Arabidopsis florigen FT binds to diurnally oscillating phospholipids that accelerate flowering

Exploring the connections between ER-based lipid metabolism and plasma membrane nanodomain signaling

Recent advancements in our understanding of cell membrane dynamics have shed light on the importance of plasma membrane (PM) nanodomains in plant cell signaling. Nevertheless, many aspects of membrane nanodomains, including their regulatory mechanisms and biological functions, remain enigmatic. To address this knowledge gap, our review article proposes a novel perspective wherein signaling pathways target endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-based lipid metabolism to exert control over the formation and function of membrane nanodomains. Subsequently, these nanodomains reciprocate by influencing the localization and activity of signaling molecules at the PM. We place a specific emphasis on ER-based enzymatic reactions, given the ER's central role in membrane lipid biosynthesis and its capacity to directly impact PM lipid composition, particularly with regard to saturation levels - an essential determinant of nanodomain properties. The interplay among cell signaling, glycerolipid metabolism, and PM nanodomain may create feedforward/feedback loops that fine-tune cellular responses to developmental and environmental cues.

A promoter polymorphism defines distinct roles in anther development for Col-0 and Ler-0 alleles of Arabidopsis ACYL-COA BINDING PROTEIN3

Acyl-CoA-Binding Proteins (ACBPs) bind acyl-CoA esters and function in lipid metabolism. Although acbp3-1, the ACBP3 mutant in Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Col-0, displays normal floral development, the acbp3-2 mutant from ecotype Ler-0 characterized herein exhibits defective adaxial anther lobes and improper sporocyte formation. To understand these differences and identify the role of ERECTA in ACBP3 function, the acbp3 mutants and acbp3-erecta (er) lines were analyzed by microscopy for anther morphology and high-performance liquid chromatography for lipid composition. Defects in Landsberg anther development were related to the ERECTA-mediated pathway because the progenies of acbp3-2 × La-0 and acbp3-1 × er-1 in Col-0 showed normal anthers, contrasting to that of acbp3-2 in Ler-0. Polymorphism in the regulatory region of ACBP3 enabled its function in anther development in Ler-0 but not Col-0 which harbored an AT-repeat insertion. ACBP3 expression and anther development in acbp3-2 were restored using ACBP3pro (Ler)::ACBP3 not ACBP3pro (Col)::ACBP3. SPOROCYTELESS (SPL), a sporocyte formation regulator activated ACBP3 transcription in Ler-0 but not Col-0. For anther development, the ERECTA-related role of ACBP3 is required in Ler-0, but not Col-0. The disrupted promoter regulatory region for SPL binding in Col-0 eliminates the role of ACBP3 in anther development.

The CONSTANS-LIKE gene PeCOL13 regulates flowering through intron-retained alternative splicing in Phyllostachys edulis

Woody bamboo exhibits a unique flowering characteristic with a lengthy flowering cycle, often followed by death. In many plant species, alternative splicing (AS) is a common phenomenon involved in controlling flowering. In this study, a PeCOL13 gene in moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) was characterized. It produced two isoforms: PeCOL13α and PeCOL13β, due to an intron-retained AS. The PeCOL13α expressed in the vegetative phase and the reproductive phase, but the PeCOL13β didn't express during the vegetative phase and showed only a weak expression from F1 to F3 during the reproductive phase. Overexpression of PeCOL13α in rice (Oryza sativa) resulted in a delayed heading time through inhibiting the expressions of Hd3a, OsFTL1, and Ehd1 and activating the expressions of Ghd7 and RCN1. However, the PeCOL13β-overexpressed rice didn't show any significant differences in flowering compared with wild-type (WT), and the expressions of downstream flowering genes had no notable changes. Further analysis revealed that both PeCOL13α and PeCOL13β can bind to the PeFT promoter. Meanwhile, PeCOL13α can inhibit the transcription of PeFT, but PeCOL13β showed no effect. When PeCOL13α and PeCOL13β coexist, the inhibitory effect of PeCOL13α on PeFT transcription was weakened by PeCOL13β. This study provides new insights into the mechanism of bamboo flowering research.

The Function of Florigen in the Vegetative-to-Reproductive Phase Transition in and around the Shoot Apical Meristem

Plants undergo a series of developmental phases throughout their life-cycle, each characterized by specific processes. Three critical features distinguish these phases: the arrangement of primordia (phyllotaxis), the timing of their differentiation (plastochron) and the characteristics of the lateral organs and axillary meristems. Identifying the unique molecular features of each phase, determining the molecular triggers that cause transitions and understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these transitions are keys to gleaning a complete understanding of plant development. During the vegetative phase, the shoot apical meristem (SAM) facilitates continuous leaf and stem formation, with leaf development as the hallmark. The transition to the reproductive phase induces significant changes in these processes, driven mainly by the protein FT (FLOWERING LOCUS T) in Arabidopsis and proteins encoded by FT orthologs, which are specified as 'florigen'. These proteins are synthesized in leaves and transported to the SAM, and act as the primary flowering signal, although its impact varies among species. Within the SAM, florigen integrates with other signals, culminating in developmental changes. This review explores the central question of how florigen induces developmental phase transition in the SAM. Future research may combine phase transition studies, potentially revealing the florigen-induced developmental phase transition in the SAM.

Applications and opportunities of click chemistry in plant science

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2022 was awarded to the pioneers of Lego-like 'click chemistry': combinatorial chemistry with remarkable modularity and diversity. It has been applied to a wide variety of biological systems, from microorganisms to plants and animals, including humans. Although click chemistry is a powerful chemical biology tool, comparatively few studies have examined its potential in plant science. Here, we review click chemistry reactions and their applications in plant systems, highlighting the activity-based probes and metabolic labeling strategies combined with bioorthogonal click chemistry to visualize plant biological processes. These applications offer new opportunities to explore and understand the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating plant composition, growth, metabolism, defense, and immune responses.

Circadian clock factors regulate the first condensation reaction of fatty acid synthesis in Arabidopsis

The circadian clock regulates temporal metabolic activities, but how it affects lipid metabolism is poorly understood. Here, we show that the central clock regulators LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL (LHY) and CIRCADIAN CLOCK ASSOCIATED 1 (CCA1) regulate the initial step of fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Triacylglycerol (TAG) accumulation in seeds was increased in LHY-overexpressing (LHY-OE) and decreased in lhycca1 plants. Metabolic tracking of lipids in developing seeds indicated that LHY enhanced FA synthesis. Transcript analysis revealed that the expression of genes involved in FA synthesis, including the one encoding β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase III (KASIII), was oppositely changed in developing seeds of LHY/CCA1-OEs and lhycca1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation, electrophoretic mobility shift, and transactivation assays indicated that LHY bound and activated the promoter of KASIII. Furthermore, phosphatidic acid, a metabolic precursor to TAG, inhibited LHY binding to KASIII promoter elements. Our data show a regulatory mechanism for plant lipid biosynthesis by the molecular clock.

