Best Practices in Evolving Privacy Frameworks for Patient Age Data: Census Data Study

BACKGROUND

Over the previous 4 decennial censuses, the population of the United States has grown older, with the proportion of individuals aged at least 90 years old in the 2010 census being more than 2 and a half times what it was in the 1980 census. This suggests that the threshold for constraining age introduced in the Safe Harbor method of the HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) in 1996 may be increased without exceeding the original levels of risk. This is desirable to maintain or even increase the utility of affected data sets without compromising privacy.

OBJECTIVE

In light of the upcoming release of 2020 census data, this study presents a straightforward recipe for updating age-constrained thresholds in the context of new census data and derives recommendations for new thresholds from the 2010 census.

METHODS

Using census data dating back to 1980, we used group size considerations to analyze the risk associated with various maximum age thresholds over time. We inferred the level of risk of the age cutoff of 90 years at the time of HIPAA's inception in 1996 and used this as a baseline from which to recommend updated cutoffs.

RESULTS

The maximum age threshold may be increased by at least 2 years without exceeding the levels of risk conferred in HIPAA's original recommendations. Moreover, in the presence of additional information that restricts the population in question to a known subgroup with increased longevity (for example, restricting to female patients), the threshold may be increased further.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing the maximum age threshold would enable the data user to gain more utility from the data without introducing risk beyond what was originally envisioned with the enactment of HIPAA. Going forward, a recurring update of such thresholds is advised, in line with the considerations detailed in the paper.

Research activity among physicians in the United Kingdom: results from the Royal College of Physicians Census 2022

We present the results of the 2022 Census of the Federation of Royal Colleges of Physicians of Edinburgh, Glasgow and London on whether physicians undertake research and the barriers they have encountered. 40% of physicians reported that they undertook research alongside their clinical work. Multivariate analysis of the responses showed that men were 1.6 times more likely to say they undertake research than women. The main barriers to undertaking research were having enough time, organisational factors and a lack of confidence. In this opinion piece we discuss some of the challenges and how they could be addressed.

Fifty+ years of primate research illustrates complex drivers of abundance and increasing primate numbers

Many primate populations are threatened by human actions and a central tool used for their protection is establishing protected areas. However, even if populations in such areas are protected from hunting and deforestation, they still may be threatened by factors such as climate change and its cascading impacts on habitat quality and disease dynamics. Here we provide a long-term and geographically wide-spread population assessment of the five common diurnal primates of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Over 7 year-long or longer census efforts that spanned 52 years, our team walked 1466 km, and recorded 480 monkey groups. Populations were generally relatively stable with a few exceptions, for which no apparent causative factors could be identified. This stability is unexpected as many ecological changes documented over the last 34+ years (e.g., decreasing food abundance and quality) were predicted to have negative impacts. Populations of some species declined at some sites but increased at others. This highlights the need for large, protected areas so that declines in particular areas are countered by gains in others. Kibale has large areas of regenerating forest and this most recent survey revealed that after 20+ years, forest regeneration in many of these areas appears sufficient to sustain sizeable primate populations, except for blue monkeys that have not colonized these areas. Indeed, the average primate abundance in the regenerating forest was only 8.1% lower than in neighboring old-growth forest. Thus, park-wide primate abundance has likely increased, despite many pressures on the park having risen; however, some areas in the park remain to be assessed. Our study suggests that the restoration, patrolling, and community outreach efforts of the Uganda Wildlife Authority and their partners have contributed significantly to protecting the park and its animals.

The contribution of citizen science in the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropods

Environmental and anthropogenic factors may significantly affect the diffusion of wild animals, enhancing the interface of human–wildlife interactions and driving the spread of pathogens and vector-borne diseases between animals and humans. However, in the last decade, the involvement of citizens in scientific research (the so-called citizen science approach, henceforth abbreviated as CS) provided a network of large-scale and cost-effective surveillance programmes of wildlife populations and their related arthropod species. Therefore, this review aims to illustrate different methods and tools used in CS studies, by arguing the main advantages and considering the limitations of this approach. The CS approach has proven to be an effective method for establishing density and distribution of several wild animal species, in urban, peri-urban and rural environments, as well a source of information regarding vector–host associations between arthropods and wildlife. Extensive efforts are recommended to motivate citizens to be involved in scientific projects to improve both their and our knowledge of the ecology and diseases of wildlife. Following the One Health paradigm, collaborative and multidisciplinary models for the surveillance of wildlife and related arthropod species should be further developed by harnessing the potentiality of the CS approach.

Unravelling the variations of the society of England and Wales through diffusion mapping analysis of census 2011

We propose a new approach to identify geographical clustering and inequality hotspots from decadal census data, with a particular emphasis on the method itself. Our method uses diffusion mapping to study the 181 408 output areas in England and Wales (EW), which enables us to decompose the census data's EW-specific feature structures. We further introduce a localization metric, inspired by statistical physics, to reveal the significance of minority groups in London. Our findings can be adapted to analogous datasets, illuminating spatial patterns and differentiating within datasets, especially when meaning factors for determining the datasets' structure are scarce and spatially heterogeneous. This approach enhances our ability to describe and explore patterns of social deprivation and segregation across the country, thereby contributing to the development of targeted policies. We also underscore the method's intrinsic objectivity, guaranteeing its ability to offer comprehensive and unbiased analysis, unswayed by preconceived hypotheses or subjective interpretations of data patterns.

Perception of dental students regarding possible career challenges and associated factors towards working in rural areas: A questionnaire based survey

OBJECTIVE

The shortage of health care professionals in rural areas contributes toward discriminatory health care delivery. The present study was planned with a similar intent and aimed to evaluate the perception of dental students regarding their future in rural areas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study was designed as a cross-sectional study comprising of a 30-item questionnaire survey instrument distributed among a total of 550 dental students while the results obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 12.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Independent student's t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used for comparison among the variables while the Chi-square test was used to determine the association between the variables. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

No significant difference was observed in the attitude based on gender (P = 0.43), although, a statistically significant difference was observed in the attitude of students based on the year of their education with a positive attitude toward rural dental practice generally noted in the first year Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) students which significantly declined with the increasing level of education (P = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Dental students were more influenced by the negative aspects of rural dental practice though they had, in their mind, a positive approach for the same at the beginning of their education, but this significantly declined with the increasing level of their education.

Geographical Disparity in Cardiorespiratory Fitness among 3,189,540 Japanese Children and Adolescents before and during the Coronavirus 2019 Pandemic: An Ecological Study

This ecological study aimed to use nationally representative physical fitness (PF) data to investigate the geographical disparities in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) among Japanese children across prefectures before and during the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The publicly available descriptive PF data of children from Grade 5 (10-11 years; n = 1,946,437) and adolescents from Grade 8 (13-14 years; n = 1,243,103) at the prefecture level (47 prefectures) were obtained from the annual census PF survey in 2019 (before the pandemic) and 2021 (during the pandemic). The 20 m shuttle run performance was used as a measure of CRF. Geographical disparity was evaluated using the coefficient of variation (CV) for CRF across prefectures. There were significant negative relationships between the magnitude of infections (evaluated as the number of confirmed cases) and changes in CRF at the prefecture level (r ≤ -0.293, p < 0.05). This study also found a substantial increase in CVs of CRF across prefectures for Grade 8 students, suggesting that COVID-19-related restrictions had widened the geographical disparity in CRF among Japanese adolescents. Adolescents' CRF is an important marker for current and future health; hence, the findings of widening geographical disparities in CRF are suggestive of widening geographical disparities in health among the Japanese population.

Population and Neighborhood Correlates of Cannabis Dispensary Locations in Oklahoma

Background

Cannabis dispensaries have proliferated exponentially in Oklahoma since the state legalized medical cannabis in 2018. Oklahoma is unique from many other legalized states given its high number of lower income, rural, and uninsured residents, who may seek medical cannabis as an alternative to traditional medical treatment.

