Adiponectin gene therapy ameliorates high-fat, high-sucrose diet-induced metabolic perturbations in mice. Nutr Diabetes. 2012;2:e45. [PMID: 23446660 PMCID: PMC3461354 DOI: 10.1038/nutd.2012.18]

Associations Between Adiponectin and the Development of Diabetes in Rheumatoid Arthritis

PURPOSE

We evaluated associations between adiponectin and the risk of diabetes among patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a systemic inflammatory disease associated with metabolic disturbance.

METHODS

This prospective cohort study included adults with RA from the Veterans Affairs Rheumatoid Arthritis Registry. Adiponectin and inflammatory cytokines/chemokines were measured at enrollment on stored serum samples. Adiponectin levels were categorized, and clinical variables were described across categories (<10 μg/mL; 10-40 μg/mL; >40 μg/mL). Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models evaluated associations between adiponectin and incident diabetes adjusting for age, sex, race, smoking status, body mass index (BMI), disease-modifying therapy use, calendar year, and comorbidity. Testing for modification of effect in the context of elevated cytokines/chemokines was performed.

RESULTS

Among 2595 patients included in the analysis, those with adiponectin levels >40 μg/mL (N = 379; 15%) were older and had lower BMI. There were 125 new cases of diabetes among 1689 patients without prevalent disease at enrollment. There was an inverse association between adiponectin and incident diabetes; however, the association was positive among patients with adiponectin levels >40 μg/mL. Patients with levels >40 μg/mL were at higher risk compared to those with levels 10-40 μg/mL (HR: 1.70 [1.34, 2.16] P < .001). Those with adiponectin levels >40 μg/mL had significantly higher levels of inflammatory cytokines with evidence of a modified effect of adiponectin on diabetes risk in the setting of inflammation.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between adiponectin and incident diabetes risk is U-shaped in RA. Patients with very high adiponectin levels have greater systemic inflammation and an altered relationship between adiponectin and diabetes risk.

The Role of Adipocytes Recruited as Part of Tumor Microenvironment in Promoting Colorectal Cancer Metastases

Adipose tissue dysfunction, which is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer (CRC), is a significant factor in the pathophysiology of obesity. Obesity-related inflammation and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling promote colorectal cancer metastasis (CRCM) by shaping the tumor microenvironment (TME). When CRC occurs, the metabolic symbiosis of tumor cells recruits adjacent adipocytes into the TME to supply energy. Meanwhile, abundant immune cells, from adipose tissue and blood, are recruited into the TME, which is stimulated by pro-inflammatory factors and triggers a chronic local pro-inflammatory TME. Dysregulated ECM proteins and cell surface adhesion molecules enhance ECM remodeling and further increase contractibility between tumor and stromal cells, which promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT increases tumor migration and invasion into surrounding tissues or vessels and accelerates CRCM. Colorectal symbiotic microbiota also plays an important role in the promotion of CRCM. In this review, we provide adipose tissue and its contributions to CRC, with a special emphasis on the role of adipocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, T cells, ECM, and symbiotic gut microbiota in the progression of CRC and their contributions to the CRC microenvironment. We highlight the interactions between adipocytes and tumor cells, and potential therapeutic approaches to target these interactions.

Hormonal regulation of visfatin and adiponectin system in quail muscle cells

Visfatin and adiponectin are two adipokines known to regulate energy homeostasis and stress response within different peripheral tissues. Their role and regulation in highly metabolically active tissue such as the muscle is of particular interest. As modern poultry exhibit insulin resistance, obesity, and hyperglycemia along with a lack of insight into the regulation of these avian adipokines, we undertook the present work to determine the regulation of visfatin and adiponectin system by cytokines and obesity-related hormones in a relevant in vitro model of avian muscle, quail muscle (QM7) cells. Cells were treated with pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 (5 and 10 ng/mL) and TNFα (5 and 10 ng/mL), as well as leptin (10 and 100 ng/mL) and both orexin-A and orexin-B (ORX-A/B) (5 and 10 ng/mL). Results showed significant increases in visfatin mRNA abundance under both cytokines (IL-6 and TNFα), and down regulation with ORX-B treatment. Adiponectin expression was also upregulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNFα), but down regulated by leptin, ORX-A, and ORXB. High doses of IL-6 and TNFα up regulated the expression of adiponectin receptors AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, respectively. Leptin and orexin treatments also down regulated both AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 expression. Taken together, this is the first report showing a direct response of visfatin and the adiponectin system to pro-inflammatory and obesity-related hormones in avian muscle cells.

Body composition in patients with heart failure

The redistribution of body composition components in heart failure (CHF) is an urgent and poorly understood issue. Despite the significant impact of a decrease in muscle mass, redistribution of fat mass on the course and prognosis of HF, body composition is rarely taken into account in the treatment of this disease. In this regard, the purpose of this review was to systematize the available data and draw the attention of clinicians to this problem. The data presented in the review make it possible to consider the components of body composition as controllable factors, the normalization of which improves the prognosis in patients with HF. The study of pathophysiological mechanisms for the development of body composition anomalies in HF will make it possible to search for new therapeutic targets. Assessment of body composition will make it possible to develop an individual strategy for the treatment of HF, including a set of non-drug measures.