Metabolic priming in G6PDH isoenzyme-replaced tobacco lines improves stress tolerance and seed yields via altering assimilate partitioning

We investigated the basis for better performance of transgenic Nicotiana tabacum plants with G6PDH-isoenzyme replacement in the cytosol (Xanthi::cP2::cytRNAi, Scharte et al., 2009). After six generations of selfing, infiltration of Phytophthora nicotianae zoospores into source leaves confirmed that defence responses (ROS, callose) are accelerated, showing as fast cell death of the infected tissue. Yet, stress-related hormone profiles resembled susceptible Xanthi and not resistant cultivar SNN, hinting at mainly metabolic adjustments in the transgenic lines. Leaves of non-stressed plants contained twofold elevated fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6P2 ) levels, leading to partial sugar retention (soluble sugars, starch) and elevated hexose-to-sucrose ratios, but also more lipids. Above-ground biomass lay in between susceptible Xanthi and resistant SNN, with photo-assimilates preferentially allocated to inflorescences. Seeds were heavier with higher lipid-to-carbohydrate ratios, resulting in increased harvest yields - also under water limitation. Abiotic stress tolerance (salt, drought) was improved during germination, and in floated leaf disks of non-stressed plants. In leaves of salt-watered plants, proline accumulated to higher levels during illumination, concomitant with efficient NADP(H) use and recycling. Non-stressed plants showed enhanced PSII-induction kinetics (upon dark-light transition) with little differences at the stationary phase. Leaf exudates contained 10% less sucrose, similar amino acids, but more fatty acids - especially in the light. Export of specific fatty acids via the phloem may contribute to both, earlier flowering and higher seed yields of the Xanthi-cP2 lines. Apparently, metabolic priming by F2,6P2 -combined with sustained NADP(H) turnover-bypasses the genetically fixed growth-defence trade-off, rendering tobacco plants more stress-resilient and productive.

Analysis of temperature effects on the protein accumulation of the FT-FD module using newly generated Arabidopsis transgenic plants

Arabidopsis flowering is dependent on interactions between a component of the florigens FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and the basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factor FD. These proteins form a complex that activates the genes required for flowering competence and integrates environmental cues, such as photoperiod and temperature. However, it remains largely unknown how FT and FD are regulated at the protein level. To address this, we created FT transgenic plants that express the N-terminal FLAG-tagged FT fusion protein under the control of its own promoter in ft mutant backgrounds. FT transgenic plants complemented the delayed flowering of the ft mutant and exhibited similar FT expression patterns to wild-type Col-0 plants in response to changes in photoperiod and temperature. Similarly, we generated FD transgenic plants in fd mutant backgrounds that express the N-terminal MYC-tagged FD fusion protein under the FD promoter, rescuing the late flowering phenotypes in the fd mutant. Using these transgenic plants, we investigated how temperature regulates the expression of FT and FD proteins. Temperature-dependent changes in FT and FD protein levels are primarily regulated at the transcript level, but protein-level temperature effects have also been observed to some extent. In addition, our examination of the expression patterns of FT and FD in different tissues revealed that similar to the spatial expression pattern of FT, FD mRNA was expressed in both the leaf and shoot apex, but FD protein was only detected in the apex, suggesting a regulatory mechanism that restricts FD protein expression in the leaf during the vegetative growth phase. These transgenic plants provided a valuable platform for investigating the role of the FT-FD module in flowering time regulation.

Identification and mapping of a recessive allele, dt3, specifying semideterminate stem growth habit in soybean

KEY MESSAGE

A locus, dt3, modulating semideterminancy in soybean, was discovered by a combination of genome-wide association studies and linkage mapping with multiple distinct biparental populations. Stem growth habit is a key architectural trait in many plants that contributes to plant productivity and environmental adaptation. In soybean, stem growth habit is classified as indeterminate, semideterminate, or determinate, of which semideterminacy is often considered as a counterpart of the "Green Revolution" trait in cereals that significantly increased grain yields. It has been demonstrated that semideterminacy in soybean is modulated by epistatic interaction between two loci, Dt1 on chromosome 19 and Dt2 on chromosome 18, with the latter as a negative regulator of the former. Here, we report the discovery of a third locus, Dt3, modulating soybean stem growth habit, which was delineated to a ~ 196-kb region on chromosome 10 by a combination of allelic and haplotypic analysis of the Dt1 and Dt2 loci in the USDA soybean Germplasm Collection, genome-wide association studies with three subsets of the collection, and linkage mapping with four biparental populations derived from crosses between one of two elite indeterminate cultivars and each of four semideterminate varieties possessing neither Dt2 nor dt1. These four semideterminate varieties are recessive mutants (i.e., dt3/dt3) in the Dt1/Dt1;dt2/dt2 background. As the semideterminacy modulated by the Dt2 allele has unfavorable pleotropic effects such as sensitivity to drought stress, dt3 may be an ideal alternative for use to develop semideterminate cultivars that are more resilient to such an environmental stress. This study enhances our understanding of the genetic factors underlying semideterminacy and enables more accurate marker-assisted selection for stem growth habit in soybean breeding.

The Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum Type III Effector RipL Delays Flowering and Promotes Susceptibility to Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis thaliana

The plant defense responses to microbial infection are tightly regulated and integrated with the developmental program for optimal resources allocation. Notably, the defense- associated hormone salicylic acid (SA) acts as a promoter of flowering while several plant pathogens actively target the flowering signaling pathway to promote their virulence or dissemination. Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum inject tens of effectors in the host cells that collectively promote bacterial proliferation in plant tissues. Here, we characterized the function of the broadly conserved R. pseudosolanacearum effector RipL, through heterologous expression in Arabidopsis thaliana . RipL-expressing transgenic lines presented a delayed flowering, which correlated with a low expression of flowering regulator genes. Delayed flowering was also observed in Nicotiana benthamiana plants transiently expressing RipL. In parallel, RipL promoted plant susceptibility to virulent strains of Pseudomonas syringae in the effector-expressing lines or when delivered by the type III secretion system. Unexpectedly, SA accumulation and SA-dependent immune signaling were not significantly affected by RipL expression. Rather, the RNA-seq analysis of infected RipL-expressing lines revealed that the overall amplitude of the transcriptional response was dampened, suggesting that RipL could promote plant susceptibility in an SA-independent manner. Further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underpinning RipL effect on flowering and immunity may reveal novel effector functions in host cells.

Environmental control of rice flowering time

Correct measurement of environmental parameters is fundamental for plant fitness and survival, as well as for timing developmental transitions, including the switch from vegetative to reproductive growth. Important parameters that affect flowering time include day length (photoperiod) and temperature. Their response pathways have been best described in Arabidopsis, which currently offers a detailed conceptual framework and serves as a comparison for other species. Rice, the focus of this review, also possesses a photoperiodic flowering pathway, but 150 million years of divergent evolution in very different environments have diversified its molecular architecture. The ambient temperature perception pathway is strongly intertwined with the photoperiod pathway and essentially converges on the same genes to modify flowering time. When observing network topologies, it is evident that the rice flowering network is centered on EARLY HEADING DATE 1, a rice-specific transcriptional regulator. Here, we summarize the most important features of the rice photoperiodic flowering network, with an emphasis on its uniqueness, and discuss its connections with hormonal, temperature perception, and stress pathways.

Drought and heat stress mediated activation of lipid signaling in plants: a critical review

Lipids are a principal component of plasma membrane, acting as a protective barrier between the cell and its surroundings. Abiotic stresses such as drought and temperature induce various lipid-dependent signaling responses, and the membrane lipids respond differently to environmental challenges. Recent studies have revealed that lipids serve as signal mediators forreducing stress responses in plant cells and activating defense systems. Signaling lipids, such as phosphatidic acid, phosphoinositides, sphingolipids, lysophospholipids, oxylipins, and N-acylethanolamines, are generated in response to stress. Membrane lipids are essential for maintaining the lamellar stack of chloroplasts and stabilizing chloroplast membranes under stress. However, the effects of lipid signaling targets in plants are not fully understood. This review focuses on the synthesis of various signaling lipids and their roles in abiotic stress tolerance responses, providing an essential perspective for further investigation into the interactions between plant lipids and abiotic stress.