Methods

This study examined demographic and neighborhood characteristics associated with dispensary density (n = 1,046 census tracts) in Oklahoma.

Results

Compared to census tracts with no dispensaries, those with at least one dispensary had a higher proportion of uninsured individuals living below the poverty level and a greater number of hospitals and pharmacies. Almost half (42.35%) of census tracts with at least one dispensary were classified as a rural locale. In fully adjusted models, percent uninsured, percent of household rentals, and the number of schools and pharmacies were positively associated with greater number of cannabis dispensaries, while the number of hospitals was negatively associated. In the best fitting interaction models, dispensaries were predominant in areas with a higher percentage of uninsured residents and no pharmacies, suggesting that cannabis retailers may capitalize on the health needs of communities with limited healthcare outlets or access to medical treatment.

Conclusions

Policies and regulatory actions that seek to decrease disparities in dispensary locations should be considered. Future studies should examine whether people living in communities with a scarcity of health resources are more likely to associate cannabis with medical uses than those living in communities with more resources.

The Endourological Society Inaugural Census Report

The Endourological Society, the premier urologic society encompassing endourology, robotics, and focal surgery, is composed of a diverse group of >1300 urologists. However, limited information has been collected about society members. Recognizing this need, a survey was initiated to capture data regarding current member practices, as well as help the Society shape the future direction of the organization. Presented herein is the inaugural Endourological Society census report as the beginning of a continued effort for global improvement in the field of endourology. Using a REDCap^® database, an email survey was circulated to the membership of the Endourological Society from May through June 2021. Twenty questions were posed, categorizing member data in terms of epidemiology/demographics, practice patterns, member opinions, and future educational preferences. Responses were received from 534 members, representing 40.3% of membership. Data demonstrated that the average age, gender, race, and ethnicity of the typical Society member respondent is a 48-year-old Caucasian male working in the United States, with a mean of 25 years in practice. Retrograde endoscopy and percutaneous nephrolithotomy were identified as the most common practice skills, and 50% of members are involved in robotics. Importantly, the census confirmed that the World Congress of Endourology and Technology remains popular with Society members as a means of educational advancement. To sustain and advance the Society, information is required to understand the career interests and future educational desires of its members. This inaugural census provides crucial data regarding its membership and how the Society can achieve continued success and adjust its focus. Future census efforts will expand on the initial findings and stratify the data to elucidate changes in the needs of the Society as a whole. Circulating an annual census will allow for continued improvements in the field of endourology and, ultimately, better care for urologic patients.

Changes to acute-care hospitalizations among Indigenous children and youth: Results from the 2006 and 2011 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts

Background

This study described the differences in the hospitalization rates of First Nations children and youth living on and off reserve, Inuit children and youth living in Inuit Nunangat (excluding Nunavik), and Métis children and youth, relative to non-Indigenous children and youth and examined rate changes across 2006 and 2011.

Data and methods

The 2006 and the 2011 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts provided five years of hospital records that Statistics Canada linked to peoples' self-reported Indigenous identity as recorded on the census. Causes of hospitalizations were based on the most responsible diagnosis coded according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision, Canada, aggregated by chapter code. Age-standardized hospitalization rates (ASHRs) were calculated per 100,000 population. Rate ratios (RRs) were reported for each Indigenous group relative to non-Indigenous children and youth.

Results

For the 2006 and the 2011 cohorts, ASHRs were generally higher among Indigenous children and youth than among non-Indigenous children and youth. For some health conditions, hospitalization patterns also varied across the two time periods within the given Indigenous groups. Among children, leading elevated RRs occurred for diseases of the respiratory system, the digestive system and injuries. Elevated mental health-related RRs were observed among all Indigenous groups for both cohort years of youth. Significant increases in mental health-related ASHRs were observed in 2011 compared with 2006 among all youth groups, except for Inuit youth living in Inuit Nunangat, possibly due in part to data limitations. Among Indigenous youth, elevated RRs were observed for pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium, and for injuries. For all youth (except Inuit), childbirth-related ASHRs decreased in 2011 compared with 2006.

Interpretation

Findings align with previously observed hospitalization disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous children and youth. These data enabled the tracking of changes over time to partly address national information gaps about population health outcomes for children and youth, namely hospitalization.

census records

This article describes the linkage methods that will be used in the Decennial Census Digitization and Linkage project (DCDL), which is completing the final four decades of a longitudinal census infrastructure covering the past 170 years of United States history. DCDL is digitizing and creating linkages between nearly a billion records across the 1960 through 1990 U.S. censuses, as well as to already-linked records from the censuses of 1940, 2000, 2010, and 2020. Our main goals in this article are to (1) describe the development of the DCDL and the protocol we will follow to build the linkages between the census files, (2) outline the techniques we will use to evaluate the quality of the links, and (3) show how the assignment and evaluation of these linkages leverages the joint use of routinely collected administrative data and non-routine survey data.

Trends in disparities in COVID hospitalizations among community-dwelling residents of two counties in Connecticut, before and after vaccine introduction, March 2020-September 2021

BACKGROUND

Prior to the introduction of vaccines, COVID-19 hospitalizations of non-institutionalized persons in Connecticut disproportionately affected communities of color and individuals of low socioeconomic status (SES). Whether the magnitude of these disparities changed 7-9 months after vaccine rollout during the Delta wave is not well documented.

METHODS

All initially hospitalized patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 during July-September 2021 were obtained from the Connecticut COVID-19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network database, including patients' geocoded residential addresses. Census tract measures of poverty and crowding were determined by linking geocoded residential addresses to the 2014-2018 American Community Survey. Age-adjusted incidence and relative rates of COVID-19 hospitalization were calculated and compared with those from July to December 2020. Vaccination levels by age and race/ethnicity at the beginning and end of the study period were obtained from Connecticut's COVID vaccine registry, and age-adjusted average values were determined.

RESULTS

There were 708 COVID-19 hospitalizations among community residents of the two counties, July-September 2021. Age-adjusted incidence was the highest among non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic/Latinx compared with non-Hispanic Whites (RR 4.10 [95% CI 3.41-4.94] and 3.47 [95% CI 2.89-4.16]). Although RR decreased significantly among Hispanic/Latinx and among the lowest SES groups, it increased among non-Hispanic Blacks (from RR 3.2 [95% CI 2.83-3.32] to RR 4.10). Average age-adjusted vaccination rates among those ≥12 years were the lowest among non-Hispanic Blacks compared with Hispanic/Latinx and non-Hispanic Whites (50.6% vs. 64.7% and 66.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Although racial/ethnic and SES disparities in COVID-19 hospitalization have mostly decreased over time, disparities among non-Hispanic Blacks increased, possibly due to differences in vaccination rates.

The effect of differential privacy on Medicaid participation among racial and ethnic minority groups

OBJECTIVE

To investigate how county and state-level estimates of Medicaid enrollment among the total, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black or African American, and Hispanic or Latino/a population are affected by Differential Privacy (DP), where statistical noise is added to the public decennial US census data to protect individual privacy.

DATA SOURCES

We obtained population counts from the final version of the US Census Bureau Differential Privacy Demonstration Products from 2010 and combined them with Medicaid enrollment data.

STUDY DESIGN

We compared 2010 county and state-level population counts released under the traditional disclosure avoidance techniques and the ones produced with the proposed DP procedures.

DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS

Not applicable.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We find the DP method introduces errors up to 10% into counts and proportions of Medicaid participation rate accuracy at the county level, especially for small subpopulations and racial and ethnic minority groups. The effect of DP on Medicaid participation rate accuracy is only small and negligible at the state level.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of DP in the 2020 census can affect the analyses of health disparities and health care access and use among different subpopulations in the United States. The planned implementation of DP in other census-related surveys such as the American Community Survey can misrepresent Medicaid participation rates for small racial and ethnic minority groups. This can affect Medicaid funding decisions.

Alzheimer's Disease Mortality as a Function of Urbanization Level: 1999-2019

This study investigated Alzheimer's disease (AD) mortality trends by urbanization level and geographical location in the U.S. The CDC's WONDER database was used to investigate AD mortality from 1999-2019 stratified by urbanization level, census division, race, and sex. Data showed that while AD mortality increased across the U.S., rural areas, particularly in the South, had higher mortality compared to urban counterparts. AD mortality was higher among the female and White population. Data suggested that the urban-rural discrepancy is widening over time. Identifying health disparities underlying the urban-rural discrepancy in AD mortality is critical for allocating social and public health resources.

Just data representation for Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders: A critical review of systemic Indigenous erasure in census and recommendations for psychologists

The decennial Census survey marks the emergence of federal classifications of race and ethnicity by which the U.S. government has historically conflated Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders (NHPI, hereafter) as "Asian or Pacific Islander." This conflation amplifies health injustices and inequities of NHPIs through multiple mechanisms because it masks the complex and heterogeneous experiences of NHPIs, whose positions and relations with the settler state are qualitatively and substantially distinct from Asian Americans. This critical review examines federal documents and research to examine how the panethnic categorizations are often sustained through scientific inquiry and methodologies. We found that self-determination and self-identification for NHPIs are impeded by settler-colonial relations between U.S. colonization of parts of Oceania (e.g., Hawai'i, Sāmoa, Fiji, and Guam) and the forcefully imposed categorization that continues to be in use to legitimize the domination of Indigenous Peoples through race misclassification. Specifically, Census data collection fails to capture accurate and reliable data due to serious methodological limitations. These implications for psychological research compel us to make several recommendations for psychologists: (1) engage with NHPI community partners in all research processes; (2) critically examine Census research design and consider oversampling NHPI households to ensure just data representation; (3) meaningfully engage when, whether and how to aggregate Asian Americans with NHPIs; and (4) use Indigeneity as a critical framework.

Census Tract Demographics Associated with Libraries' Social, Economic, and Health-Related Programming

Background: Public libraries can contribute to reducing economic, social, and health inequities through their programming and practices. However, the extent to which libraries regularly provide programming that improve the social determinants of health (SDH) in underserved communities is unclear. Objective: This study explored the relationship between census tract demographic characteristics and library programming implicated in the SDH for underserved groups at risk for health disparities. Method: A stratified random sample of libraries (n = 235) who completed the 2017 Public Libraries Survey were recruited. Librarians completed surveys about their libraries' economic, social, and health-related programming. Libraries' census tract demographic characteristics were taken from the 2013-2017 American Community Survey. Linear regressions were estimated to determine the relationship between relevant census tract demographic characteristics and programming offered at libraries in the census tracts. Results: Higher proportions of racial and ethnic minorities were associated with more frequent economic and social programs, but results were mixed for health-related programs. Lower proportions of populations with no more than a high school diploma or GED were related to more frequent economic, social, and health-related programs. Conclusions: The inequitable distribution of SDH-related library programming highlights gaps in libraries' responsiveness to community needs. Libraries' programming likely perpetuate systemic inequities.

Kiaer and the rebirth of the representative method: A case-study in controversy management at the International Statistical Institute (1895-1903)

Anders N. Kiaer (1838-1919), the director of Norway's Central Bureau of Statistics between 1877 and 1913, was the foremost promoter, at the turn of the 20th century, of the rebirth of what came to be known as the "representative method" or sample survey. His advocacy of a methodology that had been abandoned at the beginning of the 19th century in favor of complete enumeration (the census) provoked a controversy at the International Statistical Institute (ISI) when he first presented it in 1895. Yet, it was "recommended" in fairly short order, by 1903. This was the result of a convergence of factors that prevented the dispute from degenerating into a full-blown conflict and facilitated continuing the discussion while preventing a potential break-up of the association. To understand how this came about, the paper examines (1) the role of the historical background from which the ISI emerged; (2) the epistemic beliefs that informed the ISI members in their daily professional practice; (3) the social structure of the ISI and its "ethos"; (4) the professional standing Kiaer enjoyed within the international statistical community. This is a case-study in the sociology of how and why some scientific practices initially seen as "dangerous" gain acceptance and become part of science's lore.

The Seventh Population Census in the PRC: Results and Prospects of the Country's Demographic Development

This article is dedicated to a comprehensive analysis of the data of the Seventh Census in China, conducted in 2020 and to the identification of the most important demographic and socioeconomic trends in the development of the population of the People's Republic of China. The relevance of this study is due to the impact that demographic changes have on the world's largest economy. Given the current high level of globalization and the scale of the PRC population, any risks and threats of a demographic nature have a direct impact not only on China's security but potentially on the situation in the Asia-Pacific region and the world as a whole. The practical significance of this work for Russia is obvious, in particular, from the point of view of improving the migration policy of the Russian Federation. This study is based on a large array of statistical data, including from the PRC National Bureau of Statistics. The quantitative and qualitative changes in the Chinese population are analyzed, including the ratio of birthrates, mortality, natural increase and fertility, gender and age imbalances, and internal migration.

Has demography witnessed a data revolution? Promises and pitfalls of a changing data ecosystem

Over the past 25 years, technological improvements that have made the collection, transmission, storage, and analysis of data significantly easier and more cost efficient have ushered in what has been described as the 'big data' era or the 'data revolution'. In the social sciences context, the data revolution has often been characterized in terms of increased volume and variety of data, and much excitement has focused on the growing opportunity to repurpose data that are the by-products of the digitalization of social life for research. However, many features of the data revolution are not new for demographers, who have long used large-scale population data and been accustomed to repurposing imperfect data not originally collected for research. Nevertheless, I argue that demography, too, has been affected by the data revolution, and the data ecosystem for demographic research has been significantly enriched. These developments have occurred across two dimensions. The first involves the augmented granularity, variety, and opportunities for linkage that have bolstered the capabilities of 'old' big population data sources, such as censuses, administrative data, and surveys. The second involves the growing interest in and use of 'new' big data sources, such as 'digital traces' generated through internet and mobile phone use, and related to this, the emergence of 'digital demography'. These developments have enabled new opportunities and offer much promise moving forward, but they also raise important ethical, technical, and conceptual challenges for the field.

Persistence of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic status disparities among non-institutionalized patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in Connecticut, July to December 2020

Background

COVID‐19 hospitalizations of non‐institutionalized persons during the first COVID‐19 wave in Connecticut disproportionately affected the elderly, communities of color, and individuals of low socioeconomic status (SES). Whether the magnitude of these disparities changed after the initial lockdown and before vaccine rollout is not well documented.

Methods

All first‐time hospitalizations with laboratory‐confirmed COVID‐19 during July to December 2020, including patients' geocoded residential addresses, were obtained from the Connecticut Department of Public Health. Those living in congregate settings, including nursing homes, were excluded. Community‐dwelling patients were assigned census tract‐level poverty and crowding measures from the 2014–2018 American Community Survey by linking their geocoded addresses to census tracts. Age‐adjusted incidence and relative rates were calculated across demographic and SES measures and compared with those from a similar analysis of hospitalized cases during the initial wave.

Results

During July to December 2020, there were 5652 COVID‐19 hospitalizations in community residents in Connecticut. Incidence was highest among those >85 years, non‐Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic/Latinx compared with non‐Hispanic Whites {relative rate (RR) 3.1 (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.83–3.32) and 5.9 (95% CI 5.58–6.28)}, and persons living in high poverty and high crowding census tracts. Although racial/ethnic and SES disparities during the study period were substantial, they were significantly decreased compared with the first wave of COVID‐19.