Activation of POMC neurons to adiponectin participating in EA-mediated improvement of high-fat diet IR mice

Background

Insulin resistance (IR) is one of the common pathological manifestations of metabolic-related diseases, and the prevalence of relevant diseases is high. Acupuncture is beneficial to IR patients, but the central mechanism underlying this treatment remains unclear. This study provides mechanistic insights into how electroacupuncture (EA) improves IR through the response of Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons to adiponectin (Adipo).

Methods

Glucose tolerance tests (GTT), Insulin tolerance tests (ITT) and fasting blood glucose (FBG) were detected by glucometer. Serum insulin, Adipo and skeletal muscle adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) protein levels were examined by ELISA. Homeostasis model assessment estimated insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was calculated using the following formula: HOMA-IR = fasting insulin (FINS) (mU/L) × FBG (mmol/L)/22.5. The expression levels of AdipoR1 and Adipo mRNA in skeletal muscle were detected by real-time PCR quantification. The co-marking of c-Fos/AdipoR1 and POMC neurons were investigated using immunofluorescence. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) of POMC neurons and the response of POMC neurons to Adipo were detected via electrophysiology.

Results

EA significantly ameliorated HFD-induced impairment of GTT, ITT, FBG, and HOMA-IR which was correlated with recovery of the expression level of AdipoR1 and Adipo in skeletal muscle. The improved response of POMC neurons to Adipo in the hypothalamus may be a key factor in correcting abnormal glucose tolerance and improving IR.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that EA can ameliorate HFD-induced impaired glucose tolerance through improved response of POMC neurons to Adipo in the hypothalamus, providing insight into the central mechanism of improving IR through EA.

Thrombin-Mediated Formation of Globular Adiponectin Promotes an Increase in Adipose Tissue Mass

A decrease in the circulating levels of adiponectin in obesity increases the risk of metabolic complications, but the role of globular adiponectin, a truncated form produced by proteolytic cleavage, has not been defined. The objective of this investigation was to determine how globular adiponectin is generated and to determine whether this process impacts obesity. The cleavage of recombinant full-length adiponectin into globular adiponectin by plasma in vitro was used to identify Gly-93 as the N-terminal residue after proteolytic processing. The amino acid sequence of the cleavage site suggested thrombin was the protease responsible for cleavage, and inhibitors confirmed its likely involvement. The proteolytic site was modified, and this thrombin-resistant mutant protein was infused for 4 weeks into obese adiponectin-knockout mice that had been on a high-fat diet for 8 weeks. The mutation of the cleavage site ensured that globular adiponectin was not generated, and thus did not confound the actions of the full-length adiponectin. Mice infused with the mutant adiponectin accumulated less fat and had smaller adipocytes compared to mice treated with globular adiponectin, and concurrently had elevated fasting glucose. The data demonstrate that generation of globular adiponectin through the action of thrombin increases both adipose tissue mass and adipocyte size, but it has no effect on fasting glucose levels in the context of obesity.

Elucidating type 2 diabetes mellitus risk factor by promoting lipid metabolism with gymnemagenin: An in vitro and in silico approach

Introduction: Adipose tissue functions as a key endocrine organ which releases multiple bioactive substances and regulate obesity-linked complications. Dysregulation of adipocyte differentiation, triglyceride metabolism, adipokines production and lipid transport contributes to impaired lipid metabolism resulting in obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Gymnema sylvestre plant is frequently used in Ayurveda for treatment of diabetes and obesity. Gymnemagenin is a major bioactive compound of Gymnema sylvestre. The present study was undertaken to elucidate the role of gymnemagenin in lipid metabolism by in vitro and computational approaches. Methods: A panel of twelve genes viz., Fasn, Lipe, Lpl, Pparg, Plin2, Cidea, Scd1, Adipoq, Lep, Ccl2, Fabp4, and Slc2a4, essential in lipid metabolism were selected and gene expression pattern and triglyceride content were checked in adipocytes (3T3L1 cells) with/without treatment of gymnemagenin by Real time PCR and colorimetric estimation, respectively. Mode of action of gymnemagenin on Pparg and Fabp4 was accomplished by computational studies. Gene set enrichment and network pharmacology were performed by STRING and Cytoscape. Molecular docking was performed by AutoDock vina by POAP pipeline. Molecular dynamics, MM-PBSA were done by Gromacs tool. Results: In vitro study showed that gymnemagenin improved triglyceride metabolism by up regulating the expression of lipase genes viz., Lipe and Lpl which hydrolyse triglyceride. Gymnemagenin also up regulated the expression of anti-inflammatory gene Adipoq. Importantly, gymnemagenin treatment up regulated the expression of Pparg gene and the downstream target genes (Plin2, Cidea, and Scd1) which are associated with adipogenesis. However, gymnemagenin has no effect on expression of Fabp4, codes for a lipid transport protein. In silico study revealed that gymnemagenin targeted 12 genes were modulating 6 molecular pathways involved in diabetes and obesity. Molecular docking and dynamics revealed that gymnemagenin stably bind to active site residue of Pparg and failed to bind to Fabp4 active site compared to its standard molecules throughout 100 ns MD production run. Gymnemagenin scored binding free energy of -177.94 and -25.406 kJ/mol with Pparg and Fabp4, respectively. Conclusion: Gymnemagenin improved lipid metabolism by increasing triglyceride hydrolysis (lipolysis), up regulating the crucial gene of adipogenesis and increasing the expression of anti-inflammatory adipokine proving its therapeutic importance as anti-obesity and anti-diabetic phytocompound.

