Crowdsourcing-based nationwide tick collection reveals the distribution of Ixodes ricinus and I. persulcatus and associated pathogens in Finland

iNaturalist community observations provide valuable data on human-mosquito encounters

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) and the pathogens they transmit represent a threat to human and animal health. Low-cost and effective surveillance methods are necessary to enable sustainable monitoring of mosquito distributions, diversity, and human interactions. This study examined the use of iNaturalist, an online, community-populated biodiversity recording database, for passive mosquito surveillance in the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland, countries under threat from the introduction of invasive mosquitoes and emerging mosquito-borne diseases. The Mozzie Monitors UK & Ireland iNaturalist project was established to collate mosquito observations in these countries. Data were compared with existing long-term mosquito UK datasets to assess representativeness of seasonal and distribution trends in citizen scientist-recorded observations. The project collected 738 observations with the majority recorded 2020-2022. Records were primarily associated with urban areas, with the most common species Culex pipiens and Culiseta annulata significantly more likely to be observed in urban areas than other species. Analysis of images uploaded to the iNaturalist project also provided insights into human-biting behavior. Our analyses indicate that iNaturalist provides species composition, seasonal occurrence, and distribution figures consistent with existing datasets and is therefore a useful surveillance tool for recording information on human interactions with mosquitoes and monitoring species of concern.

An Updated Review on the Spatial Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato Across Ticks, Animals and Humans in Northeastern China and Adjacent Regions

BACKGROUND

Lyme disease is a tick-borne zoonotic disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and is prevalent in northeastern Asia, particularly in the forested area of Northeastern China. However, a lack of systematic data on the spatial distribution of B. burgdorferi in this region hinders the prediction of its transmission risk across the landscape.

METHODS

To provide an updated overview and establish a comprehensive spatial distribution database, we conducted a systematic review of literature published between 2000 and 2022. We collected and compiled relevant data on B. burgdorferi in Northeastern China and its neighbouring regions, outlining its distribution in ticks, wild animals, livestock and humans. Spatial analysis was performed to identify spatial clusters of tick positivity and host infection rates.

RESULTS

From a total of 1823 literature, we selected 110 references to compile 626 detection records of B. burgdorferi, including 288 in ticks, 109 in wildlife, 111 in livestock and domestic animals and 100 in humans. The average detection rate of B. burgdorferi in ticks was approximately 20%, with wildlife, livestock and domestic animal host positivity rates below 50% and human seroprevalence rates varying from 0.94% to 44.18%.

CONCLUSIONS

The study identified the presence of 17 tick species and ten genotypes of B. burgdorferi in the region, indicating a broad distribution. Notably, B. burgdorferi exhibited notable clustering, particularly in the central and eastern areas of Jilin Province, warranting further investigation.

The prevalence of pathogens in ticks collected from humans in Belgium, 2021, versus 2017

BACKGROUND

Ticks carry a variety of microorganisms, some of which are pathogenic to humans. The human risk of tick-borne diseases depends on, among others, the prevalence of pathogens in ticks biting humans. To follow-up on this prevalence over time, a Belgian study from 2017 was repeated in 2021.

METHODS

During the tick season 2021, citizens were invited to have ticks removed from their skin, send them and fill in a short questionnaire on an existing citizen science platform for the notification of tick bites (TekenNet). Ticks were morphologically identified to species and life stage level and screened using multiplex qPCR targeting, among others, Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato), Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia miyamotoi, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Babesia spp., Rickettsia helvetica and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The same methodology as in 2017 was used.

RESULTS

In 2021, the same tick species as in 2017 were identified in similar proportions; of 1094 ticks, 98.7% were Ixodes ricinus, 0.8% Ixodes hexagonus and 0.5% Dermacentor reticulatus. A total of 928 nymphs and adults could be screened for the presence of pathogens. Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) was detected in 9.9% (95% CI 8.2-12.0%), which is significantly lower than the prevalence of 13.9% (95% CI 12.2-15.7%) in 2017 (P = 0.004). The prevalences of A. phagocytophilum (4.7%; 95% CI 3.5-6.3%) and R. helvetica (13.3%; 95% CI 11.2-15.6%) in 2021 were significantly higher compared to 2017 (1.8%; 95% CI 1.3-2.7% and 6.8%; 95% CI 5.6-8.2% respectively) (P < 0.001 for both). For the other pathogens tested, no statistical differences compared to 2017 were found, with prevalences ranging between 1.5 and 2.9% in 2021. Rickettsia raoultii was again found in D. reticulatus ticks (n = 3/5 in 2021). Similar to 2017, no TBEV was detected in the ticks. Co-infections were found in 5.1% of ticks. When combining co-infection occurrence in 2017 and 2021, a positive correlation was observed between B. burgdorferi (s.l.) and N. mikurensis and B. burgdorferi (s.l.) and B. miyamotoi (P < 0.001 for both).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the 2021 prevalences fell within expectations, differences were found compared to 2017. Further research to understand the explanations behind these differences is needed.

Genomic signatures of hybridization between Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus in natural populations

Identifying hybridization between common pathogen vectors is essential due to the major public health implications through risks associated with hybrid's enhanced pathogen transmission potential. The hard-ticks Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus are the two most common vectors of tick-borne pathogens that affect human and animal health in Europe. Ixodes ricinus is a known native species in Finland with a well-known distribution, whereas I. persulcatus has expanded in range and abundance over the past 60 years, and currently it appears the most common tick species in certain areas in Finland. Here we used double-digest restriction site-associated DNA (ddRAD) sequencing on 186 ticks (morphologically identified as 92 I. ricinus, and 94 I. persulcatus) collected across Finland to investigate whether RAD generated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can discriminate tick species and identify potential hybridization events. Two different clustering methods were used to assign specific species based on how they clustered and identified hybrids among them. We were able to discriminate between the two tick species and identified 11 putative hybrids with admixed genomic proportions ranging from approximately 24 to 76 percent. Four of these hybrids were morphologically identified as I. ricinus while the remaining seven were identified as I. persulcatus. Our results thus indicate that RAD SNPs are robust in identifying both species of the ticks as well as putative hybrids. These results further suggest ongoing hybridization between I. ricinus and I. persulcatus in their natural populations in Finland. The unique ability of RAD markers to discriminate between tick species and hybrids adds a useful aspect to tick evolutionary studies. Our findings align with previous studies and suggest a shared evolutionary history between the species, with instances of individuals possessing a considerable proportion of the other species' genome. This study is a significant step in understanding the formation of hybridization zones due to range expansion potentially associated with climate change.

Identifying breeding hosts of Ixodes ricinus ticks using stable isotope analysis of their larvae - Proof of concept

Ticks are important vectors of zoonotic pathogens. Ticks are parasites that are dependent on their hosts for blood meal to develop and reproduce. The abundance of ticks is dependent on the availability of suitable breeding hosts, often medium- and large-sized mammals. So far there has been a shortage of direct methods identifying the breeding hosts for the female ticks. In this study, we introduce a stable isotope analysis (SIA) method that enables us to identify the trophic group of the breeding host, i.e. the host on which the tick mother fed, by sampling larval ticks from the field. We established a reference database on the stable isotope (SI) values (δ13C and δ15N) of the blood of potential tick host species, and of larvae from Ixodes ricinus females, which have fed on known hosts. By comparing the SI values from field collected larval ticks to our reference data, we can determine their most likely host species group. Our results show that the isotopic signatures of I. ricinus tick larvae reflect the diet of the breeding host of the mother tick. SIA proved reliable in categorizing the breeding hosts of I. ricinus into two distinguishable trophic groups; herbivores and carni-omnivores. To our knowledge, this is the first time that stable isotope analyses have been applied to detect transovarial (i.e. over-generational) traces of a blood meal in ticks. The method provides an efficient, novel tool for directly identifying tick breeding hosts by sampling field collected larvae. Ixodes ricinus is the most important vector of TBPs (tick-borne pathogens) in Europe, and to predict and mitigate against the future risks that TBPs pose, it is crucial to have detailed knowledge on the hosts that support tick reproduction in nature.

Seasonal Activity of Adult Ticks Ixodes persulcatus (Acari, Ixodidae) in the North-West of the Distribution Area

The taiga tick Ixodes persulcatus (Schulze, 1930) (Acari, Ixodidae) is the main vector of the tick-borne encephalitis virus and one of the most widespread species of ixodid ticks in the Palaearctic. In this paper, we present long-term data on the seasonal activity of adult ticks in the north-west of their distribution. The seasonal activity of Ixodes persulcatus was studied from 1982 to 1990 and from 2012 to 2023 in the middle taiga subzone of Karelia (N62.0697, E33.961). In the study area, adult ticks I. persulcatus demonstrate a pronounced spring-summer activity with a unimodal curve of abundance change. A comparison of the monitoring data from the 1980s and the 2010s showed a significant increase in the abundance of I. persulcatus in the study area. A tendency towards an earlier start of the tick activity, as compared to the 1980s, is now being observed.