Conclusions

The finding of persistent, if reduced, large racial/ethnic disparities in COVID‐19 hospitalizations 2–7 months after the initial lockdown was relaxed and before vaccination was widely available is of concern. These disparities cause a challenge to achieving health equity and are relevant for future pandemic planning.

Comparison of Minimally Invasive Monitoring Methods and Live Trapping in Mammals

The conservation and management of wildlife requires the accurate assessment of wildlife population sizes. However, there is a lack of synthesis of research that compares methods used to estimate population size in the wild. Using a meta-analysis approach, we compared the number of detected individuals in a study made using live trapping and less invasive approaches, such as camera trapping and genetic identification. We scanned 668 papers related to these methods and identified data for 44 populations (all focused on mammals) wherein at least two methods (live trapping, camera trapping, genetic identification) were used. We used these data to quantify the difference in number of individuals detected using trapping and less invasive methods using a regression and used the residuals from each regression to evaluate potential drivers of these trends. We found that both trapping and less invasive methods (camera traps and genetic analyses) produced similar estimates overall, but less invasive methods tended to detect more individuals compared to trapping efforts (mean = 3.17 more individuals). We also found that the method by which camera data are analyzed can significantly alter estimates of population size, such that the inclusion of spatial information was related to larger population size estimates. Finally, we compared counts of individuals made using camera traps and genetic data and found that estimates were similar but that genetic approaches identified more individuals on average (mean = 9.07 individuals). Overall, our data suggest that all of the methods used in the studies we reviewed detected similar numbers of individuals. As live trapping can be more costly than less invasive methods and can pose more risk to animal well-fare, we suggest minimally invasive methods are preferable for population monitoring when less-invasive methods can be deployed efficiently.

Spatial and social mobility in England and Wales: A sub-national analysis of differences and trends over time

Recent studies of social mobility have documented that not only who your parents are, but also where you grow up, substantially influences subsequent life chances. We bring these two concepts together to study social mobility in England and Wales, in three post-war generations, using linked Decennial Census data. Our findings show considerable spatial variation in rates of absolute and relative mobility, as well as how these have changed over time. While upward mobility increased in every region between the mid-1950s and the early 1980s, this shift varied across different regions and tailed off for more recent cohorts. We also explore how domestic migration is related to social mobility, finding that those who moved out of their region of origin had higher rates of upward mobility compared to those who stayed, although this difference narrowed over time.

Estimation of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in Japan using national census-linked longitudinal mortality data

BACKGROUND

We aimed to develop census-linked longitudinal mortality data for Japan and assess its validity as a new resource for estimating socioeconomic inequalities in health.

METHODS

Using deterministic linkage, we identified, from national censuses for 2000 and 2010 and national death records, persons and deceased persons who had unique personal identifiers (generated using sex, birth year/month, address, and marital status). For the period 2010-2015, 1 537 337 Japanese men and women aged 30-79 years (1.9% in national census) were extracted to represent the sample population. This population was weighted to adjust for confounding factors. We estimated age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs) by education level and occupational class. The slope index of inequality (SII) and relative index inequality (RII) by educational level were calculated as inequality measures.

RESULTS

The reweighted sample population's mortality rates were somewhat higher than those of the complete registry, especially in younger age-groups and for external causes. All-cause ASMRs (per 100 000 person-years) for individuals aged 40-79 years with high, middle, and low education levels were 1078 (95% confidence interval: 1051-1105), 1299 (1279-1320), and 1670 (1634-1707) for men, and 561 (536-587), 601 (589-613), and 777 (745-808) for women, respectively, during 2010-2015. SII and RII by educational level increased among both sexes between 2000-2005 and 2010-2015, which indicates mortality inequalities increased.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed census-linked longitudinal mortality data provide new estimates of socioeconomic inequalities in Japan that can be triangulated with estimates obtained with other methods.

Direction From Data

This past summer, three pivotal trend reports were released that give direction to clinical oncology care and oncology nursing. After a tumultuous 2020, results from the 2020 U.S. census were finally compiled and reported in August 2021.

Syndromic surveillance of the frequency and severity of respiratory compromise of brachycephalic dogs in ICUs

BACKGROUND

Brachycephalic dogs (BCD) are increasingly popular companion animals and widely recognized to suffer from respiratory compromise based upon their conformation; however, the actual percentages of BCD in veterinary ICUs are unknown. This study aimed to evaluate a canine ICU census, as well as the presence, development, and severity of respiratory compromise in BCD using syndromic surveillance.

KEY FINDINGS

Ten institutions provided surveillance data twice weekly over an 11-week study period. The total canine ICU census was 1254 dogs hospitalized during the days and times of the study period; of this population, 125 (10%) were BCD. Fifty-six (45%) BCD were hospitalized in ICUs because they were perceived to be at risk of respiratory complications while recovering from general anesthesia or had a nonrespiratory condition requiring ICU admission, with the remaining 69 dogs (55%) being treated for respiratory disease. Twenty dogs (16%) developed respiratory complications requiring ICU admission after initially being hospitalized for another condition. Four percent of dogs were supported with mechanical ventilation.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Syndromic surveillance was a useful method for evaluating the number of BCD in a veterinary ICU. Almost 1 in 5 BCD developed respiratory compromise after initial evaluation for an unrelated problem. Ongoing evaluation of the medical issues associated with brachycephaly is warranted.

'Black African' identification and the COVID-19 pandemic in Britain: A site for sociological, ethical and policy debate

This paper is a narrative review of the use of collective terminology in relation to race and health in Britain, with particular reference to the 'Black African' community. 'Black Africans' have been categorised in the 1991-2011 censuses with added free-text in 2021 in response to user demand. However, the UK government is increasingly reporting data for the 'Black' pan-ethnicity, especially in the even more generalised 'BAME' ('Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic') acronym in COVID-19 pandemic reports. The consequences of this practice are addressed. Firstly, with respect to ethical challenges, Black Africans find their conscription by government into the term BAME offensive and do not accept it as a self-descriptor. This labelling, which subsumes Black Africans' self-assigned ethnicity in the census, and consequent misrecognition may be interpreted as a micro-aggression (a term coined in the 1970s but used here to denote microinvalidation), as suggested in the current black activism of the 'Black Lives Matter movement'. Secondly, ONS has warned that concealed heterogeneity renders the pan-ethnicities unreliably crude, making them scientifically inaccurate. Analysts are recommended to present ethnic group data for the full census classification where possible for reasons of validity and respect for the patient as arbiter of their ethnic group.

Is place or person more important in determining higher rural cancer mortality? A data-linkage study to compare individual versus area-based measures of deprivation

Data from Northeast Scotland for 11,803 cancer patients (diagnosed 2007-13) were linked to UK Censuses to explore relationships between hospital travel-time, timely-treatment and one-year-mortality, adjusting for both area and individual-level socioeconomic status (SES). Adjusting for area-based SES, those living >60 minutes from hospital received timely-treatment more often than those living <15 minutes. Substituting individual-level SES changed little. Adjusting for area-based SES those living >60 minutes from hospital died within one year more often than those living <15 minutes. Again, substituting individual-level SES changed little. In Northeast Scotland distance to services, rather than individual SES, likely explains poorer rural cancer survival.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The Northeast and Aberdeen Scottish Cancer and Residence (NASCAR) study found rural-dwellers are treated quicker but more likely to die within a year of a cancer diagnosis. A potential confounder of the relationship between geography and cancer mortality is socioeconomic status (SES). We linked the original NASCAR cohort to the UK Censuses of 2001 and 2011, at an individual level, to explore the relationship between travel time to key healthcare facilities, timely cancer treatment and one-year mortality adjusting for both area and individual-level markers of socioeconomic status.