Modulatory Effects of NBF1, an Algal Fiber-Rich Bioformula, on Adiponectin and C-Reactive Protein Levels, and Its Therapeutic Prospects for Metabolic Syndrome and Type-2 Diabetes Patients

An unhealthy diet can lead to the development of metabolic disorders. C-reactive protein (CRP) has been reported to be an inflammatory component of metabolic disorders. Additionally, reduced adiponectin (APN) levels is known as a predictor of metabolic disorders. We report on the beneficial effects of NBF1, an algal fiber-rich formula, on CRP, APN, and diabetes markers. Additionally, associations between dietary nutrients, CRP, and APN were investigated. A dietary survey that used a brief self-administered diet history questionnaire, a validated 58-item fixed-portion-type questionnaire, and a 4-week placebo-controlled dietary intervention were carried out. The latter consisted of a twice daily intake of 3 g of sujiaonori alga-based powder as a supplement (NBF1, n = 16), whereas the placebo group received the same amount of corn starch powder (n = 15). CRP and APN levels were assayed by ELISA. Clinical cases comprising three subjects with metabolic disorders treated with NBF1, including two type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and one subject with hypercholesterolemia, are also reported. They received 2.1g NBF1 once daily for 12 weeks. Intakes of algal fiber and n-3 PUFA were positively associated with the increase of APN, and n-3PUFA intake was inversely associated with CRP. All cases had improved metabolic health profile.

Methanolic fruit extract of Myrica nagi protects the hypothalamus and attenuates inflammation associated with gold thioglucose- and high-fat diet-induced obesity via various adipokines

BACKGROUND

Myrica nagi is popular in unani and ayurveda. Chemical constituents like myricetin isolated from its fruit has been shown to exert beneficial effects against cardiovascular disease, cancer, inflammatory conditions, and metabolic disorders.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to elucidate the anti-obesity effect of the methanolic extract of M. nagi (MEMN) using in vivo animal models of obesity induced by gold thioglucose or a high-fat diet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The obese mice were treated or untreated with MEMN for 8 weeks. Thereafter, feed intake, Lee index, and body mass index (BMI); biochemical parameters such as lipid profile, liver enzymes and specific biomarkers of obesity, including insulin, leptin, adiponectin, free fatty acids (FFA), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, and resistin, were recorded. The weight and histopathology of organs and fat tissue were examined to validate the effectiveness of the extract.

RESULTS

MEMN administration at various doses significantly reduced the induced weight gain, feed intake, BMI, and Lee index. Adipose tissue decreased as the MEMN dose increased. MEMN attenuated liver enzyme activity, decreased lipid, leptin, MCP-1, resistin, and FFA levels, and increased adiponectin levels. It also increased protection of liver cells and decreased accumulation of mesenteric fat.

CONCLUSIONS

MEMN supplementation decreased weight and improved obesity serum/plasma lipid biomarker, insulin, leptin, adiponectin, MCP-1, and resistin levels. The weight-reducing activity of MEMN may be mediated by decreased gastrointestinal fat absorption and modulation of inflammation associated signaling pathways, leading to reduced adipose inflammation associated with energy expenditure.

Adiponectin Synthesis, Secretion and Extravasation from Circulation to Interstitial Space

Adiponectin, an adipokine that circulates as multiple multimeric complexes at high levels in serum, has antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, and cardioprotective properties. Understanding the mechanisms regulating adiponectin's physiological effects is likely to provide critical insight into the development of adiponectin-based therapeutics to treat various metabolic-related diseases. In this review, we summarize our current understanding on adiponectin action in its various target tissues and in cellular models. We also focus on recent advances in two particular regulatory aspects; namely, the regulation of adiponectin gene expression, multimerization, and secretion, as well as extravasation of circulating adiponectin to the interstitial space and its degradation. Finally, we discuss some potential therapeutic approaches using adiponectin as a target and the current challenges facing adiponectin-based therapeutic interventions.