Crowdsourced tick observation data from across 60 years reveals major increases and northwards shifts in tick contact areas in Finland

There is mounting evidence of increases in tick (Acari: Ixodidae) contacts in Finland during the past few decades, highlighted by increases in the incidence of Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). While nationwide field studies to map distributions of ticks are not feasible, crowdsourcing provides a comprehensive method with which to assess large-scale changes in tick contact areas. Here, we assess changes in tick contact areas in Finland between 1958 and 2021 using three different nationwide crowdsourced data sets. The data revealed vast increases in tick contact areas, with ticks estimated to be contacted locally approximately 400 km further north in western and approximately 100 km further north in eastern Finland in 2021 than 1958. Tick contact rates appeared to be highest along the coastline and on the shores of large lakes, possibly indicating higher tick abundance therein. In general, tick observations per inhabitant increased from 2015 to 2021. Tick contact areas have expanded in Finland over the past 60 years. It appears that taiga ticks (Ixodes persulcatus) are behind most of the northwards shifts in tick contact areas, with Ixodes ricinus contributing mostly to new contact areas in the south. While ticks are now present in most of Finland, there are still areas where tick abundance is low and/or establishment not possible, mainly in northern Finland.

Tick-Borne Encephalitis Vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2023

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus is focally endemic in parts of Europe and Asia. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans by the bites of infected

Ixodes species ticks but can also be acquired less frequently by alimentary transmission. Other rare modes of transmission include through breastfeeding, blood transfusion, solid organ transplantation, and slaughtering of viremic animals. TBE virus can cause acute neurologic disease, which usually results in hospitalization, often permanent neurologic or cognitive sequelae, and sometimes death. TBE virus infection is a risk for certain travelers and for laboratory workers who work with the virus. In August 2021, the Food and Drug Administration approved Ticovac TBE vaccine for use among persons aged ≥1 year. This report summarizes the epidemiology of and risks for infection with TBE virus, provides information on the immunogenicity and safety of TBE vaccine, and summarizes the recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for use of TBE vaccine among U.S. travelers and laboratory workers.

The risk for TBE for most U.S. travelers to areas where the disease is endemic is very low. The risk for exposure to infected ticks is highest for persons who are in areas where TBE is endemic during the main TBE virus transmission season of April–November and who are planning to engage in recreational activities in woodland habitats or who might be occupationally exposed. All persons who travel to areas where TBE is endemic should be advised to take precautions to avoid tick bites and to avoid the consumption of unpasteurized dairy products because alimentary transmission of TBE virus can occur. TBE vaccine can further reduce infection risk and might be indicated for certain persons who are at higher risk for TBE. The key factors in the risk-benefit assessment for vaccination are likelihood of exposure to ticks based on activities and itinerary (e.g., location, rurality, season, and duration of travel or residence). Other risk-benefit considerations should include 1) the rare occurrence of TBE but its potentially high morbidity and mortality, 2) the higher risk for severe disease among certain persons (e.g., older persons aged ≥60 years), 3) the availability of an effective vaccine, 4) the possibility but low probability of serious adverse events after vaccination, 5) the likelihood of future travel to areas where TBE is endemic, and 6) personal perception and tolerance of risk

ACIP recommends TBE vaccine for U.S. persons who are moving or traveling to an area where the disease is endemic and will have extensive exposure to ticks based on their planned outdoor activities and itinerary. Extensive exposure can be considered based on the duration of travel and frequency of exposure and might include shorter-term (e.g., <1 month) travelers with daily or frequent exposure or longer-term travelers with regular (e.g., a few times a month) exposure to environments that might harbor infected ticks. In addition, TBE vaccine may be considered for persons who might engage in outdoor activities in areas where ticks are likely to be found, with a decision to vaccinate made on the basis of an assessment of their planned activities and itinerary, risk factors for a poor medical outcome, and personal perception and tolerance of risk. In the laboratory setting, ACIP recommends TBE vaccine for laboratory workers with a potential for exposure to TBE virus

Ixodid tick species found in northern Sweden - Data from a frontier area

Environmental and climatic changes in northern Europe have shaped a geographical area in which new tick species may become established and introduce new tick-borne pathogens. In recent decades, ticks have expanded their latitudinal and altitudinal range limits in northern Sweden. In this study, ticks were collected in 2018 and 2019 in northern Sweden from different hosts, mainly from dogs, cats and humans. The ticks in 2018 (n = 2141, collected from 65 municipalities in 11 provinces) were identified as Ixodes ricinus (n = 2108, 98.5%), Ixodes persulcatus (n = 18, 0.8%), Ixodes trianguliceps (n = 14, 0.7%) and Hyalomma marginatum (n = 1, 0.05%). The ticks collected in 2019 (n = 519, across a smaller area than in 2018, i.e. Sweden's four northernmost provinces) were identified as I. ricinus (n = 242, 46.6%) and I. persulcatus (n = 277, 53.4%). Among those collected in 2019, the majority of I. ricinus (n = 111, 45.9%) were submitted from the province of Västerbotten, while most I. persulcatus (n = 259, 93.5%) were collected in the province of Norrbotten. This study provides updated figures on the geographical distribution of two Ixodes species in northern Sweden. The results confirmed I. ricinus to be the dominant species and that I. persulcatus has enlarged its distributional area compared with previous reports. Updated knowledge of tick distribution is fundamental for the creation of risk maps and will allow relevant advice to be provided to the general public, suggesting measures to prevent tick bites and consequently tick-borne diseases.

The contribution of citizen science in the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropods

Environmental and anthropogenic factors may significantly affect the diffusion of wild animals, enhancing the interface of human–wildlife interactions and driving the spread of pathogens and vector-borne diseases between animals and humans. However, in the last decade, the involvement of citizens in scientific research (the so-called citizen science approach, henceforth abbreviated as CS) provided a network of large-scale and cost-effective surveillance programmes of wildlife populations and their related arthropod species. Therefore, this review aims to illustrate different methods and tools used in CS studies, by arguing the main advantages and considering the limitations of this approach. The CS approach has proven to be an effective method for establishing density and distribution of several wild animal species, in urban, peri-urban and rural environments, as well a source of information regarding vector–host associations between arthropods and wildlife. Extensive efforts are recommended to motivate citizens to be involved in scientific projects to improve both their and our knowledge of the ecology and diseases of wildlife. Following the One Health paradigm, collaborative and multidisciplinary models for the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropod species should be further developed by harnessing the potentiality of the CS approach.

Molecular detection of pathogens from ticks collected from dogs and cats at veterinary clinics in Finland

BACKGROUND

Ticks carry microbes, some of which are pathogenic for humans and animals. To assess this One Health challenge, 342 ticks were collected from pet dogs and cats at 10 veterinary clinics in Finland as part of the European project "Protect Our Future Too".

METHODS

The tick species were identified, and ticks were screened with quantitative PCR (qPCR) for tick-borne pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Borrelia miyamotoi, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), and Babesia spp. For comparison, a subset of tick DNA (20 qPCR-positive samples) was analysed with 16S next-generation sequencing (NGS).

RESULTS

Most ticks were Ixodes ricinus (289, 84.5%), followed by Ixodes persulcatus (51, 14.9%). One hybrid tick (I. ricinus/I. persulcatus, 0.3%) and one Rhipicephalus sanguineus tick (0.3%) were identified. We found one or more of the analysed pathogens in 17% (59/342) of the ticks. The most prevalent pathogen was B. burgdorferi s.l. (36, 10.5%), followed by Anaplasma phagocytophilum (12, 3.5%), B. miyamotoi (5, 1.5%), Babesia venatorum (4, 1.2%), and TBEV (1, 0.3%). Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis DNA was amplified from three (0.9%) ticks. Ehrlichia canis was not detected. In the 16S NGS, six samples produced enough reads for the analysis. In these six samples, we confirmed all the positive qPCR findings of Borrelia spp. and Ca. N. mikurensis.

CONCLUSIONS

The high prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms in the ticks of this study emphasizes the importance of awareness of ticks and tick-borne diseases and prevention. Furthermore, the results show that veterinary surveillance can facilitate early detection of tick-borne pathogens and new tick species and draw attention to possible co-infections that should be considered both in symptomatic humans and animals after tick bites.

Development Features of Ixodes ricinus × I. persulcatus Hybrids under Laboratory Conditions

Widely distributed Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks transmit many pathogens of both medical and veterinary significance. The ranges of these tick species overlap and form large sympatric areas in the East European Plain and Baltic countries. It has previously been shown that crossing I. ricinus and I. persulcatus is possible, resulting in the appearance of sterile hybrids. In the present study, we analyzed the features of this hybrid's life cycle under laboratory conditions. For this purpose, virgin females of I. ricinus and I. persulcatus ticks were obtained in the laboratory, and hybrid generations of ticks were bred from the reciprocal crossings of these two tick species. According to our data, mating the females of I. ricinus and I. persulcatus with the males of another species leads to a decrease in the engorgement success of the females, a decrease in the number of hatched larvae, and the appearance of a hybrid generation in which both females and males are sterile. Under laboratory conditions at a constant room temperature and under natural daylight, the morphogenetic diapause of the engorged I. persulcatus larvae began in September. For I. persulcatus nymphs, it occurred earlier than for I. ricinus, in October and November, respectively. The hybrids generally repeated the features of the life cycle of the mother species.

