Boston HAPPENS Program: HIV-positive, homeless, and at-risk youth can access care through youth-oriented HIV services

Preventing mental health conditions in adolescents living with HIV: an urgent need for evidence

INTRODUCTION

As adolescents transition from childhood to adulthood, they experience major physical, social and psychological changes, and are at heightened risk for developing mental health conditions and engaging in health-related risk behaviours. For adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV), these risks may be even more pronounced. Research shows that this population may face additional mental health challenges related to the biological impact of the disease and its treatment, the psychosocial burdens of living with HIV and HIV-related social and environmental stressors.

DISCUSSION

Psychosocial interventions delivered to adolescents can promote positive mental health, prevent mental health problems and strengthen young people's capacity to navigate challenges and protect themselves from risk. It is likely that these interventions can also benefit at-risk populations, such as ALHIV, yet there is little research on this. There is an urgent need for more research evaluating the effects of interventions designed to improve the mental health of ALHIV. We highlight four priorities moving forward. These include: generating more evidence about preventive mental health interventions for ALHIV; including mental health outcomes in research on psychosocial interventions for ALHIV; conducting intervention research that is sensitive to differences among ALHIV populations and involving adolescents in intervention design and testing.

CONCLUSIONS

More robust research on promotive and preventive mental health interventions is needed for ALHIV. Programmes should be informed by adolescent priorities and preferences and responsive to the specific needs of these groups.

Understanding Organizations Serving Runaway and Homeless Youth: A Multi-setting, Multi-perspective Qualitative Exploration

Runaway and homeless youth (RHY) are dependent on the specialized settings that locate, engage, and serve them. Yet, little research has focused on the features of effective settings for RHY. The present qualitative study, grounded in the Youth Program Quality Assessment model, explored characteristics of higher quality organizations for RHY and gaps that remain from staff and RHY perspectives. A total of 29 diverse settings serving RHY in New York State were randomly selected for participation, and ranked on a quantitative program quality index. Within settings, we conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with program administrators (N=30) and other staff (N=24). Focus group interviews were conducted with RHY (N=13 focus groups; N=84 RHY). Data were analyzed using a systematic content analysis approach that was both theory-driven and inductive, comparing higher to lower quality settings. We found all settings provided vital services and experienced challenges, but higher quality settings ameliorated challenges through 1) a youth-centered program philosophy equally understood by staff and RHY; 2) developmentally appropriate relationships between staff and RHY that promoted autonomy; 3) a focus on short- and long-term goals within anticipated crises; and 4) ongoing internal quality assessment procedures. Within lower-quality settings we found 1) difficulties retaining effective staff and 2) a primary focus on basic services and managing crises, but less attention to emotional support, exacerbated by 3) funding and other challenges emerging from the larger environment. The present study extends the literature on organizations for RHY by identifying characteristics of higher quality settings, and challenges that remain.

Do Programs for Runaway and Homeless Youth Work? A Qualitative Exploration From the Perspectives of Youth Clients in Diverse Settings

Runaway and homeless youth (RHY) comprise a large population of young people who reside outside the control and protection of parents and guardians and who experience numerous traumas and risk factors, but few buffering resources. Specialized settings have developed to serve RHY, but little is known about their effects. The present cross-sectional qualitative descriptive study, grounded in the positive youth development approach and the Youth Program Quality Assessment model, addressed this gap in the literature. From a larger sample of 29 RHY-specific settings across New York State, RHY ages 16–21 from 11 settings were purposively sampled for semi-structured in-depth interviews on their transitions into homelessness, experiences with settings, and unmet needs (N = 37 RHY). Data were analyzed with a theory-driven and inductive systematic content analysis approach. Half of participants (54%) were female; almost half (49%) identified as non-heterosexual; and 42% were African American/Black, 31% were Latino/Hispanic, and 28% were White/other. Results indicated that because RHY are a uniquely challenged population, distrustful of service settings and professional adults and skilled at surviving independently, the population-tailored approaches found in RHY-specific settings are vital to settings’ abilities to effectively engage and serve RHY. We found the following four major themes regarding the positive effects of settings: (1) engaging with an RHY setting was emotionally challenging and frightening, and thus the experiences of safety and services tailored to RHY needs were critical; (2) instrumental support from staff was vital and most effective when received in a context of emotional support; (3) RHY were skilled at survival on the streets, but benefited from socialization into more traditional systems to foster future independent living; and (4) follow-through and aftercare were needed as RHY transitioned out of services. With respect to gaps in settings, RHY highlighted the following: (1) a desire for better management of tension between youths’ needs for structure and wishes for autonomy and (2) lack of RHY input into program governance. This study advances our understanding of RHY, their service needs, and the ways settings meet these needs, as well as remaining gaps. It underscores the vital, life-changing, and even life-saving role these settings play for RHY.