Lipid Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal That Phosphatidylcholine Enhanced the Resistance of Peach Seedlings to Salt Stress through Phosphatidic Acid

Soil salinity is a major conlinet limiting sustainable agricultural development in peach tree industry. In this study, lipid metabolomic pathway analysis indicated that phosphatidic acid is essential for root resistance to salt stress in peach seedlings. Through functional annotation analysis of differentially expressed genes in transcriptomics, we found that MAPK signaling pathway is closely related to peach tree resistance to salt stress, wherein PpMPK6 expression is significantly upregulated. Under salt conditions, the OE-PpMPK6 Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. line showed higher resistance to salt stress than WT and KO-AtMPK6 lines. Furthermore, we found that the Na⁺ content in OE-PpMPK6 roots was significantly lower than that in WT and KO-AtMPK6 roots, indicating that phosphatidic acid combined with PpMPK6 activated the SOS1 (salt-overly-sensitive 1) protein to enhance Na⁺ efflux, thus alleviating the damage caused by NaCl in roots; these findings provide insight into the salt stress-associated transcriptional regulation.

Genomic Dynamics and Functional Insights under Salt Stress in Gossypium hirsutum L

The changing climate is intensifying salt stress globally. Salt stress is a menace to cotton crop quality and yield. The seedling, germination, and emergence phases are more prone to the effects of salt stress than other stages. Higher levels of salt can lead to delayed flowering, a reduced number of fruiting positions, shedding of fruits, decreased boll weight, and yellowing of fiber, all of which have an adverse effect on the yield and quality of the seed cotton. However, sensitivity toward salt stress is dependent on the salt type, cotton growth phase, and genotype. As the threat of salt stress continues to grow, it is crucial to gain a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying salt tolerance in plants and to identify potential avenues for enhancing the salt tolerance of cotton. The emergence of marker-assisted selection, in conjunction with next-generation sequencing technologies, has streamlined cotton breeding efforts. This review begins by providing an overview of the causes of salt stress in cotton, as well as the underlying theory of salt tolerance. Subsequently, it summarizes the breeding methods that utilize marker-assisted selection, genomic selection, and techniques for identifying elite salt-tolerant markers in wild species or mutated materials. Finally, novel cotton breeding possibilities based on the approaches stated above are presented and debated.

Genetic architecture of seed glycerolipids in Asian cultivated rice

Glycerolipids are essential for rice development and grain quality but its genetic regulation remains unknown. Here we report its genetic base using metabolite-based genome-wide association study and metabolite-based quantitative traits locus (QTL) analyses based on lipidomic profiles of seeds from 587 Asian cultivated rice accessions and 103 chromosomal segment substitution lines, respectively. We found that two genes encoding phosphatidylcholine (PC):diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase (OsLP1) and granule-bound starch synthase I (Waxy) contribute to variations in saturated triacylglycerol (TAG) and lyso-PC contents, respectively. We demonstrated that allelic variation in OsLP1 sequence between indica and japonica results in different enzymatic preference for substrate PC-16:0/16:0 and different saturated TAG levels. Further evidence demonstrated that OsLP1 also affects heading date, and that co-selection of OsLP1 and a flooding-tolerant QTL in Aus results in the abundance of saturated TAGs associated with flooding tolerance. Moreover, we revealed that the sequence polymorphisms in Waxy has pleiotropic effects on lyso-PC and amylose content. We proposed that rice seed glycerolipids have been unintentionally shaped during natural and artificial selection for adaptive or import seed quality traits. Collectively, our findings provide valuable genetic resources for rice improvement and evolutionary insights into seed glycerolipid variations in rice.

A stress-inducible protein regulates drought tolerance and flowering time in Brachypodium and Arabidopsis

To cope with environmental stresses and ensure maximal reproductive success, plants have developed strategies to adjust the timing of their transition to reproductive growth. This has a substantial impact on the stress resilience of crops and ultimately on agricultural productivity. Here, we report a previously uncharacterized, plant-specific gene family designated as Regulator of Flowering and Stress (RFS). Overexpression of the BdRFS gene in Brachypodium distachyon delayed flowering, increased biomass accumulation, and promoted drought tolerance, whereas clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9)-mediated knockout mutants exhibited opposite phenotypes. A double T-DNA insertional mutant in the two Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) homologs replicated the effects on flowering and water deprivation seen in the B. distachyon CRISPR knockout lines, highlighting the functional conservation of the family between monocots and dicots. Lipid analysis of B. distachyon and Arabidopsis revealed that digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) contents were significantly, and reciprocally, altered in overexpressor and knockout mutants. Importantly, alteration of C16:0-containing PC, a Flowering Locus T-interacting lipid, associated with flowering phenotype, with elevated levels corresponding to earlier flowering. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis suggested that BdRFS interacts with phospholipase Dα1 as well as several other abscisic acid-related proteins. Furthermore, reduction of C18:3 fatty acids in DGDG corresponded with reduced jasmonic acid metabolites in CRISPR mutants. Collectively, we suggest that stress-inducible RFS proteins represent a regulatory component of lipid metabolism that impacts several agronomic traits of biotechnological importance.

Widely targeted metabolite profiling of mango stem apex during floral induction by compond of mepiquat chloride, prohexadione-calcium and uniconazole

Background

Insufficient low temperatures in winter and soil residues caused by paclobutrazol (PBZ) application pose a considerable challenge for mango floral induction (FI). Gibberellin inhibitors SPD (compound of mepiquat chloride, prohexadione-calcium and uniconazole) had a significant influence on enhancing the flowering rate and yield of mango for two consecutive years (2020-2021). Researchers have indicated that FI is regulated at the metabolic level; however, little is known about the metabolic changes during FI in response to SPD treatment.

Methods

Here, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS)-based widely targeted metabolomic analysis was carried out to assess the metabolic differences in the mango stem apex during different stage of mango FI (30, 80, 100 days after SPD/water treatment).

Results

A total of 582 compounds were annotated and 372 metabolites showed two-fold differences in abundance (variable importance in projection, VIP ≥ 1 and fold change, FC≥ 2 or≤ 0.5) between buds at 30, 80, 100 days after SPD/water treatment or between buds under different treatment. Lipids, phenolic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and vitamins were among metabolites showing significant differences over time after SPD treatment. Here, 18 out of 20 lipids, including the lysophosphatidylethanolamine (12, LPE), lysophosphatidylcholine (7, LPC), and free fatty acids (1, FA), were significantly upregulated from 80 to 100 days after SPD treatment comared to water treatment. Meanwhile, the dormancy release of mango buds from 80 to 100 days after SPD treatment was accompanied by the accumulation of proline, ascorbic acid, carbohydrates, and tannins. In addition, metabolites, such as L-homocysteine, L-histidine, and L-homomethionine, showed more than a ten-fold difference in relative abundance from 30 to 100 days after SPD treatment, however, there were no significant changes after water treatment. The present study reveals novel metabolites involved in mango FI in response to SPD, which would provide a theoretical basis for utilizing SPD to induce mango flowering.

Towards a Discovery of a Zinc-Dependent Phosphate Transport Road in Plants

Owing to the impending global scarcity of high-quality sources of phosphate (Pi) fertilizers, lowering its use in crop production requires improved insights into factors stimulating Pi uptake from the soil as well as the efficacious use by plants. Following decades of extensive research on plants' adaptation to Pi deficiency with mitigated success in the field, a better understanding of how plants exposed to zinc (Zn) deficiency accumulate much more Pi provides a novel strategy in comparison to when plants are grown in Zn-rich soils. In this context, we review current knowledge and molecular events involved in the Pi and Zn signaling crosstalk in plants that will bear great significance for agronomical and rudimentary research applications.