Aging Influences the Metabolic and Inflammatory Phenotype in an Experimental Mouse Model of Acute Lung Injury

Increased age is a risk factor for poor outcomes from respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In this study, we sought to define age-related differences in lung inflammation, muscle injury, and metabolism after intratracheal lipopolysaccharide (IT-LPS) acute lung injury (ALI) in adult (6 months) and aged (18-20 months) male C57BL/6 mice. We also investigated age-related changes in muscle fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and the consequences of systemic FAO inhibition with the drug etomoxir. Aged mice had a distinct lung injury course characterized by prolonged alveolar neutrophilia and lack of response to therapeutic exercise. To assess the metabolic consequences of ALI, aged and adult mice underwent whole body metabolic phenotyping before and after IT-LPS. Aged mice had prolonged anorexia and decreased respiratory exchange ratio, indicating increased reliance on FAO. Etomoxir increased mortality in aged but not adult ALI mice, confirming the importance of FAO on survival from acute severe stress and suggesting that adult mice have increased resilience to FAO inhibition. Skeletal muscles from aged ALI mice had increased transcription of key fatty acid metabolizing enzymes, CPT-1b, LCAD, MCAD, FATP1 and UCP3. Additionally, aged mice had increased protein levels of CPT-1b at baseline and after lung injury. Surprisingly, CPT-1b in isolated skeletal muscle mitochondria had decreased activity in aged mice compared to adults. The distinct phenotype of aged ALI mice has similar characteristics to the adverse age-related outcomes of ARDS. This model may be useful to examine and augment immunologic and metabolic abnormalities unique to the critically ill aged population.

Insights Into the Controversial Aspects of Adiponectin in Cardiometabolic Disorders

In 2016, the World Health Organization estimated that more than 1.9 billion adults were overweight or obese. This impressive number shows that weight excess is pandemic. Overweight and obesity are closely associated with a high risk of comorbidities, such as insulin resistance and its most important outcomes, including metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. Adiponectin has emerged as a salutary adipocytokine, with insulin-sensitizing, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective properties. However, under metabolically unfavorable conditions, visceral adipose tissue-derived inflammatory cytokines might reduce the transcription of the adiponectin gene and consequently its circulating levels. Low circulating levels of adiponectin are negatively associated with various conditions, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. In contrast, several recent clinical trials and meta-analyses have reported high circulating adiponectin levels positively associated with cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality. These results are biologically intriguing and counterintuitive, and came to be termed "the adiponectin paradox". Adiponectin paradox is frequently associated with adiponectin resistance, a concept related with the downregulation of adiponectin receptors in insulin-resistant states. We review this contradiction between the apparent role of adiponectin as a health promoter and the recent evidence from Mendelian randomization studies indicating that circulating adiponectin levels are an unexpected predictor of increased morbidity and mortality rates in several clinical conditions. We also critically review the therapeutic perspective of synthetic peptide adiponectin receptors agonist that has been postulated as a promising alternative for the treatment of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Remodeling adipose tissue inflammasome for type 2 diabetes mellitus treatment: Current perspective and translational strategies

Obesity-associated type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by low-grade chronic systemic inflammation that arises primarily from the white adipose tissue. The interplay between various adipose tissue-derived chemokines drives insulin resistance in T2DM and has therefore become a subject of rigorous investigation. The adipocytokines strongly associated with glucose homeostasis include tumor necrosis factor-α, various interleukins, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, adiponectin, and leptin, among others. Remodeling the adipose tissue inflammasome in obesity-associated T2DM is likely to treat the underlying cause of the disease and bring significant therapeutic benefit. Various strategies have been adopted or are being investigated to modulate the serum/tissue levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory adipocytokines to improve glucose homeostasis in T2DM. These include use of small molecule agonists/inhibitors, mimetics, antibodies, gene therapy, and other novel formulations. Here, we discuss adipocytokines that are strongly associated with insulin activity and therapies that are under investigation for modulation of their levels in the treatment of T2DM.

Gene therapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus: state of art

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and other metabolic diseases are essential links in the structure of morbidity and mortality in the modern world. The accepted strategy for the correction of T2DM and insulin resistance is drug therapy aimed at delivering insulin from the outside, stimulating the secretion of own insulin and reducing the concentration of blood glucose. However, modern studies demonstrate a great potential for the use of gene therapy approaches for the correction of T2DM and insulin resistance. In the present review, the main variants of plasmid gene therapy of T2DM using the genes of adiponectin and type 1 glucagon-like peptide, as well as the main variants of viral gene therapy of T2DM using the genes of type 1 and leptin are considered. T2DM gene therapy is currently not ready to enter into routine clinical practice, but, subject to improvements in delivery systems, it can be a powerful link in combination therapy for diabetes.