HIV prevalence in children and youth living on the street and subject to commercial sexual exploitation: a systematic review

The aim of this review was to describe HIV prevalence in children and youth living on the street and subject to commercial sexual exploitation, and the studies' characteristics in terms of place, time, population, and sample design. This was a systematic review, not a meta-analysis, based on an article search in 10 electronic databases: Science Direct, MEDLINE, OVID, LILACS, Wiley InterScience, MD Consult, Springer Link, Embase, Web of Science, and Ebsco. A complementary search was also performed in the libraries of schools of public health and webpages of U.N. agencies, besides the reference lists from the selected articles. We selected observational studies focused on children and youth living on the street and subject to commercial sexual exploitation, ranging in age from 10 to 20 years, with the results for HIV prevalence rates. A total of 9,829 references were retrieved, of which 15 met the inclusion criteria and comprise this descriptive summary. Of these 15 articles, 12 were conducted in children and youth living on the street and three in children subject to commercial sexual exploitation. All 15 were cross-sectional studies. HIV prevalence in children and youth living on the street ranged from 0% in Dallas, USA and Cochabamba, Bolivia to 37.4% in St. Petersburg, Russia. In children and youth living subject to commercial sexual exploitation, prevalence ranged from 2% in Toronto, Canada to 20% in Kolkata, India. In conclusion, HIV infection is present in children and youth living on the street and subject to commercial sexual exploitation. Measures are needed for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment as a public health priority and an ethical responsibility on the part of governments and society.

The experiences of emergency department use by street-involved youth: Perspectives of health care and community service providers

Street-involved (SI) youth represent a significant proportion of urban homeless populations. While previous research has identified SI youth as substantial users of emergency department (ED) services and has examined their experiences of ED care, little is known about the experiences and perceptions of the service providers who assist these youth with health care related issues. Using grounded theory, individual interviews and focus groups were conducted with 20 community agency staff serving SI youth, 17 health service providers, two hospital administrators, and two hospital security personnel regarding their experiences in providing or facilitating ED care for SI youth. Results identify differences in expectations between SI youth and hospital staff, along with service issues and gaps, including relational barriers and resource constraints. Implications for practice and policy development are offered.

The Experiences and Perceptions of Street-Involved Youth Regarding Emergency Department Services

Street-involved (SI) youth comprise a substantial component of the urban homeless population. Despite being significant users of hospital emergency department (ED) services for acute and ongoing health needs, little is known about their experiences of ED care and the factors affecting their ED use. This study used a grounded theory and community-based approach to examine these issues. Focus groups and individual interviews were facilitated with 48 SI youth between ages 15 and 26 years, recruited in hospital or through community agencies serving SI youth in a major Western Canadian city. Results demonstrate that SI youth often perceived suboptimal care and experienced long waiting periods that led to many avoiding or prematurely exiting the ED. Service gaps appeared to have a negative bearing on their care and health outcomes. Findings invite a critical review of ED care processes, structures, and staff interactions in the aim of enhancing ED services to SI youth.