Role of metabolites in flower development and discovery of compounds controlling flowering time

Flowering is one of the most important physiological processes of plants that ensures continuity of genetic flow from one generation to the next and also maintains food security. Therefore, impact of various climate-related abiotic stresses on flowering have been assessed to evaluate the long-term impact of global climate change. In contrast to the enormous volume of research that has been conducted at the genetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and protein level, much less attention has been paid to understand the role of various metabolites in flower induction and floral organ development during normal growth or in stressed environmental condition. This review article aims at summarizing information on various primary (e.g., carbohydrates, lipids, fatty acid derivatives, protein and amino acids) and secondary metabolites (e.g., polyamines, phenolics, neuro-indoles, phenylpropanoid, flavonoids and terpenes) that have so far been identified either during flower induction or in individual floral organs implying their possible role in organ development. Specialized metabolites responsible for flower colour, scent and shape to support plant-pollinator interaction have been extensively reviewed by many research groups and hence are not considered in this article. Many of the metabolites discussed here may be used as metabolomarkers to identify tolerant crop genotypes. Several agrochemicals have been successfully used to release endodormancy in temperate trees. Along the same line, a strategy that combines metabolite profiling, screening of small-molecule libraries, and structural alteration of selected compounds has been proposed in order to identify novel lead compounds that can regulate flowering time when applied exogenously.

Leveraging orthology within maize and Arabidopsis QTL to identify genes affecting natural variation in gravitropism

Plants typically orient their organs with respect to the Earth's gravity field by a dynamic process called gravitropism. To discover conserved genetic elements affecting seedling root gravitropism, we measured the process in a set of Zea mays (maize) recombinant inbred lines with machine vision and compared the results with those obtained in a similar study of Arabidopsis thaliana. Each of the several quantitative trait loci that we mapped in both species spanned many hundreds of genes, too many to test individually for causality. We reasoned that orthologous genes may be responsible for natural variation in monocot and dicot root gravitropism. If so, pairs of orthologous genes affecting gravitropism may be present within the maize and Arabidopsis QTL intervals. A reciprocal comparison of sequences within the QTL intervals identified seven pairs of such one-to-one orthologs. Analysis of knockout mutants demonstrated a role in gravitropism for four of the seven: CCT2 functions in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, ATG5 functions in membrane remodeling during autophagy, UGP2 produces the substrate for cellulose and callose polymer extension, and FAMA is a transcription factor. Automated phenotyping enabled this discovery of four naturally varying components of a conserved process (gravitropism) by making it feasible to conduct the same large-scale experiment in two species.

Degradation of ribosomal and chaperone proteins is attenuated during the differentiation of replicatively aged C2C12 myoblasts

BACKGROUND

Cell assays are important for investigating the mechanisms of ageing, including losses in protein homeostasis and 'proteostasis collapse'. We used novel isotopic labelling and proteomic methods to investigate protein turnover in replicatively aged (>140 population doublings) murine C2C12 myoblasts that exhibit impaired differentiation and serve as a model for age-related declines in muscle homeostasis.

METHODS

The Absolute Dynamic Profiling Technique for Proteomics (Proteo-ADPT) was used to investigate proteostasis in young (passage 6-10) and replicatively aged (passage 48-50) C2C12 myoblast cultures supplemented with deuterium oxide (D₂ O) during early (0-24 h) or late (72-96 h) periods of differentiation. Peptide mass spectrometry was used to quantify the absolute rates of abundance change, synthesis and degradation of individual proteins.

RESULTS

Young cells exhibited a consistent ~25% rise in protein accretion over the 96-h experimental period. In aged cells, protein accretion increased by 32% (P < 0.05) during early differentiation, but then fell back to baseline levels by 96-h. Proteo-ADPT encompassed 116 proteins and 74 proteins exhibited significantly (P < 0.05, FDR < 5% interaction between age × differentiation stage) different changes in abundance between young and aged cells at early and later periods of differentiation, including proteins associated with translation, glycolysis, cell-cell adhesion, ribosomal biogenesis, and the regulation of cell shape. During early differentiation, heat shock and ribosomal protein abundances increased in aged cells due to suppressed degradation rather than heightened synthesis. For instance, HS90A increased at a rate of 10.62 ± 1.60 ng/well/h in aged which was significantly greater than the rate of accretion (1.86 ± 0.49 ng/well/h) in young cells. HS90A synthesis was similar in young (21.23 ± 3.40 ng/well/h) and aged (23.69 ± 1.13 ng/well/h), but HS90A degradation was significantly (P = 0.05) greater in young (19.37 ± 2.93 ng/well/h) versus aged (13.06 ± 0.76 ng/well/h) cells. During later differentiation the HS90A degradation (8.94 ± 0.38 ng/well/h) and synthesis (7.89 ± 1.28 ng/well/h) declined and were significantly less than the positive net balance between synthesis and degradation (synthesis = 28.14 ± 3.70 ng/well/h vs. degradation = 21.49 ± 3.13 ng/well/h) in young cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a loss of proteome quality as a precursor to the lack of fusion of aged myoblasts. The quality of key chaperone proteins, including HS90A, HS90B and HSP7C was reduced in aged cells and may account for the disruption to cell signalling required for the later stages of differentiation and fusion.

Structural changes and adaptative evolutionary constraints in FLOWERING LOCUS T and TERMINAL FLOWER1-like genes of flowering plants

Regulation of flowering is a crucial event in the evolutionary history of angiosperms. The production of flowers is regulated through the integration of different environmental and endogenous stimuli, many of which involve the activation of different genes in a hierarchical and complex signaling network. The FLOWERING LOCUS T/TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (FT/TFL1) gene family is known to regulate important aspects of flowering in plants. To better understand the pivotal events that changed FT and TFL1 functions during the evolution of angiosperms, we reconstructed the ancestral sequences of FT/TFL1-like genes and predicted protein structures through in silico modeling to identify determinant sites that evolved in both proteins and allowed the adaptative diversification in the flowering phenology and developmental processes. In addition, we demonstrate that the occurrence of destabilizing mutations in residues located at the phosphatidylcholine binding sites of FT structure are under positive selection, and some residues of 4th exon are under negative selection, which is compensated by the occurrence of stabilizing mutations in key regions and the P-loop to maintain the overall protein stability. Our results shed light on the evolutionary history of key genes involved in the diversification of angiosperms.

Nitrated Fatty-Acids Distribution in Storage Biomolecules during Arabidopsis thaliana Development

The non-enzymatic interaction of polyunsaturated fatty acids with nitric oxide (NO) and derived species results in the formation of nitrated fatty acids (NO₂-FAs). These signaling molecules can release NO, reversibly esterify with complex lipids, and modulate protein function through the post-translational modification called nitroalkylation. To date, NO₂-FAs act as signaling molecules during plant development in plant systems and are involved in defense responses against abiotic stress conditions. In this work, the previously unknown storage biomolecules of NO₂-FAs in Arabidopsis thaliana were identified. In addition, the distribution of NO₂-FAs in storage biomolecules during plant development was determined, with phytosterol esters (SE) and TAGs being reservoir biomolecules in seeds, which were replaced by phospholipids and proteins in the vegetative, generative, and senescence stages. The detected esterified NO₂-FAs were nitro-linolenic acid (NO₂-Ln), nitro-oleic acid (NO₂-OA), and nitro-linoleic acid (NO₂-LA). The last two were detected for the first time in Arabidopsis. The levels of the three NO₂-FAs that were esterified in both lipid and protein storage biomolecules showed a decreasing pattern throughout Arabidopsis development. Esterification of NO₂-FAs in phospholipids and proteins highlights their involvement in both biomembrane dynamics and signaling processes, respectively, during Arabidopsis plant development.