METHODS

A data linkage study of 11803 patients examined the association between travel times, timely treatment and one-year mortality with adjustment for area, and for individual-level, markers of socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

Following adjustment for area-based SES measures those living more than 60 minutes from the cancer treatment centre were significantly more likely to be treated within 62 days of GP referral than those living within 15 minutes (Odds Ratio [OR]) 1.41; 95% (Confidence Interval [CI]) 1.23, 1.60]. Replacing area-based with individual-level SES measures from UK Censuses made little impact on the results [OR 1.39; 95% CI 1.22, 1.57].Following adjustment for area-based SES measures of socioeconomic status those living more than 60 minutes from the cancer treatment centre were significantly more likely to die within one year than those living closer by [OR 1.22; 95% CI 1.08, 1.38]. Again, replacing area-based with individual-level SES measures from UK Censuses made little impact on the result [OR 1.20; CI 1.06, 1.35].

CONCLUSIONS

Distribution of individual measures of socioeconomic status did not differ significantly between rural and urban cancer patients. The relationship between distance to service, timely treatment and one-year survival were the same adjusting for both area-based and individual SES. Overall, it seems that distance to services, rather than personal characteristics, influences poorer rural cancer survival.

Education inequalities in adult all-cause mortality: first national data for Australia using linked census and mortality data

Background

National linked mortality and census data have not previously been available for Australia. We estimated education-based mortality inequalities from linked census and mortality data that are suitable for international comparisons.

Methods

We used the Australian Bureau of Statistics Death Registrations to Census file, with data on deaths (2011–2012) linked probabilistically to census data (linkage rate 81%). To assess validity, we compared mortality rates by age group (25–44, 45–64, 65–84 years), sex and area-inequality measures to those based on complete death registration data. We used negative binomial regression to quantify inequalities in all-cause mortality in relation to five levels of education [‘Bachelor degree or higher’ (highest) to ‘no Year 12 and no post-secondary qualification’ (lowest)], separately by sex and age group, adjusting for single year of age and correcting for linkage bias and missing education data.

Results

Mortality rates and area-based inequality estimates were comparable to published national estimates. Men aged 25–84 years with the lowest education had age-adjusted mortality rates 2.20 [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.08‒2.33] times those of men with the highest education. Among women, the rate ratio was 1.64 (1.55‒1.74). Rate ratios were 3.87 (3.38‒4.44) in men and 2.57 (2.15‒3.07) in women aged 25–44 years, decreasing to 1.68 (1.60‒1.76) in men and 1.44 (1.36‒1.53) in women aged 65–84 years. Absolute education inequalities increased with age. One in three to four deaths (31%) was associated with less than Bachelor level education.

Conclusions

These linked national data enabled valid estimates of education inequality in mortality suitable for international comparisons. The magnitude of relative inequality is substantial and similar to that reported for other high-income countries.

Quantifying nicotine and alcohol consumption in New Zealand using wastewater-based epidemiology timed to coincide with census

INTRODUCTION

Accurate and timely information about nicotine and alcohol consumption is needed to inform effective policy. Wastewater-based epidemiology provides an opportunity to quantify consumption, which can complement traditional data collection methods.

METHODS

Wastewater samples were collected from seven wastewater treatment plants on seven consecutive days in three regions of New Zealand during the same week as the national census (6 March 2018). Samples were analysed for nicotine and alcohol metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detailed catchment maps were developed and per capita consumption calculated.

RESULTS

Observed nicotine consumption (mean 1528 ± 412 cigarettes/day/1000 people) was similar to national sales data. Observed alcohol consumption (mean 1155 ± 764 standard drinks/day/1000 people) was lower than estimated using alcohol availability data. Consumption of nicotine and alcohol was generally higher in the Bay of Plenty and Canterbury compared to Auckland, mirroring trends in the New Zealand Health Survey. Intra-regional differences were observed and the patterns could not be attributed to urbanisation alone. Nicotine consumption was consistent throughout the week whereas alcohol consumption often peaked at the weekend. Nicotine consumption was correlated with neighbourhood-deprivation. There was little correlation for alcohol.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Wastewater-based epidemiology provides a quantitative dataset that complements traditional methods of investigating nicotine and alcohol consumption. Timing data collection to coincide with the census helps to account for the influence of population mobility when normalising consumption.

Socio-Economic Position, Cancer Incidence and Stage at Diagnosis: A Nationwide Cohort Study in Belgium

Background: Socio-economic position is associated with cancer incidence, but the direction and magnitude of this relationship differs across cancer types, geographical regions, and socio-economic parameters. In this nationwide cohort study, we evaluated the association between different individual-level socio-economic and -demographic factors, cancer incidence, and stage at diagnosis in Belgium. Methods: The 2001 census was linked to the nationwide Belgian Cancer Registry for cancer diagnoses between 2004 and 2013. Socio-economic parameters included education level, household composition, and housing conditions. Incidence rate ratios were assessed through Poisson regression models. Stage-specific analyses were conducted through logistic regression models. Results: Deprived groups showed higher risks for lung cancer and head and neck cancers, whereas an inverse relation was observed for malignant melanoma and female breast cancer. Typically, associations were more pronounced in men than in women. A lower socio-economic position was associated with reduced chances of being diagnosed with known or early stage at diagnosis; the strongest disparities were found for male lung cancer and female breast cancer. Conclusions: This study identified population groups at increased risk of cancer and unknown or advanced stage at diagnosis in Belgium. Further investigation is needed to build a comprehensive picture of socio-economic inequality in cancer incidence.

Examining the municipal-level representativeness of the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) cohort: an analysis using Calgary participant baseline data

INTRODUCTION

The Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) is a rich, nationally representative population-based resource that can be used for multiple purposes. Although municipalities may wish to use CLSA data to address local policy needs, how well localized CLSA cohorts reflect municipal populations is unknown. Because Calgary, Alberta, is home to one of 11 CLSA data collection sites, our objective was to explore how well the Calgary CLSA sample represented the general Calgary population on select sociodemographic variables.

METHODS

Baseline characteristics (i.e. sex, marital status, ethnicity, education, retirement status, income, immigration, internal migration) of CLSA participants who visited the Calgary data collection site between 2011 and 2015 were compared to analogous profiles derived from the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) and 2016 Census datasets, which spanned the years when data were collected on the CLSA participants.

RESULTS

Calgary CLSA participants were representative of the Calgary population for age, sex and Indigenous identity. Discrepancies of over 5% with the NHS and/or 2016 Census were found for marital status, measures of ethnic diversity (i.e. immigrant status, place of birth, non-official language spoken at home), internal migration, income, retirement status and education.

CONCLUSION

Voluntary studies face challenges in recruiting fully representative cohorts. Communities opting to use CLSA data at a municipal level, including the 10 other CLSA data collection sites, should exercise caution when interpreting the results of these analyses, as CLSA participants may not be fully representative of the local population on select characteristics of interest.

Ethnic-minority groups in England and Wales-factors associated with the size and timing of elevated COVID-19 mortality: a retrospective cohort study linking census and death records

Background

We estimated population-level associations between ethnicity and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality using a newly linked census-based data set and investigated how ethnicity-specific mortality risk evolved during the pandemic.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of respondents to the 2011 Census of England and Wales in private households, linked to death registrations and adjusted for emigration (n = 47 872 412). The outcome of interest was death involving COVID-19 between 2 March 2020 and 15 May 2020. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for ethnic-minority groups compared with the White population, controlling for individual, household and area characteristics. HRs were estimated on the full outcome period and separately for pre- and post-lockdown periods.