Summer collection of multiple southern species of ticks in a remote northern island in Japan and literature review of the distribution and avian hosts of ticks

Expansion of ticks and tick-borne diseases is of increasing concern worldwide. To decrease the risk of ticks and tick-borne diseases to public health, understanding the mechanisms of their current distribution and future expansion is needed. Although tick distribution has been studied globally on continents and large islands that are inhabited by large mammals, less attention has been paid to remote islands. However, small islands are often important stopover sites for migratory birds that may contribute to long-distance dispersal of ticks. Therefore, islands would be a suitable system to rule out potential effects of mammals and to evaluate the contribution of birds to the expansion of ticks and tick-borne diseases. We collected questing ticks by dragging cloths over vegetation on Tobishima Island, northern Japan, in summer 2021, and conducted a literature search of the distribution and avian hosts of hard tick. We found several southern species of ticks (Haemaphysalis hystricis, H. formosensis, H. cornigera, Amblyomma testudinarium, and Dermacentor bellulus) on the island. These species have rarely or never been reported from the mainland of Japan at similar latitudes or higher, where large mammals are found. They are known vectors of tick-borne diseases, such as severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome. The present study suggests that migratory birds may contribute to the expansion of ticks and tick-borne diseases, and a remote island may function as a front line and/or a hub for their expansion. Evaluating tick fauna on remote islands used by migratory birds might be useful to monitor the expansion.

Evaluation of the efficacy of permethrin- and cypermethrin-based textile against taiga tick, Ixodes persulcatus

A comparison of the efficacy of permethrin- and cypermethrin-based textile against taiga ticks (Ixodes persulcatus) was carried out in a tick-borne viral encephalitis hotspot in the Irkutsk Region (Russia) using model samples of impregnated textiles. We demonstrated that permethrin- and cypermethrin-treated model samples have similar protective parameters in terms of maximum height reached by the tick when climbing up the treated textile (20.9-38.7 cm for cypermethrin, 27.6-39.3 cm for permethrin, depending on concentration) and knockdown time (i.e., the time until a female tick falls off the treated textile; 3.52-4.31 min for cypermethrin, 5.02-8.25 min for permethrin, depending on concentration). In contrast, when evaluating the 'biting speed' index (which is the ratio of the average attaching time of ticks contacting untreated textiles and ticks contacting treated textiles), it has been shown that permethrin-treated textiles accelerate biting. So, using permethrin-treated protective clothing against the taiga tick could be risky because it increases the likelihood of being bitten and thus getting infected. In contrast, cypermethrin-treated textiles appear to block the ability of ticks to attack warm-blooded animals and humans - after contact with cypermethrin-treated textiles none of the ticks attached to a rabbit. So cypermethrin-based textiles could be an alternative to permethrin for tick-bite protection clothing production if there is no toxic effect on humans of textile materials based on it.

Hybrids of Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks effectively acquire and transmit tick-borne encephalitis virus

Ixodes rici nus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks are the main vectors of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), which has three main subtypes connected with certain tick species: the European subtype, associated with I. ricinus, and the Siberian and Far-Eastern subtypes, associated with I. persulcatus. Distribution ranges of these species overlap and form large sympatric areas in the East European Plain and Baltic countries. It has previously been shown that crossing of I. ricinus and I. persulcatus is possible, with the appearance of sterile hybrids. Hybridization of ticks can affect not only the spread of ticks but also the properties of natural foci of arbovirus infections, in particular TBEV. In the present study, we analyzed the effectiveness of virus transmission from infected mice to larvae and nymphs and trans-stadial transmission (from larvae to nymph and adult) in I. ricinus, I. persulcatus, and hybrids. For this purpose, we bred a hybrid generation from the crossing of I. persulcatus females and I. ricinus males, and we used the Siberian and European subtypes of TBEV. We showed that after feeding on infected mice, virus prevalence in engorged ticks decreased over time, and after molting, the opposite was true. In hybrids we observed the highest acquisition effectiveness and RNA copy numbers during Siberian TBEV subtype transmission. The efficiency of trans-stadial transmission of both TBEV subtypes was similar in hybrids and parental species. After the second trans-stadial TBEV transmission, a significant increase in ticks' infection rates was observed only in specific subtype-tick combination. Our data demonstrate the possible features of TBEV circulation in the I. ricinus and I. persulcatus sympatry area.

Does environmental adaptation or dispersal history explain the geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks in Finland?

In Finland, the distribution area of the taiga tick, Ixodes persulcatus (Schulze, 1930), is nested within a broader area of distribution of a congeneric species, the sheep tick, Ixodes ricinus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Acari: Ixodidae). We assess whether distinct environmental adaptations or dispersal history provides a more parsimonious explanation for the differences in the distributions of the two common and medically important ixodids in Finland. We used an innovative spatially constrained randomization procedure to analyze whether crowdsourced occurrence data points of the two tick species had statistically different associations with any of the 28 environmental variables. Using points of presence in a region of species co-occurrence, we built Maxent models to examine whether environmental factors or dispersal history could explain the absence of I. persulcatus in a part of the range of I. ricinus in Finland. Five environmental variables-number of inhabitants, road length, elevation above sea level, proportion of barren bedrock and boulders, and proportion of unsorted glacial deposits-were significant at p ≤ .05, indicating greater between-species difference in original than in the randomized data. Of these variables, only the optimum value for unsorted glacial deposits was higher for I. persulcatus than for I. ricinus. Maxent models also predicted high relative habitat suitability (suitability >80%) for I. persulcatus south of its current, sharply bounded distribution range, suggesting that the species has not fulfilled its distribution potential in Finland. The two most common and medically relevant ixodids in Finland may colonize habitats with different environmental conditions. On the contrary, the recent establishment and ongoing dispersion of I. persulcatus in Fennoscandia rather than environmental conditions cause the southernmost distribution limit of the species in Finland.

Pathogens in Ixodes persulcatus and Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari, Ixodidae) in Karelia (Russia)

Ixodid ticks (Acarina, Ixodidae) are vectors of dangerous human infections. The main tick species that determine the epidemiological situation for tick-borne diseases in northern Europe are Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus. In recent years, significant changes in the number and distribution of these species have been observed, accompanied by an expansion of the sympatric range. This work summarizes the data of long-term studies carried out in Karelia since 2007 on the infection of I. persulcatus and I. ricinus ticks with various pathogens, including new viruses with unclear pathogenic potential. As a result, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV, Siberian genotype), Alongshan virus, several representatives of the family Phenuiviridae, Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, Ehrlichia muris, Candidatus Rickettsia tarasevichiae and Candidatus Lariskella arthropodarum were identified. Data were obtained on the geographical and temporal variability of tick infection rates with these main pathogens. The average infection rates of I. persulcatus with TBEV and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato were 4.4% and 23.4% and those of I. ricinus were 1.1% and 11.9%, respectively. We did not find a correlation between the infection rate of ticks with TBEV, B. burgdorferi s.l. and Ehrlichia muris/chaffeensis with the sex of the vector. In general, the peculiarities of the epidemiological situation in Karelia are determined by the wide distribution and high abundance of I. persulcatus ticks and by their relatively high infection rate with TBEV and B. burgdorferi s.l. in most of the territory, including the periphery of the range.

Tick Infestation in Migratory Birds of the Vistula River Valley, Poland

Migratory birds play an important role in the eco-epidemiology of tick-borne diseases due to their ability to carry ticks for long distances. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and factors influencing the intensity of tick infestation in migratory birds. The study was conducted in a locality situated in the Vistula River valley, eastern Poland, during autumn, when the high migratory activity of birds is registered in the region. The birds were captured using ornithological nets and identified at the species level. In the next step, they were carefully inspected for attached ticks. Tick infestation was observed in 4.43% of the captured birds. The highest mean intensity of tick infestation was observed in birds foraging on the ground or in low shrubs and by long- and medium-distance migrants, i.e., Turdus merula (2.73), T. philomelos (2.04), and Erithacus rubecula (1.58). Ixodes ricinus was found to infest the birds most frequently. However, other tick species, i.e., I.&nbsp;trianguliceps, I.&nbsp;crenulatus (synonym I.&nbsp;canisuga), and I. apronophorus, rarely found in eastern Poland, were also found parasitizing birds. The occurrence of I.&nbsp;persulcatus, I. frontalis, and I.&nbsp;acuminatus (synonym I.&nbsp;redikorzevi) was confirmed in the region for the first time. The results of the study suggest that captured bird species are susceptible to tick infestation and could play an important role in the circulation of some tick-borne pathogens. They also play a significant role in the spread of ticks. The ecology and ethology of birds, including their foraging styles and migratory habits, are factors determining the risk of exposure of birds to tick attacks.

Predicting habitat suitability for Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks in Finland

BACKGROUND

Ticks are responsible for transmitting several notable pathogens worldwide. Finland lies in a zone where two human-biting tick species co-occur: Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus. Tick densities have increased in boreal regions worldwide during past decades, and tick-borne pathogens have been identified as one of the major threats to public health in the face of climate change.

