiota Modulation by Polyphenols from Aronia melanocarpa of LPS-Induced Liver Diseases in Rats

Aronia melanocarpa polyphenols (AMPs) can alleviate the degree of liver diseases in rats. However, the mechanism by which this is achieved through gut microbiota modulation remains unclear. Here, a rich-polyphenol extract of A. melanocarpa (AMPs) was used to treat lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver diseases in rats. To gain insights into the anti-LPS-induced liver disease, liver function index, expression of apoptosis proteins, inflammatory factors, and activation of inflammatory signaling pathways were determined with western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, and 16S rRNA sequencing or quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). After AMPs treatment, the gut microbiota composition was modulated, promoting the intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of intestinal epithelial cell tight junction proteins to reduce the LPS content in serum. The expression levels of inflammatory factors interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and related mRNAs were reduced. These results showed that AMPs, as a bioactive substance, could enhance the intestinal barrier function and modulate the gut microbiota of LPS-induced liver diseases.

Anti-Amnesic Effect of Walnut via the Regulation of BBB Function and Neuro-Inflammation in Aβ1-42-Induced Mice

This study was conducted to assess the protective effect of walnut (Juglans regia L.) extract on amyloid beta (Aβ)_1-42-induced institute of cancer research (ICR) mice. By conducting a Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests with amyloidogenic mice, it was found that walnut extract ameliorated behavioral dysfunction and memory deficit. The walnut extract showed a protective effect on the antioxidant system and cholinergic system by regulating malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) contents, reduced glutathione (GSH) contents, acetylcholine (ACh) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and protein expression of AChE and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Furthermore, the walnut extract suppressed Aβ-induced abnormality of mitochondrial function by ameliorating reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and ATP contents. Finally, the walnut extract regulated the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin concerned with blood–brain barrier (BBB) function, expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), phosphorylated nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor (p-IκB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), related to neuroinflammation and the expression of phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt), caspase-3, hyperphosphorylation of tau (p-tau), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), associated with the Aβ-related Akt pathway.

Neuroprotective effects of vomifoliol, isolated from Tarenna obtusifolia Merr. (Rubiaceae), against amyloid-beta 1-42-treated neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Phytochemical investigation on the leaves of Tarenna obtusifolia Merr. (Rubiaceae) led to the isolation and identification of vomifoliol (1), p-coumaric acid (2), and stigmasterol (3) based on spectroscopic analyses and comparison with the literature data. Compound 1 moderately inhibited the aggregation of amyloid-beta (Aβ_1-42) using the ThT assay (55.71% at 50 μM) and exhibited neuroprotective effects against amyloid-beta (Aβ_1-42)-induced cytotoxicity in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells at 20 μM concentration. This is the first phytochemical study on T. obtusifolia and the first report on the Aβ aggregation activity and neuroprotective potential of vomifoliol (1).

Mitochondrial respiratory chain dysfunction mediated by ROS is a primary point of fluoride-induced damage in Hepa1-6 cells

To evaluate the mechanism of fluoride (F) mitochondrial toxicity, we cultured Hepa1-6 cells with different F concentrations (0, 1 and 2 mmoL/L) and determined cell pathological morphology, mitochondrial respiratory chain damage and cell cycle change. Results showed that the activities and mRNA expression levels of antioxidant enzymes considerably decreased, whereas the contents of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) markedly increased. Breakage of mitochondrial cristae and substantial vacuolated mitochondria were observed by transmission electron microscopy. These results indicate the F-induced oxidative damage in Hepa1-6 cells. The enzyme activities of mitochondrial complexes I, II, III and IV were disordered in Hepa1-6 cells treated by excessive F, thereby indicating a remarkable down-regulation. Further research showed that complex subunits also demonstrated the development of disorder, in which the protein expressions levels of NDUFV2 and SDHA were substantially down-regulated, whereas those of CYC1 and COX Ⅳ were markedly up-regulated. Reductions in ATP and mitochondrial membrane potential were detected with the dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The G2/M phase arrest of the cell cycle in Hepa1-6 cells was measured via flow cytometry, and the up-regulated protein expressions of Cyt c, caspase 9, caspase 3 and substantial apoptotic cells were determined. In summary, this study demonstrated that ROS-mediated mitochondrial respiratory chain dysfunction causes F-induced Hepa1-6 cell damage.

Anthocyanins Potentially Contribute to Defense against Alzheimer's Disease

Anthocyanins (ANTs) are plant pigments that belong to a flavanol class of polyphenols and have diverse pharmacological properties. These compounds are primarily found in fruits and vegetables, with an average daily intake of 180 mgd-1 of these compounds in the developed world. ANTs are potent antioxidants that might regulate the free radical-mediated generation of amyloid peptides (Abeta-amyloids) in the brain, which causes Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study presents a literature review of ANTs from different berries and their potential therapeutic value, with particular emphasis on neurodegenerative AD, which owing to oxidative stress. This review also highlights reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation through energy metabolism, nitrogen reactive species, the role of transition metals in generating ROS, and the radical-quenching mechanisms of natural antioxidants, including ANTs. The current status of the bioavailability, solubility, and structure activity relationship of ANTs is discussed herein.