The role of adipokines in skeletal muscle inflammation and insulin sensitivity

Background

There is currently an unmet clinical need to develop better pharmacological treatments to improve glucose handling in Type II Diabetes patients with obesity. To this end, determining the effect of obesity-associated adipokines on skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity has emerged as an important area of drug discovery research. This review draws together the data on the functional role of adipokines on skeletal muscle insulin signalling, highlights several understudied novel adipokines and provides a perspective on the direction of future research.

Main body

The adipokines leptin, resistin, visfatin and adiponectin have all been shown to affect skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity by impacting on the activity of components within insulin signalling pathways, affecting GLUT4 translocation and modulating insulin-mediated skeletal muscle glucose uptake. Furthermore, proteomic analysis of the adipose tissue secretome has recently identified several novel adipokines including vaspin, chemerin and pref-1 that are associated with obesity and insulin resistance in humans and functionally impact on insulin signalling pathways. However, predominantly, these functional findings are the result of studies in rodents, with in vitro studies utilising either rat L6 or murine C2C12 myoblasts and/or myotubes. Despite the methodology to isolate and culture human myoblasts and to differentiate them into myotubes being established, the use of human muscle in vitro models for the functional validation of adipokines on skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity is limited.

Conclusion

Understanding the mechanism of action and function of adipokines in mediating insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle may lead to the development of novel therapeutics for patients with type 2 diabetes. However, to date, studies conducted in human skeletal muscle cells and tissues are limited. Such human in vitro studies should be prioritised in order to reduce the risk of candidate drugs failing in the clinic due to the assumption that rodent skeletal muscle target validation studies will to translate to human.

Supplementation of Syzygium cumini seed powder prevented obesity, glucose intolerance, hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress in high carbohydrate high fat diet induced obese rats

Background

Obesity and related complications have now became epidemic both in developed and developing countries. Cafeteria type diet mainly composed of high fat high carbohydrate components which plays a significant role in the development of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

This study investigated the effect of Syzygium cumini seed powder on fat accumulation and dyslipidemia in high carbohydrate high fat diet (HCHF) induced obese rats.

Method

Male Wistar rats were fed with HCHF diet ad libitum, and the rats on HCHF diet were supplemented with Syzygium cumini seed powder for 56 days (2.5% w/w of diet). Oral glucose tolerance test, lipid parameters, liver marker enzymes (AST, ALT and ALP) and lipid peroxidation products were analyzed at the end of 56 days. Moreover, antioxidant enzyme activities were also measured in all groups of rats.

Results

Supplementation with Syzygium cumini seed powder significantly reduced body weight gain, white adipose tissue (WAT) weights, blood glucose, serum insulin, and plasma lipids such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and HDL concentration. Syzygium cumini seed powder supplementation in HCHF rats improved serum aspartate amino transferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities. Syzygium cumini seed powder supplementation also reduced the hepatic thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and elevated the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities as well as increased glutathione (GSH) concentration. In addition, histological assessment showed that Syzygium cumini seed powder supplementation prevented inflammatory cell infiltration; fatty droplet deposition and fibrosis in liver of HCHFD fed rats.

Conclusion

Our investigation suggests that Syzygium cumini seed powder supplementation prevents oxidative stress and showed anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic activity in liver of HCHF diet fed rats. In addition, Syzygium cumini seed powder may be beneficial in ameliorating insulin resistance and dyslipidemia probably by increasing lipid metabolism in liver of HCHF diet fed rats.

APPL1-mediated activation of STAT3 contributes to inhibitory effect of adiponectin on hepatic gluconeogenesis

Adiponectin has been shown to suppress hepatic gluconeogenesis. However, the signaling pathways underlying its action remain ill-defined. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential role of APPL1 in mediating anti-gluconeogenic ability of adiponectin. Primary hepatocytes were isolated from male C57BL/6 mice. Western blot and RT-PCR were performed to detect protein expression and mRNA level, respectively. The protein-protein association was determined by immunoprecipitation and GST pull-down assay. We found that APPL1 protein levels were negatively associated with expressions of proteins and mRNAs of gluconeogenesis enzymes under stimulation with adiponectin. In addition, adiponectin-stimulated STAT3 phosphorylation and acetylation were positively regulated by APPL1 and negative regulated by SirT1. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of STAT3 mitigated impact of adiponectin on hepatic gluconeogenesis. Furthermore, adiponectin administration facilitated the binding of APPL1 to SirT1 and suppressed the association of SirT1 with STAT3. Taken together, our study showed that APPL1-SirT1-STAT3 pathway mediated adiponectin signaling in primary hepatocytes. This new finding provides a novel mechanism by which adiponectin suppresses hepatic gluconeogenesis.

Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Health: The Potential Beneficial Effects of a Medium Chain Triglyceride Diet in Obese Individuals

Obesity and associated metabolic complications, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), are in constant increase around the world. While most obese patients show several metabolic and biometric abnormalities and comorbidities, a subgroup of patients representing 3% to 57% of obese adults, depending on the diagnosis criteria, remains metabolically healthy. Among many other factors, the gut microbiota is now identified as a determining factor in the pathogenesis of metabolically unhealthy obese (MUHO) individuals and in obesity-related diseases such as endotoxemia, intestinal and systemic inflammation, as well as insulin resistance. Interestingly, recent studies suggest that an optimal healthy-like gut microbiota structure may contribute to the metabolically healthy obese (MHO) phenotype. Here, we describe how dietary medium chain triglycerides (MCT), previously found to promote lipid catabolism, energy expenditure and weight loss, can ameliorate metabolic health via their capacity to improve both intestinal ecosystem and permeability. MCT-enriched diets could therefore be used to manage metabolic diseases through modification of gut microbiota.

Impaired thermoregulation and beneficial effects of thermoneutrality in the 3×Tg-AD model of Alzheimer's disease

The sharp rise in the incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) at an old age coincides with a reduction in energy metabolism and core body temperature. We found that the triple-transgenic mouse model of AD (3×Tg-AD) spontaneously develops a lower basal body temperature and is more vulnerable to a cold environment compared with age-matched controls. This was despite higher nonshivering thermogenic activity, as evidenced by brown adipose tissue norepinephrine content and uncoupling protein 1 expression. A 24-hour exposure to cold (4 °C) aggravated key neuropathologic markers of AD such as: tau phosphorylation, soluble amyloid beta concentrations, and synaptic protein loss in the cortex of 3×Tg-AD mice. Strikingly, raising the body temperature of aged 3×Tg-AD mice via exposure to a thermoneutral environment improved memory function and reduced amyloid and synaptic pathologies within a week. Our results suggest the presence of a vicious cycle between impaired thermoregulation and AD-like neuropathology, and it is proposed that correcting thermoregulatory deficits might be therapeutic in AD.

A novel treatment for weight reduction by the recombinant "Pichia pastoris" yeast expressing the hybrid protein of "irisin-furin-transferrin"

Obesity is a major health problem across the world, but there are few ways to effectively treat or manage it in the long term. Researchers are searching for more convenient, cost-effective and noninvasive therapies for overweight and obese people. Recent studies have illustrated that the microbiome of the body's different organs can be used as a vehicle for in-situ gene therapy. We suggest that the recombinant form of "Pichia pastoris" yeast expressing the hybrid protein of "irisin-furin-transferrin" under the control of the enolase 1 promoter is a new nutraceutical strategy to absorb fewer calories from intestinal nutrients, and induce a higher metabolic rate to expend more calories, similar to that from engaging in physical activity. By comparison, this method can be a long-term, noninvasive treatment and can be used for obese patients who have movement limitations.

Imidazoline-like drugs improve insulin sensitivity through peripheral stimulation of adiponectin and AMPK pathways in a rat model of glucose intolerance

Altered adiponectin signaling and chronic sympathetic hyperactivity have both been proposed as key factors in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome. We recently reported that activation of I1 imidazoline receptors (I1R) improves several symptoms of the metabolic syndrome through sympathoinhibition and increases adiponectin plasma levels in a rat model of metabolic syndrome (Fellmann L, Regnault V, Greney H, et al. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 346: 370-380, 2013). The present study was designed to explore the peripheral component of the beneficial actions of I1R ligands (i.e., sympathoinhibitory independent effects). Aged rats displaying insulin resistance and glucose intolerance were treated with LNP509, a peripherally acting I1R agonist. Glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and adiponectin signaling were assessed at the end of the treatment. Direct actions of the ligand on hepatocyte and adipocyte signaling were also studied. LNP509 reduced the area under the curve of the intravenous glucose tolerance test and enhanced insulin hypoglycemic action and intracellular signaling (Akt phosphorylation), indicating improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. LNP509 stimulated adiponectin secretion acting at I1R on adipocytes, resulting in increased plasma levels of adiponectin; it also enhanced AMPK phosphorylation in hepatic tissues. Additionally, I1R activation on hepatocytes directly enhanced AMPK phosphorylation. To conclude, I1R ligands can improve insulin sensitivity acting peripherally, independently of sympathoinhibition; stimulation of adiponectin and AMPK pathways at insulin target tissues may account for this effect. This may open a promising new way for the treatment of the metabolic syndrome.

Molecular approach to identify antidiabetic potential of Azadirachta indica

BACKGROUND

Azadirachta indica (Neem) is a medicinal plant, used in Ayurveda for treating various diseases, one of which is diabetes mellitus. It is known to possess antiinflammatory, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antidiabetic and diverse pharmacological properties. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the effect of A. indica on insulin signal transduction and glucose homeostasis is obscure.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to study the effects of A. indica aqueous leaf extract on the expression of insulin signaling molecules and glucose oxidation in target tissue of high-fat and fructose-induced type-2 diabetic male rat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The oral effective dose of A. indica leaf extract (400 mg/kg body weight [b.wt]) was given once daily for 30 days to high-fat diet-induced diabetic rats. At the end of the experimental period, fasting blood glucose, oral glucose tolerance, serum lipid profile, and the levels of insulin signaling molecules, glycogen, glucose oxidation in gastrocnemius muscle were assessed.