Cytidinediphosphate diacylglycerol synthase—Mediated phosphatidic acid metabolism is crucial for early embryonic development of Arabidopsis

Embryonic development is a key developmental event in plant sexual reproduction; however, regulatory networks of plant early embryonic development, particularly the effects and functional mechanisms of phospholipid molecules are still unknown due to the limitation of sample collection and analysis. We innovatively applied the microspore-derived in vitro embryogenesis of Brassica napus and revealed the dynamics of phospholipid molecules, especially phosphatidic acid (PA, an important second messenger that plays an important role in plant growth, development, and stress responses), at different embryonic developmental stages by using a lipidomics approach. Further analysis of Arabidopsis mutants deficiency of CDS1 and CDS2 (cytidinediphosphate diacylglycerol synthase, key protein in PA metabolism) revealed the delayed embryonic development from the proembryo stage, indicating the crucial effect of CDS and PA metabolism in early embryonic development. Decreased auxin level and disturbed polar localization of auxin efflux carrier PIN1 implicate that CDS-mediated PA metabolism may regulate early embryogenesis through modulating auxin transport and distribution. These results demonstrate the dynamics and importance of phospholipid molecules during embryo development, and provide informative clues to elucidate the regulatory network of embryogenesis.

As an important stage of plant life cycle, embryogenesis initiates with fertilization and terminates with embryo maturation, and plays important roles for seed development. In Arabidopsis, embryogenesis can be divided into three general phases during which distinct developmental and physiological events occur: proembryo stage that starts with asymmetric division of zygote, the transition from globular to heart stage, and late embryogenesis which is marked by organ expansion and maturation. Genetics studies have identified the genes and network that play important regulatory roles in embryogenesis, however, effects and functional mechanisms of phospholipids molecules, the major building blocks of cell membranes and signal transduction cascades in mammals and plants, in embryogenesis remain unknown. To overcome the limitation of sample collection, we innovatively applied the microspore-derived in vitro embryogenesis of Brassica napus and revealed the dynamics of phospholipid molecules, especially phosphatidic acid (PA) at different embryonic developmental stages by using a lipidomics approach. Further genetics analysis revealed the crucial effect of CDS (cytidinediphosphate diacylglycerol synthase, key protein in PA metabolism)—mediated PA metabolism in early embryonic development through modulating auxin transport and distribution, demonstrating the dynamics and importance of phospholipid molecules during embryo development.

An adaptive teosinte mexicana introgression modulates phosphatidylcholine levels and is associated with maize flowering time

Native Americans domesticated maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) from lowland teosinte parviglumis (Zea mays ssp. parviglumis) in the warm Mexican southwest and brought it to the highlands of Mexico and South America where it was exposed to lower temperatures that imposed strong selection on flowering time. Phospholipids are important metabolites in plant responses to low-temperature and phosphorus availability and have been suggested to influence flowering time. Here, we combined linkage mapping with genome scans to identify High PhosphatidylCholine 1 (HPC1), a gene that encodes a phospholipase A1 enzyme, as a major driver of phospholipid variation in highland maize. Common garden experiments demonstrated strong genotype-by-environment interactions associated with variation at HPC1, with the highland HPC1 allele leading to higher fitness in highlands, possibly by hastening flowering. The highland maize HPC1 variant resulted in impaired function of the encoded protein due to a polymorphism in a highly conserved sequence. A meta-analysis across HPC1 orthologs indicated a strong association between the identity of the amino acid at this position and optimal growth in prokaryotes. Mutagenesis of HPC1 via genome editing validated its role in regulating phospholipid metabolism. Finally, we showed that the highland HPC1 allele entered cultivated maize by introgression from the wild highland teosinte Zea mays ssp. mexicana and has been maintained in maize breeding lines from the Northern United States, Canada, and Europe. Thus, HPC1 introgressed from teosinte mexicana underlies a large metabolic QTL that modulates phosphatidylcholine levels and has an adaptive effect at least in part via induction of early flowering time.

Phospholipids and flowering regulation

A better understanding of how plants adjust their flowering under unfavourable environmental conditions is key to developing climate-resilient crops. Recently, Susila et al. demonstrated that phospholipids controlling the transport of florigen (FLOWERING LOCUS T; FT) act as an additional layer to prevent flowering under unfavourable conditions.

Combining analyses of metabolite profiles and phosphorus fractions to explore high phosphorus utilization efficiency in maize

Phosphorus (P) limitation is a significant factor restricting crop production in agricultural systems, and enhancing the internal P utilization efficiency (PUE) of crops plays an important role in ensuring sustainable P use in agriculture. To better understand how P is remobilized to affect crop growth, we first screened P-efficient (B73 and GEMS50) and P-inefficient (Liao5114) maize genotypes at the same shoot P content, and then analyzed P pools and performed non-targeted metabolomic analyses to explore changes in cellular P fractions and metabolites in maize genotypes with contrasting PUE. We show that lipid P and nucleic acid P concentrations were significantly lower in lower leaves of P-efficient genotypes, and these P pools were remobilized to a major extent in P-efficient genotypes. Broad metabolic alterations were evident in leaves of P-efficient maize genotypes, particularly affecting products of phospholipid turnover and phosphorylated compounds, and the shikimate biosynthesis pathway. Taken together, our results suggest that P-efficient genotypes have a high capacity to remobilize lipid P and nucleic acid P and promote the shikimate pathway towards efficient P utilization in maize.

In vitro Assays to Evaluate Specificity and Affinity in Protein-phospholipid Interactions

Protein-lipid interactions play important roles in many biological processes, including metabolism, signaling, and transport; however, computational and structural analyses often fail to predict such interactions, and determining which lipids participate in these interactions remains challenging. In vitro assays to assess the physical interaction between a protein of interest and a panel of phospholipids provide crucial information for predicting the functionality of these interactions in vivo. In this protocol, which we developed in the context of evaluating protein-lipid binding of the Arabidopsis thaliana florigen FLOWERING LOCUS T, we describe four independent in vitro experiments to determine the interaction of a protein with phospholipids: lipid-protein overlay assays, liposome binding assays, biotin-phospholipid pull-down assays, and fluorescence polarization assays. These complementary assays allow the researcher to test whether the protein of interest interacts with lipids in the test panel, identify the relevant lipids, and assess the strength of the interaction.

Roles of acyl-CoA-binding proteins in plant reproduction

Acyl-CoA-binding proteins (ACBPs) constitute a well-conserved family of proteins in eukaryotes that are important in stress responses and development. Past studies have shown that ACBPs are involved in maintaining, transporting and protecting acyl-CoA esters during lipid biosynthesis in plants, mammals, and yeast. ACBPs show differential expression and various binding affinities for acyl-CoA esters. Hence, ACBPs can play a crucial part in maintaining lipid homeostasis. This review summarizes the functions of ACBPs during the stages of reproduction in plants and other organisms. A comprehensive understanding on the roles of ACBPs during plant reproduction may lead to opportunities in crop improvement in agriculture.