Results

In age-adjusted models, people from all ethnic-minority groups were at elevated risk of COVID-19 mortality; the HRs for Black males and females were 3.13 (95% confidence interval: 2.93 to 3.34) and 2.40 (2.20 to 2.61), respectively. However, in fully adjusted models for females, the HRs were close to unity for all ethnic groups except Black [1.29 (1.18 to 1.42)]. For males, the mortality risk remained elevated for the Black [1.76 (1.63 to 1.90)], Bangladeshi/Pakistani [1.35 (1.21 to 1.49)] and Indian [1.30 (1.19 to 1.43)] groups. The HRs decreased after lockdown for all ethnic groups, particularly Black and Bangladeshi/Pakistani females.

Conclusion

Differences in COVID-19 mortality between ethnic groups were largely attenuated by geographical and socio-demographic factors, though some residual differences remained. Lockdown was associated with reductions in excess mortality risk in ethnic-minority populations, which has implications for a second wave of infection.

Ethnic-minority groups in England and Wales-factors associated with the size and timing of elevated COVID-19 mortality: a retrospective cohort study linking census and death records

BACKGROUND

We estimated population-level associations between ethnicity and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality using a newly linked census-based data set and investigated how ethnicity-specific mortality risk evolved during the pandemic.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of respondents to the 2011 Census of England and Wales in private households, linked to death registrations and adjusted for emigration (n = 47 872 412). The outcome of interest was death involving COVID-19 between 2 March 2020 and 15 May 2020. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for ethnic-minority groups compared with the White population, controlling for individual, household and area characteristics. HRs were estimated on the full outcome period and separately for pre- and post-lockdown periods.

RESULTS

In age-adjusted models, people from all ethnic-minority groups were at elevated risk of COVID-19 mortality; the HRs for Black males and females were 3.13 (95% confidence interval: 2.93 to 3.34) and 2.40 (2.20 to 2.61), respectively. However, in fully adjusted models for females, the HRs were close to unity for all ethnic groups except Black [1.29 (1.18 to 1.42)]. For males, the mortality risk remained elevated for the Black [1.76 (1.63 to 1.90)], Bangladeshi/Pakistani [1.35 (1.21 to 1.49)] and Indian [1.30 (1.19 to 1.43)] groups. The HRs decreased after lockdown for all ethnic groups, particularly Black and Bangladeshi/Pakistani females.

CONCLUSION

Differences in COVID-19 mortality between ethnic groups were largely attenuated by geographical and socio-demographic factors, though some residual differences remained. Lockdown was associated with reductions in excess mortality risk in ethnic-minority populations, which has implications for a second wave of infection.

The Number of Dogs Entering Shelters in Five States, and Factors that Affect Their Outcomes: A Study of the Sheltering System

As there are few requirements for mandatory registration or reporting for humane animal organizations, it is difficult to quantify how many dogs enter such organizations annually, or know their outcomes. Our objectives were to quantify the number of dogs entering animal shelters in five states in 2017, and determine factors that influenced their outcomes. A census was conducted of shelters in five states from each geographical region of the US. Organizations were excluded if they transferred all dog, or were breed-specific, foster-based, or functioned solely as a sanctuary with no options for adoption. Shelter employees were questioned in face-to-face interviews about specific shelter characteristics, the number of dogs that entered their shelter in 2017, and their outcomes. In total 342 of the 471 (73%) shelters in the final sampling frame reported receiving 227,783 dogs in 2017. Of these, 45% were adopted, 18% were transferred other facilities, 19% were reclaimed, and 14% were euthanized. Shelter characteristics influencing dog outcomes included financial source, source of dogs, county population per square mile, and education level of the county.

Shared Decision-making in Urologic Practice: Results From the 2019 AUA Census

OBJECTIVE

To establish the rates of self-reported shared decision-making (SDM) and decision aid use among practicing urologists. Additionally, we aim to determine the practice factors that influence SDM use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study uses data from the 2019 American Urological Association Annual Census SDM module. Urologists were presented with a rubric of 7 preference sensitive clinical situations and asked to choose the elements of SDM that they regularly use for the diagnosis. Multivariable logistic regression models were fit to evaluate factors contributing to the use of SDM.

RESULTS

Two thousand two hundred and nineteen urologists responded. Of these, 77% reported that they regularly use SDM in at least 1 preference sensitive clinical scenario. Between 40% and 58% regularly gave patients decision aids. Urologists who reported barriers to SDM had a decreased odds of reporting SDM (adjusted odds ratio OR [aOR] 0.80 [95% confidence interval [CI] 0.71-0.91]). Those practicing in academic settings (aOR 0.78 [95% CI 0.69-0.88]) were less likely than those in private practice to report SDM use. The number of patient visits per week was inversely associated with SDM use, with greater than 76 visits per week having decreased odds (aOR 0.65 [95% CI 0.57-0.74]).

CONCLUSION

In this sample of practicing urologists in the United States, the majority report regularly using SDM. However, rates of SDM varied by training, practice setting and clinical volume. Our findings highlight specific opportunities to improve in SDM in urology.

Income inequalities in the risk of potentially avoidable hospitaliation and readmission for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a population data linkage analysis

Introduction

Hospitalizations for ambulatory care sensitive conditions, of which chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is among the most common, represent an indirect measure of the healthcare system to manage chronic disease. Research has pointed to disparities in various COPD-related outcomes between persons of lower versus higher income; however, few studies have examined the influence of patients' social context on potentially avoidable COPD admissions.

Objective

The research explores the use of linked population census and administrative health data to assess the influence of income inequalities on the risk of hospitalization and rehospitalization for COPD among Canadian adults.

Methods

This analysis utilizes data from the 2006 Census linked longitudinally to the 2006/07-2008/09 Discharge Abstract Database. Multiple logistic regressions were conducted to assess the independent influence of income inequality on the risks of hospitalization and of six-month readmission due to COPD among the population aged 30-69, controlling for age, sex, education and other sociodemographic characteristics.

Results

Compared with adults in the most affluent income quintile, the adjusted odds of COPD hospitalization were significantly greater in the 4th highest income quintile (OR: 1.38; 95%CI: 1.30-1.47), and peaked for those in the least affluent quintile (OR: 2.92; 95%CI: 2.77-3.09). Among individuals who had been hospitalized at least once for COPD in the study period, and compared with the most affluent group, the adjusted odds of readmission were highest in the least affluent group (OR: 1.39; 95%CI: 1.22-1.58).

Conclusions

Despite Canada's system of universal coverage for physician and hospital care, a clear income gradient in the risk of being hospitalized and, to some extent, rehospitalized for COPD, is found. Income inequalities may be contributing to excess hospitalizations, reinforcing the importance of integrating social and economic issues in primary care to meet the ambulatory needs of this population.

Profiling Malnutrition Prevalence among Australian Rural In-Patients Using a Retrospective Census of Electronic Medical Files over a 12-Month Period

In-patient malnutrition leads to poor outcomes and mortality, and it is largely uninvestigated in non-urban populations. This study sought to: (1) retrospectively estimate the prevalence of malnutrition as diagnosed by dietetics in the rural Australian setting; (2) establish the proportion of all patients at “nutritional risk”; and (3) explore associations between demographic and clinical factors with malnutrition diagnosis and nutritional risk. A retrospective census was undertaken of medical files of all patients aged ≥18 years admitted to a rural hospital setting over a 12-month period. Logistic regression was used to explore associations between malnutrition diagnosis, nutritional risk and patient-related factors. In total, 711 admissions were screened during the 12-month period comprising 567 patients. Among the 125 patients seen by dietitians, 70.4% were diagnosed with malnutrition. Across the total sample, 77.0% had high levels of nutrition related symptoms warranting a need for further assessment by dietitians. Malnutrition diagnosis by dietitians was associated with being over the age of 65 years, and patients had higher odds of being admitted to a residential aged care facility following discharge. In this rural sample, the diagnosis rate of malnutrition appeared to be high, indicating that rural in-patients may be at a high risk of malnutrition. There was also a high proportion of patients who had documentation in their files that indicated they may have benefited from dietetic assessment and intervention, beyond current resourcing.