RESULTS

Diabetic rats showed impaired glucose tolerance and impairment in insulin signaling molecules (insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate-1, phospho-IRS-1(Tyr632), phospho-IRS-1(Ser636), phospho-Akt(Ser473), and glucose transporter 4 [GLUT4] proteins), glycogen concentration and glucose oxidation. The treatment with A. indica leaf extract normalized the altered levels of blood glucose, serum insulin, lipid profile and insulin signaling molecules as well as GLUT4 proteins at 400 mg/kg b.wt dose.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded from the present study that A. indica may play a significant role in the management of type-2 diabetes mellitus, by improving the insulin signaling molecules and glucose utilization in the skeletal muscle.

Insulin-independent reversal of type 1 diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice with brown adipose tissue transplant

Traditional therapies for type 1 diabetes (T1D) involve insulin replacement or islet/pancreas transplantation and have numerous limitations. Our previous work demonstrated the ability of embryonic brown adipose tissue (BAT) transplants to establish normoglycemia without insulin in chemically induced models of insulin-deficient diabetes. The current study sought to extend the technique to an autoimmune-mediated T1D model and document the underlying mechanisms. In nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, BAT transplants result in complete reversal of T1D associated with rapid and long-lasting euglycemia. In addition, BAT transplants placed prior to the onset of diabetes on NOD mice can prevent or significantly delay the onset of diabetes. As with streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic models, euglycemia is independent of insulin and strongly correlates with decrease of inflammation and increase of adipokines. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) is the first hormone to increase following BAT transplants. Adipose tissue of transplant recipients consistently express IGF-I compared with little or no expression in controls, and plasma IGF-I levels show a direct negative correlation with glucose, glucagon, and inflammatory cytokines. Adipogenic and anti-inflammatory properties of IGF-I may stimulate regeneration of new healthy white adipose tissue, which in turn secretes hypoglycemic adipokines that substitute for insulin. IGF-I can also directly decrease blood glucose through activating insulin receptor. These data demonstrate the potential for insulin-independent reversal of autoimmune-induced T1D with BAT transplants and implicate IGF-I as a likely mediator in the resulting equilibrium.

Long-term globular adiponectin administration improves adipose tissue dysmetabolism in high-fat diet-fed Wistar rats

Adiponectin administration to obese or type 2 diabetic patients is still far off, due to its expensive costs and absence of studies demonstrating the effectiveness of its chronic administration. We performed long-term globular adiponectin administration, testing its usefulness in improving adipose tissue metabolism. Adiponectin (98 υg/day) was administered through a subcutaneous minipump with continued release (28 days) to Wistar rats fed a high-fat diet. Adiponectin decreased body weight and adipocyte size, while decreasing circulating leptin levels. More, adiponectin was able to increase IkappaBalpha and PPARgamma levels and to prevent high-fat diet-induced impairment of insulin signalling, especially in epididymal adipose tissue. This resulted in improved glucose profile. High-fat diet caused an impairment of lipolysis in epididymal adipose tissue, which was partially restored by adiponectin treatment. Long-term globular adiponectin administration was able to improve pathways of insulin signalling and lipid storage in adipose tissue of high-fat diet-fed rats, contributing to a better metabolic profile.

Adiponectin is not required for exercise training-induced improvements in glucose and insulin tolerance in mice

Adiponectin (Ad) is a potent insulin‐sensitizing adipokine that has been found to activate pathways involved in the adaptation to exercise. Therefore, we examined whether Ad is required for the increased insulin response observed following exercise training in Ad knockout mice (AdKO). Eight weeks of exercise training significantly increased glucose and insulin tolerance in both wild type (WT) and AdKO mice. There were no differences in glucose tolerance between genotypes but insulin tolerance was improved to a greater extent in AdKO compared to WT mice following exercise training (+26%, P < 0.05). There were no genotype differences in the insulin‐stimulated phosphorylation of AKT or AS160 in red or white gastrocnemius muscle (RG, WG). Exercise training increased total AKT and AS160 protein content in RG and total AS160 protein content in WG. There were no genotype differences in total AKT or AS160. However, exercise training induced a more robust increase in total AS160 in RG from AdKO (+44 ± 8%, P < 0.05) compared to WT mice (+28 ± 7%, P = 0.06). There were no differences in total GLUT4 or FAT/CD36 in RG or WG in WT or AdKO, with or without exercise training. Similarly, there were no differences in RER, VO₂, or activity between any groups. Our results indicate the presence of Ad is not required for exercise‐induced increases in insulin response. Furthermore, it appears that exercise may improve insulin sensitivity to a greater extent in the absence of Ad, suggesting the presence of an unknown compensatory mechanism.