Oxylipin signaling in salt-stressed soybean is modulated by ligand-dependent interaction of Class II acyl-CoA-binding proteins with lipoxygenase

Plant lipoxygenases (LOXs) oxygenate linoleic and linolenic acids, creating hydroperoxy derivatives, and from these, jasmonates and other oxylipins are derived. Despite the importance of oxylipin signaling, its activation mechanism remains largely unknown. Here, we show that soybean ACYL-COA-BINDING PROTEIN3 (ACBP3) and ACBP4, two Class II acyl-CoA-binding proteins, suppressed activity of the vegetative LOX homolog VLXB by sequestering it at the endoplasmic reticulum. The ACBP4-VLXB interaction was facilitated by linoleoyl-CoA and linolenoyl-CoA, which competed with phosphatidic acid (PA) for ACBP4 binding. In salt-stressed roots, alternative splicing produced ACBP variants incapable of VLXB interaction. Overexpression of the variants enhanced LOX activity and salt tolerance in Arabidopsis and soybean hairy roots, whereas overexpressors of the native forms exhibited reciprocal phenotypes. Consistently, the differential alternative splicing pattern in two soybean genotypes coincided with their difference in salt-induced lipid peroxidation. Salt-treated soybean roots were enriched in C32:0-PA species that showed high affinity to Class II ACBPs. We conclude that PA signaling and alternative splicing suppress ligand-dependent interaction of Class II ACBPs with VLXB, thereby triggering lipid peroxidation during salt stress. Hence, our findings unveil a dual mechanism that initiates the onset of oxylipin signaling in the salinity response.

A B73×Palomero Toluqueño mapping population reveals local adaptation in Mexican highland maize

Generations of farmer selection in the central Mexican highlands have produced unique maize varieties adapted to the challenges of the local environment. In addition to possessing great agronomic and cultural value, Mexican highland maize represents a good system for the study of local adaptation and acquisition of adaptive phenotypes under cultivation. In this study, we characterize a recombinant inbred line population derived from the B73 reference line and the Mexican highland maize variety Palomero Toluqueño. B73 and Palomero Toluqueño showed classic rank-changing differences in performance between lowland and highland field sites, indicative of local adaptation. Quantitative trait mapping identified genomic regions linked to effects on yield components that were conditionally expressed depending on the environment. For the principal genomic regions associated with ear weight and total kernel number, the Palomero Toluqueño allele conferred an advantage specifically in the highland site, consistent with local adaptation. We identified Palomero Toluqueño alleles associated with expression of characteristic highland traits, including reduced tassel branching, increased sheath pigmentation and the presence of sheath macrohairs. The oligogenic architecture of these three morphological traits supports their role in adaptation, suggesting they have arisen from consistent directional selection acting at distinct points across the genome. We discuss these results in the context of the origin of phenotypic novelty during selection, commenting on the role of de novo mutation and the acquisition of adaptive variation by gene flow from endemic wild relatives.

Phosphatidylcholine Enhances Homeostasis in Peach Seedling Cell Membrane and Increases Its Salt Stress Tolerance by Phosphatidic Acid

Salt stress is a major adverse abiotic factor seriously affecting fruit tree growth and development. It ultimately lowers fruit quality and reduces yield. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is an important cell membrane component that is critical for cell structure and membrane stability maintenance. In this study, we found that the addition of external PC sources significantly increased the tolerance of one-year-old peach trees, Prunus persica (L.) Batsch., to salt stress and attenuated their damage. The effect of exogenous application of 200 mg/L PC exerted the most significant positive effect. Its use caused seedling leaf stomatal opening, contributing to normal gas exchange. Moreover, beneficial effects were exerted also to the root system, which grew normally under salt stress. Meanwhile, phospholipase D activity in the cell was promoted. The production of phosphatidic acid (PA) was enhanced by increased decomposition of phospholipids; PA serves as a secondary messenger involved in plant biological process regulation and the reduction in the reactive oxygen species- and peroxide-induced damage caused by salt stress. The possible mechanism of action is via promoted plant osmotic regulation and tolerance to salt stress, reducing salt stress-induced injury to plants.

Florigen and its homologs of FT/CETS/PEBP/RKIP/YbhB family may be the enzymes of small molecule metabolism: review of the evidence

BACKGROUND

Flowering signals are sensed in plant leaves and transmitted to the shoot apical meristems, where the formation of flowers is initiated. Searches for a diffusible hormone-like signaling entity ("florigen") went on for many decades, until a product of plant gene FT was identified as the key component of florigen in the 1990s, based on the analysis of mutants, genetic complementation evidence, and protein and RNA localization studies. Sequence homologs of FT protein are found throughout prokaryotes and eukaryotes; some eukaryotic family members appear to bind phospholipids or interact with the components of the signal transduction cascades. Most FT homologs are known to share a constellation of five charged residues, three of which, i.e., two histidines and an aspartic acid, are located at the rim of a well-defined cavity on the protein surface.

RESULTS

We studied molecular features of the FT homologs in prokaryotes and analyzed their genome context, to find tentative evidence connecting the bacterial FT homologs with small molecule metabolism, often involving substrates that contain sugar or ribonucleoside moieties. We argue that the unifying feature of this protein family, i.e., a set of charged residues conserved at the sequence and structural levels, is more likely to be an enzymatic active center than a catalytically inert ligand-binding site.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that most of FT-related proteins are enzymes operating on small diffusible molecules. Those metabolites may constitute an overlooked essential ingredient of the florigen signal.

BUMPY STEM Is an Arabidopsis Choline/Ethanolamine Kinase Required for Normal Development and Chilling Responses

Phospholipid biosynthesis is a core metabolic pathway that affects all aspects of plant growth and development. One of the earliest step in this pathway is mediated by choline/ethanolamine kinases (CEKs), enzymes in the Kennedy pathway that catalyze the synthesis of the polar head groups found on the most abundant plant phospholipids. The Arabidopsis genome encodes four CEKs. CEK1-3 have been well characterized using viable mutants while CEK4 encodes an essential gene, making it difficult to characterize its effects on plant development and responses to the environment. We have isolated an EMS-induced allele of CEK4 called bumpy stem (bst). bst plants are viable, allowing the effects of decreased CEK4 function to be characterized throughout the Arabidopsis life cycle. bst mutants have a range of developmental defects including ectopic stem growths at the base of their flowers, reduced fertility, and short roots and stems. They are also sensitive to cold temperatures. Supplementation with choline, phosphocholine, ethanolamine, and phosphoethanolamine rescues bst root phenotypes, highlighting the flow of metabolites between the choline and ethanolamine branches of the Kennedy pathway. The identification of bst and characterization of its phenotypes defines new roles for CEK4 that go beyond its established biochemical function as an ethanolamine kinase.

Transcriptomic and physiological analysis reveals interplay between salicylic acid and drought stress in citrus tree floral initiation

Salicylic acid (SA) and drought stress promote more flowering in sweet orange. The physiological response and molecular mechanism underlying stress-induced floral initiation were discovered by transcriptome profiling. Numerous flowering-regulated genes were identified, and ectopically expressed CsLIP2A promotes early flowering in Arabidopsis. Floral initiation is a critical developmental mechanism associated with external factors, and citrus flowering is mainly regulated by drought stress. However, little is known about the intricate regulatory network involved in stress-induced flowering in citrus. To understand the molecular mechanism of floral initiation in citrus, flower induction was performed on potted Citrus sinensis trees under the combined treatment of salicylic acid (SA) and drought (DR). Physiological analysis revealed that SA treatment significantly normalized the drastic effect of drought stress by increasing antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, and CAT), relative leaf water content, total chlorophyll, and proline contents and promoting more flowering than drought treatment. Analysis of transcriptome changes in leaves from different treatments showed that 1135, 2728 and 957 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were revealed in response to DR, SD (SA + DR), and SA (SA + well water) treatments in comparison with the well watered plants, respectively. A total of 2415, 2318 and 1933 DEGs were expressed in DR, SD, and SA in comparison with water recovery, respectively. Some key flowering genes were more highly expressed in SA-treated drought plants than in DR-treated plants. GO enrichment revealed that SA treatment enhances the regulation and growth of meristem activity under drought conditions, but no such a pathway was found to be highly enriched in the control. Furthermore, we focused on various hormones, sugars, starch metabolism, and biosynthesis-related genes. The KEGG analysis demonstrated that DEGs enriched in starch sucrose metabolism and hormonal signal transduction pathways probably account for stress-induced floral initiation in citrus. In addition, a citrus LIPOYLTRANSFERSAE 2A homologous (LIP2A) gene was upregulated by SD treatment. Ectopic expression of CsLIP2A exhibited early flowering in transgenic Arabidopsis. Taken together, this study provides new insight that contributes to citrus tree floral initiation under the SA-drought scenario as well as an excellent reference for stress-induced floral initiation in woody trees.