[Italian Society of Nephrology’s 2018 census of renal and dialysis units: their structure and organization]

Background: Given the public health challenge represented by chronic kidney disease, the Italian Society of Nephrology (SIN) promoted a census of the renal and dialysis units to analyze structural and human resources, organizational aspects, activities and workload, referring to the year 2018. Methods: An on-line questionnaire including 60 questions, exploring structural and human resources, organizational aspects, activities and epidemiological data referred to 2018, was sent to the heads of all identified Italian renal or dialysis unit. Results: 567 renal units were identified, 3.3 public and full renal unit pmp. The nephrology beds are about 37.6 pmp. The nurses were 8,130 in HD wards, 1,827 in the nephrology wards, only 432 for outpatient clinics. Conclusions: Data from this census may be used for benchmarking and comparison between centers, regions and groups of regions. These data offer a snapshot of the clinical management of renal disease in Italy.

[Italian Society of Nephrology’s 2018 census of renal and dialysis units: the nephrologist's workload]

Background: Given the public health challenge represented by chronic kidney disease, the Italian Society of Nephrology (SIN) promoted a census of the renal and dialysis units to analyze structural and human resources, organizational aspects, activities and workload, referring to the year 2018. Methods: An on-line questionnaire including 60 questions, exploring structural and human resources, organizational aspects, activities and epidemiological data referred to 2018, was sent to the heads of all identified Italian renal or dialysis unit. Results: Renal and dialysis activity was performed by over 2,718 physicians (41 pmp). The management of the acute renal failure was one of the most relevant activities in the public renal units (3,000 pmp patients in ICU and 183.000 dialysis sessions). Italian Nephrologists performed about 6000 AV fistulas out of a total of 9300. In the survey there are a lot of data regarding organization, workforce and workload of the renal unit in Italy. Conclusions: Data from this census may be used for benchmarking and comparison between centers, regions and groups of regions. These data offer a snapshot of the clinical management of renal disease in Italy.

A preliminary census of copies of the first edition of Newton's Principia (1687)

When Henry Macomber published his census of owners of the first edition of the Principia in 1953, he believed the edition to be small, 'perhaps not more than 250 copies', an estimate that still enjoys currency. Lower estimates of the size of the first edition of the Principia were based partly on assessments regarding an inhospitable market for highly technical mathematical books, and partly on the presumption that the vaunted incomprehensibility of the Principia would have militated against a sizeable edition. Our preliminary census more than doubles the number of identified copies, to 387-suggesting a much larger print run than commonly assumed - as well as encourages us to believe that there existed a wider, and competent, readership of the Principia from the start. The long-standing assumption regarding the recondite nature of Newton's science as presented in the Principia, together with claims concerning the scarcity of the book, brought many scholars to assume that Newton's masterpiece exerted little influence before the 1730s. The new empirical evidence presented in our census enables a reassessment of the early diffusion of the Principia in Europe which, in turn, would necessitate a major refinement of our understanding of the contribution of Newtonianism to Enlightenment science.

How differential privacy will affect our understanding of health disparities in the United States

The application of a currently proposed differential privacy algorithm to the 2020 United States Census data and additional data products may affect the usefulness of these data, the accuracy of estimates and rates derived from them, and critical knowledge about social phenomena such as health disparities. We test the ramifications of applying differential privacy to released data by studying estimates of US mortality rates for the overall population and three major racial/ethnic groups. We ask how changes in the denominators of these vital rates due to the implementation of differential privacy can lead to biased estimates. We situate where these changes are most likely to matter by disaggregating biases by population size, degree of urbanization, and adjacency to a metropolitan area. Our results suggest that differential privacy will more strongly affect mortality rate estimates for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics than estimates for non-Hispanic whites. We also find significant changes in estimated mortality rates for less populous areas, with more pronounced changes when stratified by race/ethnicity. We find larger changes in estimated mortality rates for areas with lower levels of urbanization or adjacency to metropolitan areas, with these changes being greater for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics. These findings highlight the consequences of implementing differential privacy, as proposed, for research examining population composition, particularly mortality disparities across racial/ethnic groups and along the urban/rural continuum. Overall, they demonstrate the challenges in using the data products derived from the proposed disclosure avoidance methods, while highlighting critical instances where scientific understandings may be negatively impacted.

Towards estimating the indigenous population in circumpolar regions

Despite the importance of indigenous people in the Arctic, there is no accurate estimate of their size and distribution. We defined indigenous people as those groups represented by the “permanent participants” of the Arctic Council. The census in Canada, Russia and the United States records status as an indigenous person. In Greenland, a proxy measure is place of birth supplemented by other information. For the Nordic countries we utilized a variety of sources including registered voters’ lists of the various Sami parliaments and research studies that established Sami cohorts. Overall, we estimated that there were about 1.13 million indigenous people in the northern regions of the 8 Member States of the Arctic Council. There were 8,100 Aleuts in Alaska and the Russian North; 32,400 Athabaskans in Alaska and northern Canada; 145,900 Inuit in Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland; 76,300 Sami in northern Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia; and 866,400 people in northern Russia belonging to other indigenous groups. Different degrees and types of methodological problems are associated with estimates from different regions. Our study highlights the complexity and difficulty of the task and the considerable gaps in knowledge. We hope to spur discussion of this important issue which could ultimately affect strategies to improve the health of circumpolar peoples.

Dataset of the survey on e-registration and geo-referenced of rice value chain actors for the diffusion of technologies: Case of Benin and Côte d'Ivoire

The paper presents a dataset of the e-registration of rice value chain actors in Benin and Côte d'Ivoire for assessing the adoption of innovations and the diffusion of new rice technologies. Data were collected from actors after a census conducted in three steps. In the first step, main rice production regions and rice value chain actors were identified. In the second step, we updated the list of actors based on membership of actors' associations. In third step, we did the census of all individual actors and geo-localized all farmers' fields and villages using GPS device. Data were collected for the 2018 growing seasons. The dataset contains 17,639 observations (9,000 in Benin and 8,639 in Côte d'Ivoire) with 159 variables divided into six sections: (i) preliminary information on the respondents; (ii) socio-economic characteristics; (iii) information on the rice plots; (iv) knowledge, use and access to rice varieties; (v) knowledge, use and access to agricultural equipment and methods; and (vi) information on post-harvest activities. Six categories of actors were identified: foundation seed producers (420), certified seed producers (1,212), paddy rice producers (14,230), parboilers (1,735), millers (188) and traders (1,429). The dataset is available online at Mendeley data repository. The dataset is valuable for the diffusion at large scale of improved technologies and an effective monitoring of the dissemination. Data can be used by scientists to have better understanding of the rice value chains, rice production systems, the level of knowledge, accessibility and adoption of improved rice varieties and agricultural technologies, for further research regarding rice value chain development, technologies testing and socioeconomics study of rice value chain actors. Because of the large number of observations (17,639), data can be used as sampling frame for further experiment or surveys based on random samples. Moreover, the dataset has the potential of generating descriptive statistics at the most disaggregated level of administrative units or villages for different equipment, methods and varieties adopted by gender and country.