The role of provider interactions on comprehensive sexual healthcare among young men who have sex with men

Testing for both HIV and STIs is an essential component of comprehensive sexual healthcare for young men who have sex with men (YMSM). Using data collected from YMSM living in the Detroit metropolitan area (N = 304, ages 18-29; 51% Black, 25% White, 14% Latino), we examined YMSM's access to a medical provider in the prior year and tested whether a provider's conversation regarding HIV/STI prevention was associated with their type of testing behavior: Non-Testers, HIV-Only Testing, and HIV and STI Testing. Over half (56.7%) reported a routine provider visit in the previous year. Visits were associated with having insurance, provider comfort, and prior HIV and/or STI testing. Among YMSM who visited a doctor, our multinomial regression exhibited that those whose provider discussed HIV/STI prevention were most likely to have tested for both HIV and STIs, as compared to the HIV Only and Never Tester categories. Patient-provider communication regarding HIV/STI prevention is critical to motivate comprehensive sexual healthcare access among YMSM. Strategies that enable providers to discuss HIV/STI prevention with YMSM in a sex-positive manner may help maximize comprehensive testing.

Reaching youth with out-of-facility HIV and reproductive health services: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Many young people, particularly those who are marginalized and most at risk for HIV and reproductive health-related problems, cannot or will not seek traditional facility-based health services. Policies and programs are being implemented to provide them with these health services in the community. We sought to review the effectiveness of such approaches in increasing HIV and reproductive health service use.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was undertaken to identify policies promoting or programs delivering HIV or reproductive health services in the community. We reviewed studies that evaluated uptake of services or commodities. Data from studies meeting inclusion criteria were qualitatively analyzed.

RESULTS

Twenty studies met inclusion criteria, including 10 containing comparative data (e.g., before and after study or control study design). The studies generally demonstrated positive impact, although results varied across settings and approaches. The most successful approaches included mail-based chlamydia screening in the Netherlands, condom distribution via street outreach in Louisiana, home-based HIV counseling and testing in Malawi, and promotion of over-the-counter access to emergency contraception in various countries.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this review suggests that out-of-facility approaches can be important avenues to reach youth. Continued evaluation is necessary to better understand specific approaches that can successfully deliver health services.

Outreach with street-involved youth: a quantitative and qualitative review of the literature

Outreach workers meet with street-involved youth in their environment, and attempt to engage them in services vital to their well-being. The goal of this study is to conduct a systematic review of both the quantitative and qualitative research that explores outreach with street-involved youth. Using 16 outreach programs with quantitative information, our meta-analysis found that 63% of youth who are contacted through outreach later participate in the offered service. Our meta-synthesis of 31 qualitative articles on outreach uncovered 13 themes across 4 conceptual domains of interest. Themes pertaining to the therapeutic relationship, flexibility, and youth-centric programming had a large presence among the majority of the articles. Outreach with street-involved youth, when characterized through a strong bond between worker and youth, is an effective strategy for involving youth in agency services.

Homeless youths' interpersonal perspectives of health care providers

In the United States, youth run away from home due to poor interpersonal relationships with parents or guardians; often times, they have been the recipients of parental neglect or abuse. As youth become increasingly entrenched in street-based living and problem substance use, their ability to rehabilitate their lives is incumbent upon trusting and engaging relationships with adult service providers. A total of 54 substance-using homeless youth (18-25 years) participated in focus groups to provide their perspectives on encounters and interpersonal relationships with health care providers. Participants were recruited from shelters in Hollywood, California, and from a drop-in shelter in Santa Monica, California. Four themes related to interpersonal barriers to care from service providers were identified: authoritative communication, one-way communication, disrespect, and empathy. Participants appreciate care providers who convey information in a helpful, meaningful manner and prefer providers who can, themselves, share similar life experiences. Implications point to the need for agencies and services specifically tailored to homeless, drug-using youth. These agencies should employ care providers who are trained to understand the developmental needs and histories of runaway youth. For proper reintegration of this vulnerable population into mainstream society, the narratives of these youth underscore the necessity of targeted services.