A mutation in the pPLA-IIα gene encoding PATATIN-RELATED PHOSPHOLIPASE a causes late flowering in Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis PATATIN-RELATED PHOSPHOLIPASE 2A (pPLA-IIα) participates in the responses to various growth conditions. The factors affecting pPLA-IIα gene expression and pPLA-IIα protein activity for gycerolipids have been studied thoroughly, but the role of pPLA-IIα during the reproductive phase remains unclear. The effect of pPLA-IIα on flowering time was therefore investigated. ppla-iiα mutants flowered later than wild-type plants under long day conditions. Expression of the floral stimulators FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS1 (SOC1) was downregulated in ppla-iiα mutants compared with their expression in wild-type plants, but expression of the floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) was upregulated. In addition, expression levels of COLDAIR, a long intronic noncoding RNA, decreased in ppla-iiα mutants. Taken together, these data indicate that pPLA-IIα acts as a positive regulator of flowering time through repression of FLC expression.

A secretory phospholipase D hydrolyzes phosphatidylcholine to suppress rice heading time

Phospholipase D (PLD) hydrolyzes membrane phospholipids and is crucial in various physiological processes and transduction of different signals. Secretory phospholipases play important roles in mammals, however, whose functions in plants remain largely unknown. We previously identified a rice secretory PLD (spPLD) that harbors a signal peptide and here we reported the secretion and function of spPLD in rice heading time regulation. Subcellular localization analysis confirmed the signal peptide is indispensable for spPLD secretion into the extracellular spaces, where spPLD hydrolyzes substrates. spPLD overexpression results in delayed heading time which is dependent on its secretory character, while suppression or deficiency of spPLD led to the early heading of rice under both short-day and long-day conditions, which is consistent with that spPLD overexpression/suppression indeed led to the reduced/increased Hd3a/RFT1 (Arabidopsis Flowing Locus T homolog) activities. Interestingly, rice Hd3a and RFT1 bind to phosphatidylcholines (PCs) and a further analysis by lipidomic approach using mass spectrometry revealed the altered phospholipids profiles in shoot apical meristem, particularly the PC species, under altered spPLD expressions. These results indicate the significance of secretory spPLD and help to elucidate the regulatory network of rice heading time.

Secretory phospholipases play essential roles in physiological processes of mammals, while functions of them in plants remain unknown. We identified a rice secretory PLD (spPLD) harboring a signal peptide which is indispensable for secretion of spPLD. Functional studies showed that altered spPLD expression resulted in the changed heading time of rice under both short-day and long-day conditions, which is dependent on the secretory character of spPLD. Rice Hd3a and RFT1, the homologs of Arabidopsis Flowing Locus T (FT), bind to phosphatidylcholine (PC) to promote heading. Analysis of phospholipids profiles in shoot apical meristem by using a mass spectrometry-based lipidomic approach demonstrated that spPLD regulates heading time by hydrolyzing the light period-predominant PC species, further revealing the crucial role of secretory proteins in regulating plant growth and development.

Lipid-mediated regulation of flowering time

[Figure: see text].

Florigen sequestration in cellular membranes modulates temperature-responsive flowering

[Figure: see text].

At4g29530 is a phosphoethanolamine phosphatase homologous to PECP1 with a role in flowering time regulation

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) are the most abundant phospholipids in membranes. The biosynthesis of phospholipids occurs mainly via the Kennedy pathway. Recent studies have shown that through this pathway, choline (Cho) moieties are synthesized through the methylation of phosphoethanolamine (PEtn) to phosphocholine (PCho) by phospho-base N-methyltransferase. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the phosphoethanolamine/phosphocholine phosphatase1 (PECP1) is described as an enzyme that regulates the synthesis of PCho by decreasing the PEtn level during phosphate starvation to avoid the energy-consuming methylation step. By homology search, we identified a gene (At4g29530) encoding a putative PECP1 homolog from Arabidopsis with a currently unknown biological function in planta. We found that At4g29530 is not induced by phosphate starvation, and is mainly expressed in leaves and flowers. The analysis of null mutants and overexpression lines revealed that PEtn, rather than PCho, is the substrate in vivo, as in PECP1. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry analysis of head group metabolites shows an increased PEtn level and decreased ethanolamine level in null mutants. At4g29530 null mutants have an early flowering phenotype, which is corroborated by a higher PC/PE ratio. Furthermore, we found an increased PCho level. The choline level was not changed, so the results corroborate that the PEtn-dependent pathway is the main route for the generation of Cho moieties. We assume that the PEtn-hydrolyzing enzyme participates in fine-tuning the metabolic pathway, and helps prevent the energy-consuming biosynthesis of PCho through the methylation pathway.

An Arabidopsis lipid map reveals differences between tissues and dynamic changes throughout development

Mass spectrometry is the predominant analytical tool used in the field of plant lipidomics. However, there are many challenges associated with the mass spectrometric detection and identification of lipids because of the highly complex nature of plant lipids. Studies into lipid biosynthetic pathways, gene functions in lipid metabolism, lipid changes during plant growth and development, and the holistic examination of the role of plant lipids in environmental stress responses are often hindered. Here, we leveraged a robust pipeline that we previously established to extract and analyze lipid profiles of different tissues and developmental stages from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. We analyzed seven tissues at several different developmental stages and identified more than 200 lipids from each tissue analyzed. The data were used to create a web-accessible in silico lipid map that has been integrated into an electronic Fluorescent Pictograph (eFP) browser. This in silico library of Arabidopsis lipids allows the visualization and exploration of the distribution and changes of lipid levels across selected developmental stages. Furthermore, it provides information on the characteristic fragments of lipids and adducts observed in the mass spectrometer and their retention times, which can be used for lipid identification. The Arabidopsis tissue lipid map can be accessed at http://bar.utoronto.ca/efp_arabidopsis_lipid/cgi-bin/efpWeb.cgi.

Collection and Analysis of Phloem Lipids

The plant phloem is a long-distance conduit for the transport of assimilates but also of mobile developmental and stress signals. These signals can be sugars, metabolites, amino acids, peptides, proteins, microRNA, or mRNA. Yet small lipophilic molecules such as oxylipins and, more recently, phospholipids have emerged as possible long-distance signals as well. Analysis of phloem (phospho)lipids, however, requires enrichment, purification, and sensitive analysis. This chapter describes the EDTA-facilitated approach of phloem exudate collection, phase partitioning against chloroform-methanol for lipid separation and enrichment, and analysis/identification of phloem lipids using LC-MS with multiplexed collision induced dissociation (CID).

Transcriptome Profile Analysis of Strawberry Leaves Reveals Flowering Regulation under Blue Light Treatment

Blue light is an important signal that regulates the flowering of strawberry plants. To reveal the mechanism of early flowering under blue light treatment at the transcriptional regulation level, seedlings of cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) "Benihoppe" were subjected to a white light treatment (WL) and blue light treatment (BL) until their flowering. To detect the expression patterns of genes in response to BL, a transcriptome analysis was performed based on RNA-Seq. The results identified a total of 6875 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that responded to BL, consisting of 3138 (45.64%) downregulated ones and 3737 (54.36%) upregulated ones. These DEGs were significantly enriched into 98 GO terms and 71 KEGG pathways based on gene function annotation. Among the DEGs, the expression levels of genes that might participate in light signaling (PhyB, PIFs, and HY5) and circadian rhythm (FKF1, CCA1, LHY, and CO) in plants were altered under BL. The BBX transcription factors which responded to BL were also identified. The result showed that the FaBBX29, one of strawberry's BBX family genes, may play an important role in flowering regulation. Our results provide a timely, comprehensive view and a reliable reference data resource for further study of flowering regulation under different light qualities.