METHODS

We used species distribution modelling techniques to predict the distributions of I. ricinus and I. persulcatus, using aggregated historical data from 2014 to 2020 and new tick occurrence data from 2021. By aiming to fill the gaps in tick occurrence data, we created a new sampling strategy across Finland. We also screened for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Borrelia from the newly collected ticks. Climate, land use and vegetation data, and population densities of the tick hosts were used in various combinations on four data sets to estimate tick species' distributions across mainland Finland with a 1-km resolution.

RESULTS

In the 2021 survey, 89 new locations were sampled of which 25 new presences and 63 absences were found for I. ricinus and one new presence and 88 absences for I. persulcatus. A total of 502 ticks were collected and analysed; no ticks were positive for TBEV, while 56 (47%) of the 120 pools, including adult, nymph, and larva pools, were positive for Borrelia (minimum infection rate 11.2%, respectively). Our prediction results demonstrate that two combined predictor data sets based on ensemble mean models yielded the highest predictive accuracy for both I. ricinus (AUC = 0.91, 0.94) and I. persulcatus (AUC = 0.93, 0.96). The suitable habitats for I. ricinus were determined by higher relative humidity, air temperature, precipitation sum, and middle-infrared reflectance levels and higher densities of white-tailed deer, European hare, and red fox. For I. persulcatus, locations with greater precipitation and air temperature and higher white-tailed deer, roe deer, and mountain hare densities were associated with higher occurrence probabilities. Suitable habitats for I. ricinus ranged from southern Finland up to Central Ostrobothnia and North Karelia, excluding areas in Ostrobothnia and Pirkanmaa. For I. persulcatus, suitable areas were located along the western coast from Ostrobothnia to southern Lapland, in North Karelia, North Savo, Kainuu, and areas in Pirkanmaa and Päijät-Häme.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study conducted in Finland that estimates potential tick species distributions using environmental and host data. Our results can be utilized in vector control strategies, as supporting material in recommendations issued by public health authorities, and as predictor data for modelling the risk for tick-borne diseases.

Monitoring Trends in Distribution and Seasonality of Medically Important Ticks in North America Using Online Crowdsourced Records from iNaturalist

Simple Summary

An increasing number of cases of tick-borne diseases are being reported across North America and in new areas. This has been linked to the spread of ticks, primarily the blacklegged tick Ixodes scapularis and the lone star tick Amblyomma americanum, into new geographical regions. Tick surveillance systems have played an important role in monitoring the changing distributions of these ticks and have benefitted greatly from including data collected by members of the public through citizen or community science projects. Enlisting the help of community scientists is an economical way to collect large amounts of data over a wide geographical area, and participants can also benefit by receiving information relevant to their tick encounter, for example regarding tick-borne disease symptoms. This study examined tick observations from the online image-based biological recording platform iNaturalist to evaluate its use as an extra tool to collect information on expanding tick distributions. The distribution and seasonality of iNaturalist tick observations were found to accurately represent those of the studied species and identified potential new areas of tick expansion. Free-to-access iNaturalist data is a highly cost-effective method to support existing tick surveillance strategies to aid preparedness and response in emerging areas of tick establishment.

Abstract

Recent increases in the incidence and geographic range of tick-borne diseases in North America are linked to the range expansion of medically important tick species, including Ixodes scapularis, Amblyomma americanum, and Amblyomma maculatum. Passive tick surveillance programs have been highly successful in collecting information on tick distribution, seasonality, host-biting activity, and pathogen infection prevalence. These have demonstrated the power of citizen or community science participation to collect country-wide, epidemiologically relevant data in a resource-efficient manner. This study examined tick observations from the online image-based biological recording platform iNaturalist to evaluate its use as an effective tool for monitoring the distributions of A. americanum, A. maculatum, I. scapularis, and Dermacentor in the United States and Canada. The distribution and seasonality of iNaturalist tick observations were found to accurately represent those of the studied species. County-level iNaturalist tick occurrence data showed good agreement with other data sources in documented areas of I. scapularis and A. americanum establishment, and highlighted numerous previously unreported counties with iNaturalist observations of these species. This study supports the use of iNaturalist data as a highly cost-effective passive tick surveillance method that can complement existing surveillance strategies to update tick distributions and identify new areas of tick establishment.

Collaborating With Community Scientists Across Arkansas to Update Tick Distributions and Pathogen Prevalence of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia and Ehrlichia

Tick-borne diseases (TBD) in humans have dramatically increased over recent years and although the bulk of cases are attributable to Lyme Disease in the Northeastern US, TBDs like spotted fever rickettsiosis and ehrlichiosis heavily impact other parts of the country, namely the mid-south. Understanding tick and pathogen distributions and prevalence traditionally requires active surveillance, which quickly becomes logistically and financially unrealistic as the geographic area of focus increases. We report on a community science effort to survey ticks across Arkansas to obtain updated data on tick distributions and prevalence of human tick-borne disease-causing pathogens in the most commonly encountered ticks. During a 20-mo period, Arkansans submitted 9,002 ticks from 71 of the 75 counties in the state. Amblyomma americanum was the most common tick species received, accounting for 76% of total tick submissions. Nearly 6,000 samples were screened for spotted fever group Rickettsia (SFGR) and Ehrlichia, resulting in general prevalence rates of 37.4 and 5.1%, respectively. In addition, 145 ticks (2.5%) were infected with both SFGR and Ehrlichia. Arkansas Department of Health reported 2,281 spotted fever and 380 ehrlichiosis cases during the same period as our tick collections. Since known SFGR vectors Dermacentor variabilis and Amblyomma maculatum were not the most common ticks submitted, nor did they have the highest prevalence rates of SFGR, it appears that other tick species play the primary role in infecting humans with SFGR. Our investigation demonstrated the utility of community science to efficiently and economically survey ticks and identify vector-borne disease risk in Arkansas.

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitizing migrating and local breeding birds in Finland

Ticks are globally renowned vectors for numerous zoonoses, and birds have been identified as important hosts for several species of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and tick-borne pathogens. Many European bird species overwinter in Africa and Western Asia, consequently migrating back to breeding grounds in Europe in the spring. During these spring migrations, birds may transport exotic tick species (and associated pathogens) to areas outside their typical distribution ranges. In Finland, very few studies have been conducted regarding ticks parasitizing migrating or local birds, and existing data are outdated, likely not reflecting the current situation. Consequently, in 2018, we asked volunteer bird ringers to collect ticks from migrating and local birds, to update current knowledge on ticks found parasitizing birds in Finland. In total 430 ticks were collected from 193 birds belonging to 32 species, caught for ringing between 2018 and 2020. Furthermore, four Ixodes uriae were collected from two roosting islets of sea birds in 2016 and 2020. Ticks collected on birds consisted of: Ixodes ricinus (n = 421), Ixodes arboricola (4), Ixodes lividus (2) and Hyalomma marginatum (3). Ixodes ricinus loads (nymphs and larvae) were highest on thrushes (Passeriformes: Turdidae) and European robins (Erithacus rubecula). The only clearly imported exotic tick species was H. marginatum. This study forms the second report of both I. uriae and I. arboricola from Finland, and possibly the northernmost observation of I. arboricola from Europe. The importation of exotic tick species by migrating birds seems a rare occurrence, as over 97% of all ticks collected from birds arriving in Finland during their spring migrations were I. ricinus, a species native to and abundant in Finland.

Citizen Science Provides an Efficient Method for Broad-Scale Tick-Borne Pathogen Surveillance of Ixodes pacificus and Ixodes scapularis across the United States

Tick-borne diseases have expanded over the last 2 decades as a result of shifts in tick and pathogen distributions. These shifts have significantly increased the need for accurate portrayal of real-time pathogen distributions and prevalence in hopes of stemming increases in human morbidity. Traditionally, pathogen distribution and prevalence have been monitored through case reports or scientific collections of ticks or reservoir hosts, both of which have challenges that impact the extent, availability, and accuracy of these data. Citizen science tick collections and testing campaigns supplement these data and provide timely estimates of pathogen prevalence and distributions to help characterize and understand tick-borne disease threats to communities. We utilized our national citizen science tick collection and testing program to describe the distribution and prevalence of four Ixodes-borne pathogens, Borrelia burgdorferisensu lato, Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Babesia microti, across the continental United States.

IMPORTANCE In the 21st century, zoonotic pathogens continue to emerge, while previously discovered pathogens continue to have changes within their distribution and prevalence. Monitoring these pathogens is resource intensive, requiring both field and laboratory support; thus, data sets are often limited within their spatial and temporal extents. Citizen science collections provide a method to harness the general public to collect samples, enabling real-time monitoring of pathogen distribution and prevalence.