Sexual behavior and perceived peer norms: comparing perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-affected youth

A large proportion of perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV) children are becoming adolescents and exploring their sexuality. This study explored the prevalence of sexual behaviors (kissing, touching, engaging in oral sex, or having vaginal/anal intercourse) in a sample of predominantly ethnic minority youths (N = 339; 54.1% Black and 30.4% Latino; 51% female; ages 9-16) perinatally exposed to HIV (61% HIV+). Using logistic regression, we tested the association between sexual behavior and HIV status, demographic characteristics, and peer influences regarding sexual behavior. PHIV youth were less likely to be sexually active. Among sexually active youth, PHIV youth were more likely to engage in touching behavior than HIV-negative youth and were less likely to engage in penetrative sex. Youths reporting that a greater number of their peers believed that sexually active boys were "cool" or "popular" were more likely to report sexual behavior. The association between sexual behavior and peers believing sexually active girls were "cool" or "popular" varied by age, gender, and HIV status. Furthermore, friends' sexual activity was associated with sexual intercourse. Prevention programs should strengthen messages addressing peer norms regarding sexuality, as well as address specific issues related to adolescent HIV.

Physical and sexual abuse and unstable housing among adolescents with HIV

Stable housing is a necessary component of treatment of adolescents with HIV. This study examines the housing status at two points in time of a sample of 224 adolescents with HIV seen at an adolescent medicine clinic in New York City. It addresses whether unstable housing is associated with several forms of abuse, and what factors predict continued instability. 38.6% (n = 86) had a prior history of unstable housing, reduced to 12.9% at the time of program entry. Multivariate logistic regression models predicting current and prior unstable housing revealed two variables related to both outcomes: physical abuse and referral from youth/social services entities. Continued unstable housing was associated with all abuse variables and adolescent history of arrest. When adolescents in abusive situations come to the attention of programs for youth, they have a positive impact on transitioning most adolescents to safer households, potentially improving adolescents' accessing of health care services.

HIV and HCV testing for young drug users in Rhode Island

Young injection drug users (IDU) are at risk for both human immunonodeficiency virus (HIV) and Hepatitis C infections (HCV). Rates of HIV testing have been widely documented, but limited information exists regarding HCV screening rates. Among a community sample of 86 IDUs, aged 18-25 years in Rhode Island, 87.2% reported ever testing for HIV versus 51.2% for HCV (p < .001). Young injectors were under-screened for HCV compared with the far less prevalent HIV infection.

Outreach, mental health, and case management services: can they help to retain HIV-positive and at-risk youth and young adults in care?

OBJECTIVES

To assess the impact of outreach, mental health, and case management services on retention in primary care of HIV+ and at-risk youth and young adult clients of the Boston HAPPENS program, a comprehensive adolescent HIV prevention and care network of agencies.

METHODS

Providers at 8 urban sites used standard data forms at each visit to collect background and service receipt information on at-risk clients aged 12-24 years. Data were aggregated across all visits for each client to create summary variables for the number of times each client received each type of service. The retention measure was the number of days between a client's first and last visits during the 4-year data collection period. Kaplan-Meier survival curve and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were used to assess the association between receipt of the support services of interest and the retention measure.

RESULTS

The median retention times were 21 days for male clients (range, 0-1406, N = 512), and 26 days for female clients (range, 0-1577, N = 914). Among males, 45% were retained beyond a month, 24% beyond a year, and 10% beyond 2 years. Similar proportions of females were retained beyond a month and a year, but more females were retained beyond 2 years (15%). After adjusting for other covariates, both male and female clients had significantly longer retention times if they received > or = 2 outreach contacts, or case management at > or = 3 visits. Among males, receipt of mental health counseling at > or = 2 visits also increased retention times.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that provision of outreach, mental health, and case management services can improve retention in care of at-risk youth and young adults.