Phosphorus deprivation affects composition and spatial distribution of membrane lipids in legume nodules

In legumes, symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation (SNF) occurs in specialized organs called nodules after successful interactions between legume hosts and rhizobia. In a nodule, N-fixing rhizobia are surrounded by symbiosome membranes, through which the exchange of nutrients and ammonium occurs between bacteria and the host legume. Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient, and N2-fixing legumes have a higher requirement for P than legumes grown on mineral N. As in the previous studies, in P deficiency, barrel medic (Medicago truncatula) plants had impaired SNF activity, reduced growth, and accumulated less phosphate in leaves, roots, and nodules compared with the plants grown in P sufficient conditions. Membrane lipids in M. truncatula tissues were assessed using electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry. Galactolipids were found to increase in P deficiency, with declines in phospholipids (PL), especially in leaves. Lower PL losses were found in roots and nodules. Subsequently, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry imaging was used to spatially map the distribution of the positively charged phosphatidylcholine (PC) species in nodules in both P-replete and P-deficient conditions. Our results reveal heterogeneous distribution of several PC species in nodules, with homogeneous distribution of other PC classes. In P poor conditions, some PC species distributions were observed to change. The results suggest that specific PC species may be differentially important in diverse nodule zones and cell types, and that membrane lipid remodeling during P stress is not uniform across the nodule.

PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOLAMINE-BINDING PROTEINS: the conductors of dual reproduction in plants with vegetative storage organs

Geophytes, the plants that form vegetative storage organs, are characterized by a dual reproduction system, in which vegetative and sexual propagation are tightly regulated to ensure fitness in harsh climatic conditions. Recent findings highlight the role of the PEBP (PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOLAMINE-BINDING PROTEIN) gene family in geophytes as major players in the molecular cascades underlying both types of reproduction. In this review, we briefly explain the life cycle and reproduction strategies of different geophytes and what is known about the physiological aspects related to these processes. Subsequently, an in-depth overview is provided of the molecular and genetic pathways driving these processes. In the evolution of plants, the PEBP gene family has expanded, followed by neo- and subfunctionalization. Careful characterization revealed that differential expression and differential protein complex formation provide the members of this gene family with unique functions, enabling them to mediate the crosstalk between the two reproductive events in geophytes in response to environmental and endogenous cues. Taking all these studies into account, we propose to regard the PEBPs as conductors of geophyte reproductive development.

Overexpression of the CmJAZ1-like gene delays flowering in Chrysanthemum morifolium

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is one of the four major cut-flower plants worldwide and possesses both high ornamental value and cultural connotation. As most chrysanthemum varieties flower in autumn, it is costly to achieve annual production. JAZ genes in the TIFY family are core components of the jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway; in addition to playing a pivotal role in plant responses to defense, they are also widely implicated in regulating plant development processes. Here, we characterized the TIFY family gene CmJAZ1-like from the chrysanthemum cultivar 'Jinba'. CmJAZ1-like localizes in the nucleus and has no transcriptional activity in yeast. Tissue expression pattern analysis indicated that CmJAZ1-like was most active in the root and shoot apex. Overexpressing CmJAZ1-like with Jas domain deletion in chrysanthemum resulted in late flowering. RNA-Seq analysis of the overexpression lines revealed some differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in flowering, such as the homologs of the flowering integrators FT and SOC1, an FUL homolog involved in flower meristem identity, AP2 domain-containing transcription factors, MADS box genes, and autonomous pathway-related genes. Based on KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, the differentially transcribed genes were enriched in carbohydrate metabolic and fatty acid-related pathways, which are notable for their role in flowering in plants. This study preliminarily verified the function of CmJAZ1-like in chrysanthemum flowering, and the results can be used in molecular breeding programs aimed at flowering time regulation of chrysanthemum.

The interplay of phloem-mobile signals in plant development and stress response

Plants integrate a variety of biotic and abiotic factors for optimal growth in their given environment. While some of these responses are local, others occur distally. Hence, communication of signals perceived in one organ to a second, distal part of the plant and the coordinated developmental response require an intricate signaling system. To do so, plants developed a bipartite vascular system that mediates the uptake of water, minerals, and nutrients from the soil; transports high-energy compounds and building blocks; and traffics essential developmental and stress signals. One component of the plant vasculature is the phloem. The development of highly sensitive mass spectrometry and molecular methods in the last decades has enabled us to explore the full complexity of the phloem content. As a result, our view of the phloem has evolved from a simple transport path of photoassimilates to a major highway for pathogens, hormones and developmental signals. Understanding phloem transport is essential to comprehend the coordination of environmental inputs with plant development and, thus, ensure food security. This review discusses recent developments in its role in long-distance signaling and highlights the role of some of the signaling molecules. What emerges is an image of signaling paths that do not just involve single molecules but rather, quite frequently an interplay of several distinct molecular classes, many of which appear to be transported and acting in concert.

Headgroup biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine in seed plants

Phospholipid biosynthesis is crucial for plant growth and development. It involves attachment of fatty acids to a phospho-diacylglycerol backbone and modification of the phospho-group into an amino alcohol. The biochemistry and molecular biology of the former has been well established, but a number of enzymes responsible for the latter have only recently been cloned and functionally characterized in Arabidopsis and some other model plant species. The metabolism involving the polar head groups of phospholipids established by past biochemical studies can now be validated by available gene knockout models. Moreover, gene knockout studies have revealed emerging functions of phospholipids in regulating plant growth and development. This review aims to revisit the old questions of polar headgroup biosynthesis of plant phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine by giving an overview of recent advances in the field and beyond.

PHOSPHORYLETHANOLAMINE CYTIDYLYLTRANSFERASE 1 modulates flowering in a florigen-independent manner by regulating SVP

PHOSPHORYLETHANOLAMINE CYTIDYLYLTRANSFERASE 1 (PECT1) regulates phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthesis and controls the phosphatidylethanolamine:phosphatidylcholine ratio in Arabidopsis thaliana Previous studies have suggested that PECT1 regulates flowering time by modulating the interaction between phosphatidylcholine and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), a florigen, in the shoot apical meristem (SAM). Here, we show that knockdown of PECT1 by artificial microRNA in the SAM (pFD::amiR-PECT1) accelerated flowering under inductive and even non-inductive conditions, in which FT transcription is almost absent, and in ft-10 twin sister of ft-1 double mutants under both conditions. Transcriptome analyses suggested that PECT1 affects flowering by regulating SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) and GIBBERELLIN 20 OXIDASE 2 (GA20ox2). SVP misexpression in the SAM suppressed the early flowering of pFD::amiR-PECT1 plants. pFD::amiR-PECT1 plants showed increased gibberellin (GA) levels in the SAM, concomitant with the reduction of REPRESSOR OF GA1-3 levels. Consistent with this, GA treatment had little effect on flowering time of pFD::amiR-PECT1 plants and the GA antagonist paclobutrazol strongly affected flowering in these plants. Together, these results suggest that PECT1 also regulates flowering time through a florigen-independent pathway, modulating SVP expression and thus regulating GA production.