More than ticking boxes: Training Lyme disease education ambassadors to meet outreach and surveillance challenges in Québec, Canada

Lyme disease (LD) is an emerging public health threat in Canada, associated with the northward range expansion of the black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis). To address this, public health authorities have been carrying out surveillance activities and awareness campaigns targeting vulnerable populations such as outdoor workers. Implementing these measures is time-consuming and resource-intensive, prompting the assessment of alternatives. Our goal was to evaluate the feasibility and implementation of a training-of-trainers-inspired approach in raising awareness about LD risk and prevention among workers and general population, as well as to evaluate its potential to contribute to provincial LD surveillance efforts. We trained a group of workers from publicly-accessible outdoor parks of the province of Québec to become "LD education ambassadors". Ambassadors were trained to raise tick and LD awareness, share information on preventive measures in their respective communities, and lead tick sampling activities using a standardised protocol similar to that used by Public Health authorities. Ambassador-led outreach activities, public reach, sampling activities and collected ticks were documented, as well as ambassadors' satisfaction with the training using forms and semi-structured interviews. In total, 18 ambassadors from 12 organizations were trained. Between June and September 2019, they led 28 independent outreach activities, reaching over 1 860 individuals (from occupational and general public settings) in seven public health units. Ambassadors led 28 tick samplings, together collecting 11 I. scapularis ticks. This study suggests that an adapted training-of-trainers is a feasible approach to raising tick and LD risk awareness among Québec outdoor workers and public. Trained ambassadors have the potential of reaching a large portion of the population visiting or working in outdoor parks while also providing much-needed outreach regarding risk and prevention. Pushing this concept further to include other types of workers and jurisdictions may contribute to national LD surveillance efforts.

Absence of Francisella tularensis in Finnish Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks

Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica is the causative agent of tularaemia in Europe. Finland is a high-incidence region for tularaemia, with mosquito bites as the most common sources of infection. However, in Central and Western Europe, ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) have been suggested as the main vectors. Indeed, several studies have reported the pathogen from the locally most common human-biting tick species, Ixodes ricinus. In Finland, the occurrence of the pathogen in ticks has started receiving attention only recently. Here, we collate previous tick screening data from Finland regarding F. tularensis as well as present the results from a novel screening of roughly 15 000 I. ricinus and I. persulcatus collected from across the country. In total, 14 878 ticks collected between 2015 and 2020 were screened for F. tularensis using a TaqMan-based qPCR assay targeting the 23 KDa gene. The combined screening efforts of the current and previous studies, encompassing roughly 20 000 ticks, did not find any positive ticks. Given the negative results despite the considerable sample size, it appears that the pathogen is not circulating in local tick populations in Finland. We discuss some possible reasons for the lack of the bacterium in ticks in this high-incidence region of tularaemia.

Rodent host population dynamics drive zoonotic Lyme Borreliosis and Orthohantavirus infections in humans in Northern Europe

Zoonotic diseases, caused by pathogens transmitted between other vertebrate animals and humans, pose a major risk to human health. Rodents are important reservoir hosts for many zoonotic pathogens, and rodent population dynamics affect the infection dynamics of rodent-borne diseases, such as diseases caused by hantaviruses. However, the role of rodent population dynamics in determining the infection dynamics of rodent-associated tick-borne diseases, such as Lyme borreliosis (LB), caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato bacteria, have gained limited attention in Northern Europe, despite the multiannual abundance fluctuations, the so-called vole cycles, that characterise rodent population dynamics in the region. Here, we quantify the associations between rodent abundance and LB human cases and Puumala Orthohantavirus (PUUV) infections by using two time series (25-year and 9-year) in Finland. Both bank vole (Myodes glareolus) abundance as well as LB and PUUV infection incidence in humans showed approximately 3-year cycles. Without vector transmitted PUUV infections followed the bank vole host abundance fluctuations with two-month time lag, whereas tick-transmitted LB was associated with bank vole abundance ca. 12 and 24 months earlier. However, the strength of association between LB incidence and bank vole abundance ca. 12 months before varied over the study years. This study highlights that the human risk to acquire rodent-borne pathogens, as well as rodent-associated tick-borne pathogens is associated with the vole cycles in Northern Fennoscandia, yet with complex time lags.

Potential for online crowdsourced biological recording data to complement surveillance for arthropod vectors

Voluntary contributions by citizen scientists can gather large datasets covering wide geographical areas, and are increasingly utilized by researchers for multiple applications, including arthropod vector surveillance. Online platforms such as iNaturalist accumulate crowdsourced biological observations from around the world and these data could also be useful for monitoring vectors. The aim of this study was to explore the availability of observations of important vector taxa on the iNaturalist platform and examine the utility of these data to complement existing vector surveillance activities. Of ten vector taxa investigated, records were most numerous for mosquitoes (Culicidae; 23,018 records, 222 species) and ticks (Ixodida; 16,214 records, 87 species), with most data from 2019–2020. Case studies were performed to assess whether images associated with records were of sufficient quality to identify species and compare iNaturalist observations of vector species to the known situation at the state, national and regional level based on existing published data. Firstly, tick data collected at the national (United Kingdom) or state (Minnesota, USA) level were sufficient to determine seasonal occurrence and distribution patterns of important tick species, and were able to corroborate and complement known trends in tick distribution. Importantly, tick species with expanding distributions (Haemaphysalis punctata in the UK, and Amblyomma americanum in Minnesota) were also detected. Secondly, using iNaturalist data to monitor expanding tick species in Europe (Hyalomma spp.) and the USA (Haemaphysalis longicornis), and invasive Aedes mosquitoes in Europe, showed potential for tracking these species within their known range as well as identifying possible areas of expansion. Despite known limitations associated with crowdsourced data, this study shows that iNaturalist can be a valuable source of information on vector distribution and seasonality that could be used to supplement existing vector surveillance data, especially at a time when many surveillance programs may have been interrupted by COVID-19 restrictions.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Citizen Science to Complement Traditional Data Gathering Approaches for Medically Important Hard Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in the United States

Tick-borne diseases are increasing in North America. Knowledge of which tick species and associated human pathogens are present locally can inform the public and medical community about the acarological risk for tick bites and tick-borne infections. Citizen science (also called community-based monitoring, volunteer monitoring, or participatory science) is emerging as a potential approach to complement traditional tick record data gathering where all aspects of the work is done by researchers or public health professionals. One key question is how citizen science can best be used to generate high-quality data to fill knowledge gaps that are difficult to address using traditional data gathering approaches. Citizen science is particularly useful to generate information on human-tick encounters and may also contribute to geographical tick records to help define species distributions across large areas. Previous citizen science projects have utilized three distinct tick record data gathering methods including submission of: 1) physical tick specimens for identification by professional entomologists, 2) digital images of ticks for identification by professional entomologists, and 3) data where the tick species and life stage were identified by the citizen scientist. We explore the benefits and drawbacks of citizen science, relative to the traditional scientific approach, to generate data on tick records, with special emphasis on data quality for species identification and tick encounter locations. We recognize the value of citizen science to tick research but caution that the generated information must be interpreted cautiously with data quality limitations firmly in mind to avoid misleading conclusions.

Predicting the current and future distribution of the western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus, across the Western US using citizen science collections

In the twenty-first century, ticks and tick-borne diseases have expanded their ranges and impact across the US. With this spread, it has become vital to monitor vector and disease distributions, as these shifts have public health implications. Typically, tick-borne disease surveillance (e.g., Lyme disease) is passive and relies on case reports, while disease risk is calculated using active surveillance, where researchers collect ticks from the environment. Case reports provide the basis for estimating the number of cases; however, they provide minimal information on vector population or pathogen dynamics. Active surveillance monitors ticks and sylvatic pathogens at local scales, but it is resource-intensive. As a result, data are often sparse and aggregated across time and space to increase statistical power to model or identify range changes. Engaging public participation in surveillance efforts allows spatially and temporally diverse samples to be collected with minimal effort. These citizen-driven tick collections have the potential to provide a powerful tool for tracking vector and pathogen changes. We used MaxEnt species distribution models to predict the current and future distribution of Ixodes pacificus across the Western US through the use of a nationwide citizen science tick collection program. Here, we present niche models produced through citizen science tick collections over two years. Despite obvious limitations with citizen science collections, the models are consistent with previously-predicted species ranges in California that utilized more than thirty years of traditional surveillance data. Additionally, citizen science allows for an expanded understanding of I. pacificus distribution in Oregon and Washington. With the potential for rapid environmental changes instigated by a burgeoning human population and rapid climate change, the development of tools, concepts, and methodologies that provide rapid, current, and accurate assessment of important ecological qualities will be invaluable for monitoring and predicting disease across time and space.

Game Animal Density, Climate, and Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Finland, 2007-2017

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is an endemic infection of public health importance in Finland. We investigated the effect of ecologic factors on 2007-2017 TBE trends. We obtained domestic TBE case data from the National Infectious Diseases Register, weather data from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and data from the Natural Resources Institute in Finland on mammals killed by hunters yearly in game management areas. We performed a mixed-effects time-series analysis with time lags on weather and animal parameters, adding a random effect to game management areas. During 2007-2017, a total of 395/460 (86%) domestic TBE cases were reported with known place of exposure and date of sampling. Overall, TBE incidence increased yearly by 15%. After adjusting for the density of other animals and minimum temperatures, we found thatTBE incidence was positively associated with white-tailed deer density. Variation in host animal density should be considered when assessing TBE risks and designing interventions.