Collectively, our results demonstrate that the absence of Ad does not impair the capacity of endurance exercise training to increase glucose and insulin tolerance in AdKO mice. In addition, there were no impairments in insulin signaling or in the protein content of AKT or AS160. Taken together with previous findings, our data indicate that AdKO mice may have sufficient compensations to override the absence of Ad.

Benefits of healthy adipose tissue in the treatment of diabetes

The major malfunction in diabetes mellitus is severe perturbation of glucose homeostasis caused by deficiency of insulin. Insulin deficiency is either absolute due to destruction or failure of pancreatic β cells, or relative due to decreased sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin. The primary lesion being related to insulin, treatments for diabetes focus on insulin replacement and/or increasing sensitivity to insulin. These therapies have their own limitations and complications, some of which can be life-threatening. For example, exogenous insulin administration can lead to fatal hypoglycemic episodes; islet/pancreas transplantation requires life-long immunosuppressive therapy; and anti-diabetic drugs have dangerous side effects including edema, heart failure and lactic acidosis. Thus the need remains for better safer long term treatments for diabetes. The ultimate goal in treating diabetes is to re-establish glucose homeostasis, preferably through endogenously generated hormones. Recent studies increasingly show that extra-pancreatic hormones, particularly those arising from adipose tissue, can compensate for insulin, or entirely replace the function of insulin under appropriate circumstances. Adipose tissue is a versatile endocrine organ that secretes a variety of hormones with far-reaching effects on overall metabolism. While unhealthy adipose tissue can exacerbate diabetes through limiting circulation and secreting of pro-inflammatory cytokines, healthy uninflamed adipose tissue secretes beneficial adipokines with hypoglycemic and anti-inflammatory properties, which can complement and/or compensate for the function of insulin. Administration of specific adipokines is known to alleviate both type 1 and 2 diabetes, and leptin mono-therapy is reported to reverse type 1 diabetes independent of insulin. Although specific adipokines may correct diabetes, administration of individual adipokines still carries risks similar to those of insulin monotherapy. Thus a better approach is to achieve glucose homeostasis with endogenously-generated adipokines through transplantation or regeneration of healthy adipose tissue. Our recent studies on mouse models show that type 1 diabetes can be reversed without insulin through subcutaneous transplantation of embryonic brown adipose tissue, which leads to replenishment of recipients’ white adipose tissue; increase of a number of beneficial adipokines; and fast and long-lasting euglycemia. Insulin-independent glucose homeostasis is established through a combination of endogenously generated hormones arising from the transplant and/or newly-replenished white adipose tissue. Transplantation of healthy white adipose tissue is reported to alleviate type 2 diabetes in rodent models on several occasions, and increasing the content of endogenous brown adipose tissue is known to combat obesity and type 2 diabetes in both humans and animal models. While the underlying mechanisms are not fully documented, the beneficial effects of healthy adipose tissue in improving metabolism are increasingly reported, and are worthy of attention as a powerful tool in combating metabolic disease.

Effect of troxerutin on insulin signaling molecules in the gastrocnemius muscle of high fat and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic adult male rat

Troxerutin is a trihydroxyethylated derivative of the flavonoid, rutin. It has been reported to possess the hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperlipidemic activities. Troxerutin treatment reduced the blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels in high-cholesterol-induced insulin-resistant mice and in type-2 diabetic patients. However, the mechanism by which it exhibits antidiabetic property was unknown. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the effect of troxerutin on insulin signaling molecules in gastrocnemius muscle of high fat and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic rats. Wistar male albino rats were selected and divided into five groups. Group I: Control. Group II: High fat and sucrose-induced type-2 diabetic rats. Group III: Type-2 diabetic rats treated with troxerutin (150 mg/kg body weight/day orally). Group IV: Type-2 diabetic rats treated with metformin (50 mg/kg body weight/day orally). Group V: Normal rats treated with troxerutin (150 mg/kg body weight/day orally). After 30 days of treatment, fasting blood glucose, oral glucose tolerance, serum lipid profile, and the levels of insulin signaling molecules, glycogen, glucose uptake, and oxidation in gastrocnemius muscle were assessed. Diabetic rats showed impairment in insulin signaling molecules (IR, p-IRS-1(Tyr632), p-Akt(Ser473), β-arrestin-2, c-Src, p-AS160(Thr642), and GLUT4 proteins), glycogen concentration, glucose uptake, and oxidation. Oral administration of troxerutin showed near normal levels of blood glucose, serum insulin, lipid profile, and insulin signaling molecules as well as GLUT4 proteins in type-2 diabetic rats. It is concluded from the present study that troxerutin may play a significant role in the management of type-2 diabetes mellitus, by improving the insulin signaling molecules and glucose utilization in the skeletal muscle.