Advances in mapping population and demographic characteristics at small-area levels

Temporally and spatially highly resolved information on population characteristics, including demographic profile (e.g. age and sex), ethnicity and socio-economic status (e.g. income, occupation, education), are essential for observational health studies at the small-area level. Time-relevant population data are critical as denominators for health statistics, analytics and epidemiology, to calculate rates or risks of disease. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics are key determinants of health and important confounders in the relationship between environmental contaminants and health. In many countries, census data have long been the source of small-area population denominators and confounder information. A strength of the traditional census model has been its careful design and high level of population coverage, allowing high-quality detailed data to be released for small areas periodically, e.g. every 10 years. The timeliness of data, however, becomes a challenge when temporally and spatially highly accurate annual (or even more frequent) data at high spatial resolution are needed, for example, for health surveillance and epidemiological studies. Additionally, the approach to collecting demographic population information is changing in the era of open and big data and may eventually evolve to using combinations of administrative and other data, supplemented by surveys. We discuss different approaches to address these challenges including (i) the US American Community Survey, a rolling sample of the US population census, (ii) the use of spatial analysis techniques to compile temporally and spatially high-resolution demographic data and (iii) the use of administrative and big data sources as proxies for demographic characteristics.

Can we study the family environment through census data? A comparison of households, dwellings, and domestic units in rural Mali

Are 'statistical households', as defined in national censuses, able to describe the family environment in Africa? Do they correspond to the family units that individuals identify with? To address this issue, we build on a follow-up survey in south-east Mali, which links national censuses with local censuses at the individual level (N ≈ 28,000 census observations). Three cross-sectional snapshots of family arrangements are compared: households recorded in national censuses, and family economic units and residential units recorded by local censuses. The national census household data appear poorly suited to documenting family living arrangements. They do not account for family economic units or residential units, but are highly conditioned by a normative representation centred on the nuclear family. Therefore, they fail to describe the complexity and diversity of people's living spaces, making particular types of living arrangements invisible and increasing the likelihood of omitting individuals who do not fit into a nuclear model.

The State of School Infrastructure in the Assembly Constituencies of Rural India: Analysis of 11 Census Indicators from Pre-Primary to Higher Education

In India, assembly constituencies (ACs), represented by elected officials, are the primary geopolitical units for state-level policy development. However, data on social indicators are traditionally reported and analyzed at the district level, and are rarely available for ACs. Here, we combine village-level data from the 2011 Indian Census and AC shapefiles to systematically derive AC-level estimates for the first time. We apply this methodology to describe the distribution of 11 education infrastructures—ranging from pre-primary school to senior secondary school—across rural villages in 3773 ACs. We found high variability in access to higher education infrastructures and low variability in access to lower education variables. For 40.3% (25th percentile) to 79.7% (75th percentile) of villages in an AC, the nearest government senior secondary school was >5 km away, whereas the nearest government primary school was >5 km away in just 0% (25th percentile) to 1.9% (75th percentile) of villages in an AC. The states of Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Bihar showed the greatest within-state variation in access to education infrastructures. We present a novel analysis of access to education infrastructures to inform AC-level policy and demonstrate how geospatial and Census data can be leveraged to derive AC-level estimates for any population health and development indicators collected in the Census at the village level.

Looking back to look ahead: a vision for soil denitrification research

Denitrification plays a critical role in regulating ecosystem nutrient availability and anthropogenic reactive nitrogen (N) production. Its importance has inspired an increasing number of studies, yet it remains the most poorly constrained term in terrestrial ecosystem N budgets. We censused the peer-reviewed soil denitrification literature (1975-2015) to identify opportunities for future studies to advance our understanding despite the inherent challenges in studying the process. We found that only one-third of studies reported estimates of both nitrous oxide (N₂ O) and dinitrogen (N₂ ) production fluxes, often the dominant end products of denitrification, while the majority of studies reported only net N₂ O fluxes or denitrification potential. Of the 236 studies that measured complete denitrification to N₂ , 49% used the acetylene inhibition method, 84% were conducted in the laboratory, 81% were performed on surface soils (0-20 cm depth), 75% were located in North America and Europe, and 78% performed treatment manipulations, mostly of N, carbon, or water. To improve understanding of soil denitrification, we recommend broadening access to technologies for new methodologies to measure soil N₂ production rates, conducting more studies in the tropics and on subsoils, performing standardized experiments on unmanipulated soils, and using more precise terminology to refer to measured process rates (e.g., net N₂ O flux or denitrification potential). To overcome the greater challenges in studying soil denitrification, we envision coordinated research efforts based on standard reporting of metadata for all soil denitrification studies, standard protocols for studies contributing to a Global Denitrification Research Network, and a global consortium of denitrification researchers to facilitate sharing ideas, resources, and to provide mentorship for researchers new to the field.

Trends in mortality inequalities among the adult household population

BACKGROUND

The routine measurement of population health status indicators like mortality is important to assess progress in the reduction of inequalities. Previous studies of mortality inequalities have relied on area-based measures of socioeconomic indicators. A new series of census-mortality linked datasets has been created in Canada to quantify mortality inequalities based on individual-level data and examine whether these inequalities have changed over time.

DATA AND METHODS

This study used the 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, and 2011 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts (CanCHECs) with five years of mortality follow-up. It estimated age-standardized mortality rates by sex according to income quintile and highest level of educational attainment categories for the household population aged 25 or older. Absolute and relative measures of mortality inequality were also estimated.

RESULTS

Men had a greater reduction in mortality rates over time compared with women, regardless of income or education level. Absolute income-related mortality inequality decreased for men but increased for women over time, while relative income-related inequality increased for both sexes. Education-related mortality inequality for women followed the same pattern as income, though the absolute mortality difference for men remained roughly unchanged over the period.

DISCUSSION

Mortality inequalities by income and education persist in Canada, and have increased for women. Further research to determine the mechanisms underlying these trends could help address the complex challenge of reducing health inequalities in Canada.

Cohort profile: The Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts (CanCHECs)

The Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts (CanCHECs) are population-based linked datasets of the household population at the time of census collection. The CanCHECs combine data from respondents to the long-form census or the National Household Survey between 1991 and 2011 with administrative health data (e.g., mortality, cancer incidence, hospitalizations, emergency ambulatory care) and annual mailing address postal codes. The CanCHEC datasets are rich national data resources that can be used to measure and examine health inequalities across socioeconomic and ethnocultural dimensions for different periods and locations. These datasets can also be used to examine the effects of exposure to environmental factors on human health. Because of their large size, the CanCHECs are an excellent resource for examining rare health outcomes and small population groups. They are ideally suited for environmental health research because of their geographic coverage across all regions of Canada, their long follow-up periods and their linkage to annual postal code history.

Prevalence of Chronic Diseases and Activity-Limiting Disability among Roma and Non-Roma People: A Cross-Sectional, Census-Based Investigation

The lack of recommended design for Roma health-monitoring hinders the interventions to improve the health status of this ethnic minority. We aim to describe the riskiness of Roma ethnicity using census-derived data and to demonstrate the value of census for monitoring the Roma to non-Roma gap. This study investigated the self-declared occurrence of at least one chronic disease and the existence of activity limitations among subjects with chronic disease by the database of the 2011 Hungarian Census. Risks were assessed by odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) from logistic regression analyses controlled for sociodemographic factors. Roma ethnicity is a risk factor for chronic diseases (OR = 1.17; 95% CI: 1.16–1.18) and for activity limitation in everyday life activities (OR = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.17–1.23), learning-working (OR = 1.24; 95% CI: 1.21–1.27), family life (OR = 1.22; 95% CI: 1.16–1.28), and transport (OR = 1.03; 95% CI: 1.01–1.06). The population-level impact of Roma ethnicity was 0.39% (95% CI: 0.37–0.41) for chronic diseases and varied between 0 and 1.19% for activity limitations. Our investigations demonstrated that (1) the Roma ethnicity is a distinct risk factor with significant population level impact for chronic disease occurrence accompanied with prognosis worsening influence, and that (2) the census can improve the Roma health-monitoring system, primarily by assessing the population level impact.