One out of ten: low sampling efficiency of cloth dragging challenges abundance estimates of questing ticks

Hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) act as important vectors of zoonotic pathogens. For instance, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes pose a severe health risk as aetiological agents of Lyme borreliosis. Commonly, to study the abundance of questing (host-seeking) ticks, a 1 m² piece of cloth is dragged over vegetation for a determined distance. Here, we designed a tick-sampling study to estimate the sampling efficiency of this standard method. We established 10 m dragging transects in a hemiboreal mixed forest patch in SW Finland for a 5-day monitoring period. Five of the transects were cloth-dragged 3× a day, whereas another five transects were dragged 6× a day in a manner that after each morning, midday and afternoon dragging, a second dragging was conducted on the same transect immediately. Captured Ixodes ricinus ticks were subsequently analysed for tick-borne pathogens. The initial population size of nymphal ticks on a transect was approximated by the accumulated nymph catch from the dragging sessions. The sampling efficiency of the cloth dragging was low, as a single dragging in a previously untouched vegetation strip always caught less than 12% (mean 6%) of the estimated population of active nymphs that were assumed to be questing during the study. Clear results were not found for daily activity rhythm, as ticks were caught in all daily dragging sessions. Approximately every third nymph and every second adult carried a pathogen, but nothing indicated that the occurrence of a pathogen affected the likelihood of the tick being caught by cloth dragging. Our results suggest that only a minority of active ticks can be caught by a single cloth dragging. The abundance estimates in many tick investigations might thus be downward biased.

Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Borrelia miyamotoi strains from ticks collected in the capital region of Finland

Borrelia miyamotoi is an emerging pathogen that shares high similarity with relapsing fever Borrelia, but has an atypical clinical presentation. Within the framework of tick-borne disease surveillance in Finland, human serum samples suspected for tick-borne encephalitis (n=974) and questing ticks (n=739) were collected from the capital region in Finland to determine the prevalence of B. miyamotoi. All tested human samples were negative and 5 (0.68 %) Ixodes ricinus ticks were positive for B. miyamotoi. Partial sequencing of the flagellin (flaB) gene of 3 positive samples and 27 B. miyamotoi-positive tick samples obtained from previous studies across Finland were amplified, sequenced, and included in the phylogenetic analysis. The phylogenetic tree revealed that most B. miyamotoi strains isolated from ticks in Finland share high similarity with other European strains, including strains related to human infection. Possible disease transmission may occur during exposure to tick bites. A single strain collected from an I. persulcatus tick in Pajujärvi grouped with an outlier of B. miyamotoi strains isolated from Russia and Far East Asian countries. Further studies should investigate the pathogen's role in human infection in Finland. Another important finding is the occurrence of I. persulcatus ticks (8%) collected by crowdsourcing from the coastal southern part of Finland. This suggests a regular introduction and a possible wide expansion of this tick species in the country. This could be associated with transmission of new pathogens.

Baltic Group Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Phylogeography: Systemic Inconsistency Pattern between Genetic and Geographic Distances

Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV) is a dangerous arbovirus widely distributed in Northern Eurasia. The area of this pathogen changes over time. At the beginning of the 2000s, the Ixodes tick populations in Karelia increased. At the same time, the area of I. persulcatus, the main vector of the Siberian TBEV subtype, also expanded. Herein, we sequenced 10 viruses isolated from ticks collected in three locations from the Karelia region in 2008-2018. PCR positive samples were passaged in suckling mice or pig embryo kidney cells (PEK). After the second passage in suckling, mice viral RNA was isolated and E-gene fragment was sequenced. Viral sequences were expected to be similar or nearly identical. Instead, there was up to a 4.8% difference in nucleotide sequence, comparable with the most diverse viruses belonging to the Baltic subgroup in Siberian TBEV subtype (Baltic TBEV-Sib). To reveal whether this was systemic or incidental, a comprehensive phylogeographical analysis was conducted. Interestingly, viruses within each geographic region demonstrated comparable diversity to the whole Baltic TBEV-Sib. Moreover, Baltic TBEV-Sib has a distribution area limited by three ecological regions. This means that active virus mixing occurs in the vast geographic area forming one common virus pool. The most plausible explanation is the involvement of flying animals in the TBEV spread.

Enhanced threat of tick-borne infections within cities? Assessing public health risks due to ticks in urban green spaces in Helsinki, Finland

Most tick‐related studies in Europe have been conducted in nonurban areas, but ticks and tick‐borne pathogens also occur in urban green spaces. From a public health perspective, risks regarding tick‐borne infections should be studied in these urban areas, where contacts between infected ticks and humans may be more frequent than elsewhere, due to high human activity. We examined the risk of encountering an infected tick in urban green spaces in Helsinki, Finland. We collected ticks at nine sites throughout Helsinki, recorded the prevalence of several pathogens and identified areas with a high potential for contacts between infected ticks and humans. Moreover, we explored the relationship between the density of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato‐infected ticks and locally diagnosed cases of borreliosis and compared the potential for human‐tick encounters in Helsinki to those in nonurban areas in south‐western Finland. During 34.8 km of cloth dragging, 2,417 Ixodes ricinus were caught (402 adults, 1,399 nymphs and 616 larvae). From analysed nymphs, we found 11 distinct tick‐borne pathogens, with 31.5% of nymphs carrying at least one pathogen. Tick activity was highest in August and September, leading to the density of nymphs infected with B. burgdorferi s.l., and concurrently infection risk, to also be highest during this time. Nymph densities varied between the sampling sites, with obvious implications to spatial variation in infection risk. While ticks and tick‐borne pathogens were found in both Helsinki and nonurban areas in south‐western Finland, the estimates of human activity were generally higher in urban green spaces, leading to a higher potential for human‐tick contacts therein. The presence of ticks and tick‐borne pathogens and high local human activity in urban green spaces suggest that they form potential foci regarding the acquisition of tick‐borne infections. Risk areas within cities should be identified and knowledge regarding urban ticks increased.

Establishing a baseline for tick surveillance in Alaska: Tick collection records from 1909-2019

The expanding geographic ranges of tick species that are known pathogen vectors can have implications for human, domestic animal, and wildlife health. Although Alaska is home to several hard tick species, it has historically been outside of the range of the most common medically important ticks in the contiguous United States and western Canada. To assess the status of tick species establishment in the state and to provide a baseline for tracking future change in the distribution of ticks, we reviewed and compiled historical tick records and summarized recent tick occurrence records collected through the development of the Alaska Submit-A-Tick Program and through tick drag sampling at sentinel sites in southcentral Alaska. Between 1909-2019, there were 1190 tick records representing 4588 individual ticks across 15 species in Alaska. The majority of ticks were species historically found in Alaska: Haemaphysalis leporispalustris, Ixodes angustus, Ixodes auritulus, Ixodes howelli, Ixodes signatus, and Ixodes uriae. Over half of all tick records in the state were collected in the last 10 yr. During this time, the number of tick records and the number of tick species recorded in Alaska each year has increased substantially. Between 2010-2019, there were 611 tick records representing 1921 individual ticks. The most common hosts for reported ticks were domestic animals (n = 343, 56 %) followed by small wild mammals (n = 147, 24 %), humans (n = 49, 8%), and wild birds (n = 31, 5%). Less than 5% of records (n = 25) were of unattached ticks found in the environment. Since 2007, non-native tick species have been documented in the state every year, including Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor andersoni, Dermacentor occidentalis, Dermacentor variabilis, Ixodes pacificus, Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes texanus, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.). Almost half of the records (n = 68, 48 %) of non-native tick species from 2010 to 2019 represented ticks found on a host (usually a dog or a human) that had traveled outside of Alaska in the two weeks prior to collection. However, A. americanum, D. variabilis, I. pacificus, I. texanus, and R. sanguineus s.l. have been found on humans and domestic animals in Alaska without reported recent travel. In particular, there is evidence to suggest that there is local establishment of R. sanguineus s.l. in Alaska. A tick species historically found in the state, I. angustus was frequently found on human and dogs, suggesting a potential role as a bridge vector of pathogens. Given the inconsistency of tick monitoring in Alaska over the past century, it is difficult to draw many conclusions from temporal trends in the data. Continued monitoring through the Alaska Submit-A-Tick Program will allow a more accurate assessment of the changing risk of ticks and tick-borne diseases in the state and provide information for setting clinical and public health guidelines for tick-borne disease prevention.

Questing abundance of adult taiga ticks Ixodes persulcatus and their Borrelia prevalence at the north-western part of their distribution

Background

Because ixodid ticks are vectors of zoonotic pathogens, including Borrelia, information of their abundance, seasonal variation in questing behaviour and pathogen prevalence is important for human health. As ticks are invading new areas northwards, information from these new areas are needed. Taiga tick (Ixodes persulcatus) populations have been recently found at Bothnian Bay, Finland. We assessed seasonal variation in questing abundance of ticks and their pathogen prevalence in coastal deciduous forests near the city of Oulu (latitudes 64–65°) in 2019.

Methods

We sampled ticks from May until September by cloth dragging 100 meters once a month at eight study sites. We calculated a density index (individuals/100 m²) to assess seasonal variation. Samples were screened for Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) (including B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. burgdorferi (sensu stricto) and B. valaisana), Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Francisella tularensis and Bartonella spp., Babesia spp. and for the tick-borne encephalitis virus.

Results

All except one nymph were identified as I. persulcatus. The number of questing adults showed a strong peak in May (median: 6.5 adults/100 m²), which is among the highest values reported in northern Europe, and potentially indicates a large population size. After May, the number of questing adults declined steadily with few adults still sampled in August. Nymphs were present from May until September. We found a striking prevalence of Borrelia spp. in adults (62%) and nymphs (40%), with B. garinii (51%) and B. afzelii (63%) being the most common species. In addition, we found that 26% of infected adults were coinfected with at least two Borrelia genospecies, mainly B. garinii and B. afzelii, which are associated with different host species.

Conclusions

The coastal forest environments at Bothnian Bay seem to provide favourable environments for I. persulcatus and the spread of Borrelia. High tick abundance, a low diversity of the host community and similar host use among larvae and nymphs likely explain the high Borrelia prevalence and coinfection rate. Research on the infestation of the hosts that quantifies the temporal dynamics of immature life stages would reveal important aspects of pathogen circulation in these tick populations.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) prevalence in field-collected ticks (Ixodes ricinus) and phylogenetic, structural and virulence analysis in a TBE high-risk endemic area in southwestern Germany

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is the most common viral CNS infection with incidences much higher than all other virus infections together in many risk areas of central and eastern Europe. The Odenwald Hill region (OWH) in southwestern Germany is classified as a TBE risk region and frequent case numbers but also more severe infections have been reported within the past decade. The objective of the present study was to survey the prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in Ixodes ricinus and to associate TBEV genetic findings with TBE infections in the OWH.

METHODS

Ticks were collected by the flagging methods supported by a crowdsourcing project implementing the interested public as collectors to cover completely and collect randomly a 3532 km2 area of the OWH TBE risk region. Prevalence of TBEV in I. ricinus was analysed by reversed transcription quantitative real-time PCR. Phylogeographic analysis was performed to classify OWH TBEV isolates within a European network of known TBEV strains. Mutational sequence analysis including 3D modelling of envelope protein pE was performed and based on a clinical database, a spatial association of TBE case frequency and severity was undertaken.

RESULTS

Using the crowd sourcing approach we could analyse a total of 17,893 ticks. The prevalence of TBEV in I. ricinus in the OWH varied, depending on analysed districts from 0.12% to 0% (mean 0.04%). Calculated minimum infection rate (MIR) was one decimal power higher. All TBEV isolates belonged to the European subtype. Sequence analysis revealed a discontinuous segregation pattern of OWH isolates with two putative different lineages and a spatial association of two isolates with increased TBE case numbers as well as exceptional severe to fatal infection courses.

CONCLUSIONS

TBEV prevalence within the OWH risk regions is comparatively low which is probably due to our methodological approach and may more likely reflect prevalence of natural TBEV foci. As for other European regions, TBEV genetics show a discontinuous phylogeny indicating among others an association with bird migration. Mutations within the pE gene are associated with more frequent, severe and fatal TBE infections in the OWH risk region.

Modelling habitat suitability for occurrence of human tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) cases in Finland

The numbers of reported human tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) cases in Europe have increased in several endemic regions (including Finland) in recent decades, indicative of an increasing threat to public health. As such, it is important to identify the regions at risk and the most influential factors associated with TBE distributions, particularly in understudied regions. This study aimed to identify the risk areas of TBE transmission in two different datasets based on human TBE disease cases from 2007 to 2011 (n = 86) and 2012-2017 (n  = 244). We also examined which factors best explain the presence of human TBE cases. We used ensemble modelling to determine the relationship of TBE occurrence with environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic factors in Finland. Geospatial data including these variables were acquired from several open data sources and satellite and aerial imagery and, were processed in GIS software. Biomod2, an ensemble platform designed for species distribution modelling, was used to generate ensemble models in R. The proportion of built-up areas, field, forest, and snow-covered land in November, people working in the primary sector, human population density, mean precipitation in April and July, and densities of European hares, white-tailed deer, and raccoon dogs best estimated distribution of human TBE disease cases in the two datasets. Random forest and generalized boosted regression models performed with a very good to excellent predictive power (ROC = 0.89-0.96) in both time periods. Based on the predictive maps, high-risk areas for TBE transmission were located in the coastal regions in Southern and Western Finland (including the Åland Islands), several municipalities in Central and Eastern Finland, and coastal municipalities in Southern Lapland. To explore potential changes in TBE distributions in future climate, we used bioclimatic factors with current and future climate forecast data to reveal possible future hotspot areas. Based on the future forecasts, a slightly wider geographical extent of TBE risk was introduced in the Åland Islands and Southern, Western and Northern Finland, even though the risk itself was not increased. Our results are the first steps towards TBE-risk area mapping in current and future climate in Finland.

Monitoring of ticks and tick-borne pathogens through a nationwide research station network in Finland

In 2015 a long-term, nationwide tick and tick-borne pathogen (TBP) monitoring project was started by the Finnish Tick Project and the Finnish Research Station network (RESTAT), with the goal of producing temporally and geographically extensive data regarding exophilic ticks in Finland. In the current study, we present results from the first four years of this collaboration. Ticks were collected by cloth dragging from 11 research stations across Finland in May-September 2015-2018 (2012-2018 in Seili). Collected ticks were screened for twelve different pathogens by qPCR: Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, Borrelia valaisiana, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia miyamotoi, Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Francisella tularensis, Bartonella spp. and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Altogether 15 067 Ixodes ricinus and 46 Ixodes persulcatus were collected during 68 km of dragging. Field collections revealed different seasonal activity patterns for the two species. The activity of I. persulcatus adults (only one nymph detected) was unimodal, with activity only in May-July, whereas Ixodes ricinus was active from May to September, with activity peaks in September (nymphs) or July-August (adults). Overall, tick densities were higher during the latter years of the study. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato were the most common pathogens detected, with 48.9 ± 8.4% (95% Cl) of adults and 25.3 ± 4.4% of nymphs carrying the bacteria. No samples positive for F. tularensis, Bartonella or TBEV were detected. This collaboration project involving the extensive Finnish Research Station network has ensured enduring and spatially extensive, long-term tick data collection to the foreseeable future.

A Retrospective Assessment of Temperature Trends in Northern Europe Reveals a Deep Impact on the Life Cycle of Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae)

This study modelled the changes in the development processes of the health-threatening tick Ixodes ricinus in Northern Europe as driven by the trends of temperature (1950–2018). We used the ECA&D dataset to calculate the annual accumulated temperature to obtain the development rates of the oviposition, incubation, larva–nymph, and nymph–adult molts. Annual values were used to ascertain the trend in development rates of each stage. The ecological classification of Northern Europe (LANMAP2) was used to summarize results. The temperature in 1950–2018 clearly increased in the target territory. The development rates of every tested life cycle process were faster along the time series. Faster oviposition and incubation rates resulted in central Sweden, Baltic countries, and parts of Finland. Faster molting rates were observed in the same territories and in large areas of Western Norway. The trend of temperature in the period 1950–2018 shows a consistent inflection point around 1990, demonstrating that the increased annual accumulated temperature has a deeper impact on the life cycle of I. ricinus since approximately 1990. Faster development rates could be part of the processes driving the reported spread of the tick in the target area and should be considered as a serious threat to human health.

Geographical distribution and prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus in questing Ixodes ricinus ticks and phylogeographic structure of the Ixodes ricinus vector in Norway

The tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a zoonotic flaviviral infection, is endemic in large parts of Norway and Eurasia. Humans are mainly infected with TBEV via bites from infected ticks. In Norway, the main geographical distribution of ticks is along the Norwegian coastline from southeast (~59°N) and up to the southern parts of Nordland County (~65°N). In this study, we collected ticks by flagging along the coast from Østfold County to Nordland County. By whole-genome sequencing of the mitochondrial genome of Ixodes ricinus, the phylogenetic tree suggests that there is limited phylogeographic structure both in Norway and in Europe. The overall TBEV prevalence is 0.3% for nymphs and 4.3% for adults. The highest estimated TBEV prevalence in adult ticks was detected in Rogaland and Vestfold County, while for nymphs it is highest in Vestfold, Vest-Agder and Rogaland. The present work is one of the largest studies on distribution and prevalence of TBEV in ticks in Scandinavia, showing that the virus is wider distributed in Norway than previously anticipated.

First evidence of Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) parasitization in Finnish castor bean ticks (Ixodes ricinus)

Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is a parasitoid wasp specialized in parasitizing the larvae and nymphs of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). As parasitized ticks die prior to reproduction, I. hookeri is seen as a prime biological control agent candidate. Despite this, little is known of their occurrence or ecology in northern Europe. The main aim of the current study was to determine whether adult wasps or parasitized ticks can be found from a tick-infested island in southwestern Finland, using field collections and molecular methods. Following the initial discovery of an adult I. hookeri female on Seili Island, we set out to collect further specimens via sweep netting and Malaise trappings between May and October 2017. Furthermore, 1310 Ixodes ricinus (1220 nymphs, 90 adults) collected from the island during 2012-2014 were screened for I. hookeri DNA using qPCR. Whereas no further wasp specimens could be collected via sweep netting or Malaise trappings, I. hookeri DNA was consistently detected in I. ricinus nymphs (annual minimum infection rates in 2012, 2013, and 2014: 2.3, 0.4, and 0.5%, respectively), whereas all adult samples were negative. Although the annually repeated detections of parasitized ticks suggest that the wasp inhabits the island, further field and molecular surveys are needed to more comprehensively determine the status and stability of the population.

Prevalence of pathogens in ticks collected from humans through citizen science in Belgium

BACKGROUND

In order to evaluate the risk of human exposure to tick-borne pathogens in Belgium, a study on the prevalence of several pathogens was conducted on feeding ticks removed from humans in 2017.

METHODS

Using a citizen science approach based on an existing notification tool for tick bites, a sample of ticks was collected across the country. Collected ticks were screened by PCR for the presence of the following pathogens: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato), Borrelia miyamotoi, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Rickettsia helvetica and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV).

RESULTS

In total, 1599 ticks were included in the sample. The great majority of ticks belonged to Ixodes ricinus (99%); other tick species were identified as Ixodes hexagonus (0.7%) and Dermacentor reticulatus (0.3%). Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) was detected in 14% of nymphs and adult ticks. Adult ticks (20%) were more likely to be infected than nymphs (12%). The most common genospecies were B. afzelii (52%) and B. garinii (21%). Except for TBEV, the other tick-borne pathogens studied were all detected in the tick sample, although at a lower prevalence: 1.5% for Babesia spp.; 1.8% for A. phagocytophilum; 2.4% for B. miyamotoi; 2.8% for N. mikurensis; and 6.8% for R. helvetica. Rickettsia raoultii, the causative agent of tick-borne lymphadenopathy, was identified for the first time in Belgium, in two out of five D. reticulatus ticks. Co-infections were found in 3.9% of the examined ticks. The most common co-infection was B. burgdorferi (s.l.) + N. mikurensis.

CONCLUSIONS

Although for most of the tick-borne diseases in Belgium, other than Lyme borreliosis, no or few cases of human infection are reported, the pathogens causing these diseases were all (except for TBEV) detected in the tick study sample. Their confirmed presence can help raise awareness among citizens and health professionals in Belgium on possible diseases other than Lyme borreliosis in patients presenting fever or other non-characteristic symptoms after a tick bite.

Recent establishment of tick-borne encephalitis foci with distinct viral lineages in the Helsinki area, Finland

Number of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) cases has increased and new foci have emerged in Finland during the last decade. We evaluated risk for locally acquired TBE in the capital region inhabited by 1.2 million people. We screened ticks and small mammals from probable places of TBE virus (TBEV) transmission and places without reported circulation. The TBEV positive samples were sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis. Within the study period 2007–2017, there was a clear increase of both all TBE cases and locally acquired cases in the Helsinki area. The surveillance of ticks and small mammals for TBEV confirmed four distinct TBEV foci in the Helsinki area. All detected TBEV strains were of the European subtype. TBEV genome sequences indicated that distinct TBEV lineages circulate in each focus. Molecular clock analysis suggested that the virus lineages were introduced to these foci decades ago. In conclusion, TBE has emerged in the mainland of Helsinki area during the last decade, with at least four distinct virus lineages independently introduced into the region previously. Although the overall annual TBE incidence is below the threshold for recommending general vaccinations, the situation requires further surveillance to detect and prevent possible further emergence of local TBE clusters.

Lyme Disease Risks in Europe under Multiple Uncertain Drivers of Change

BACKGROUND

Debates over whether climate change could lead to the amplification of Lyme disease (LD) risk in the future have received much attention. Although recent large-scale disease mapping studies project an overall increase in Lyme disease risk as the climate warms, such conclusions are based on climate-driven models in which other drivers of change, such as land-use/cover and host population distribution, are less considered.

OBJECTIVES

The main objectives were to project the likely future ecological risk patterns of LD in Europe under different assumptions about future socioeconomic and climate conditions and to explore similarity and uncertainty in the projected risks.

METHODS

An integrative, spatially explicit modeling study of the ecological risk patterns of LD in Europe was conducted by applying recent advances in process-based modeling of tick-borne diseases, species distribution mapping, and scenarios of land-use/cover change. We drove the model with stakeholder-driven, integrated scenarios of plausible future socioeconomic and climate change [the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSPs) combined with the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)].

RESULTS

The model projections suggest that future temperature increases may not always amplify LD risk: Low emissions scenarios (RCP2.6) combined with a sustainability socioeconomic scenario (SSP1) resulted in reduced LD risk. The greatest increase in risk was projected under intermediate (RCP4.5) rather than high-end (RCP8.5) climate change scenarios. Climate and land-use change were projected to have different roles in shaping the future regional dynamics of risk, with climate warming being likely to cause risk expansion in northern Europe and conversion of forest to agriculture being likely to limit risk in southern Europe.

CONCLUSIONS

Projected regional differences in LD risk resulted from mixed effects of temperature, land use, and host distributions, suggesting region-specific and cross-sectoral foci for LD risk management policy. The integrated model provides an improved explanatory tool for the system mechanisms of LD pathogen transmission and how pathogen transmission could respond to combined socioeconomic and climate changes. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4615.

Citizen science informs human-tick exposure in the Northeastern United States

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne disease is the result of spillover of pathogens into the human population. Traditionally, literature has focused on characterization of tick-borne disease pathogens and ticks in their sylvatic cycles. A limited amount of research has focused on human-tick exposure in this system, especially in the Northeastern United States. Human-tick interactions are crucial to consider when assessing the risk of tick-borne disease since a tick bite is required for spillover to occur.

METHODS

Citizen scientists collected ticks from the Northeastern US through a free nationwide program. Submitted ticks were identified to species, stage, and sex. Blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, were tested for the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) and hard-tick relapsing fever Borrelia. Seasonality of exposure and the citizen science activity during tick exposure was recorded by the citizen scientist. A negative binomial model was fit to predict county level CDC Lyme disease cases in 2016 using citizen science Ixodes scapularis submissions, state, and county population as predictor variables.

RESULTS

A total of 3740 submissions, comprising 4261 ticks, were submitted from the Northeastern US and were reported to be parasitizing humans. Of the three species submitted, blacklegged ticks were the most prevalent followed by American dog ticks and lone star ticks. Submissions peaked in May with the majority of exposure occurring during every-day activities. The most common pathogen in blacklegged ticks was B. burgdorferi s.l. followed by hard-tick relapsing fever Borrelia. Negative binomial model performance was best in New England states followed by Middle Atlantic states.

CONCLUSIONS

Citizen science provides a low-cost and effective methodology for describing the seasonality and characteristics of human-tick exposure. In the Northeastern US, everyday activities were identified as a major mechanism for tick exposure, supporting the role of peri-domestic exposure in tick-borne disease. Citizen science provides a method for broad pathogen and tick surveillance, which is highly related to human disease, allowing for inferences to be made about the epidemiology of tick-borne disease.

Long-term dynamics of Ixodes persulcatus (Acari: Ixodidae) abundance in the north-west of its range (Karelia, Russia)

The article presents the results of long-term observations of variations in the abundance of Ixodes persulcatus, carried out since 1982, in the middle taiga subzone of Karelia. Adult questing ticks were collected from vegetation following standard flagging procedures. The time series was evaluated by singular spectrum analysis. Correlation coefficients were calculated for the observed tick abundances and meteorological data (mean daily air temperature and precipitation) for the current year and preceding years. Analysis of the time series revealed the trend and harmonic components with periods of 8, 2.5 and 4 years. Around 83% of the total variance is explained by the first principal component, which governs the general vector of change-a gradual reduction in I. persulcatus abundance from 2003 to 2017. Correlations between tick abundance and climatic indices were observed in all years and were associated with both temperature and precipitation. The greatest number of significant coefficients was obtained for correlations between tick abundance and weather conditions in the preceding season. An equation was suggested where tick abundance is described by a linear function with four variables: mean air temperature in April and July, total precipitation in February, and annual number of days with temperatures above 5 °С. Thus, the observed long-term dynamics are characterized by the following key patterns: a sharp population rise early in the 2000s, some recent decline (stabilization) of the abundance, the presence of quasi-periodic cycles, and a close correlation between tick abundance and climatic variables.

The importance of study duration and spatial scale in pathogen detection-evidence from a tick-infested island

Ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea) are among the most common vectors of zoonotic pathogens worldwide. While research on tick-borne pathogens is abundant, few studies have thoroughly investigated small-scale spatial differences in their occurrence. Here, we used long-term cloth-dragging data of Ixodes ricinus and its associated, known and putative pathogens (Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Bartonella spp., Babesia spp., and tick-borne encephalitis virus, TBEV) from a small, well-studied island in southwestern Finland to analyze potential temporal and spatial differences in pathogen prevalence and diversity between and within different biotopes. We found robust evidence indicating significant dissimilarities in B. burgdorferi s.l., A. phagocytophilum, Rickettsia, and Ca. N. mikurensis prevalence, even between proximal study areas on the island. Moreover, during the 6 years of the ongoing study, we witnessed the possible emergence of TBEV and Ca. N. mikurensis on the island. Finally, the stable occurrence of a protozoan pathogen that has not been previously reported in Finland, Babesia venatorum, was observed on the island. Our study underlines the importance of detailed, long-term tick surveys for public health. We propose that by more precisely identifying different environmental factors associated with the emergence and upkeep of enzootic pathogen populations through rigorous longitudinal surveys, we may be able to create more accurate models for both current and future pathogen distributions.