Type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase directly interacts with ADP-ribosylation factor 1 and is responsible for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate synthesis in the golgi compartment

Partial Protection of Goats against Haemonchus contortus Achieved with ADP-Ribosylation Factor 1 Encapsulated in PLGA Nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

Haemonchus contortus (H. contortus), a nematode with global prevalence, poses a major threat to the gastrointestinal health of sheep and goats. In an effort to combat this parasite, a nanovaccine was created using a recombinant ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) antigen encapsulated within poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA). This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of this nanovaccine in providing protection against H. contortus infection.

METHODS

Fifteen goats were randomly divided into three groups. The experimental group received two doses of the PLGA encapsulated rHcARF1 (rHcARF1-PLGA) nanovaccine on days 0 and 14. Fourteen days after the second immunization, both the experimental and positive control groups were challenged with 8000 infective larvae (L3) of H. contortus, while the negative control group remained unvaccinated and unchallenged. At the end of the experiment on the 63rd day, all animals were humanly euthanized.

RESULTS

The results showed that the experimental group had significantly higher levels of sera IgG, IgA, and IgE antibodies, as well as increased concentrations of cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-9, IL-17, and TGF-β, compared to the negative control group after immunization. Following the L3 challenge, the experimental group exhibited a 47.5% reduction in mean eggs per gram of feces (EPG) and a 55.7% reduction in worm burden as compared to the positive control group.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that the nanovaccine expressing rHcARF1 offers significant protective efficacy against H. contortus infection in goats. The results also suggest the need for more precise optimization of the antigen dose or a reassessment of the vaccination regimen. Additionally, the small sample size limits the statistical rigor and the broader applicability of the findings.

The Arf family GTPases: Regulation of vesicle biogenesis and beyond

The Arf family proteins are best known for their roles in the vesicle biogenesis. However, they also play fundamental roles in a wide range of cellular regulation besides vesicular trafficking, such as modulation of lipid metabolic enzymes, cytoskeleton remodeling, ciliogenesis, lysosomal, and mitochondrial morphology and functions. Growing studies continue to expand the downstream effector landscape of Arf proteins, especially for the less-studied members, revealing new biological functions, such as amino acid sensing. Experiments with cutting-edge technologies and in vivo functional studies in the last decade help to provide a more comprehensive view of Arf family functions. In this review, we summarize the cellular functions that are regulated by at least two different Arf members with an emphasis on those beyond vesicle biogenesis.

Pathogen vacuole membrane contact sites - close encounters of the fifth kind

Vesicular trafficking and membrane fusion are well-characterized, versatile, and sophisticated means of 'long range' intracellular protein and lipid delivery. Membrane contact sites (MCS) have been studied in far less detail, but are crucial for 'short range' (10-30 nm) communication between organelles, as well as between pathogen vacuoles and organelles. MCS are specialized in the non-vesicular trafficking of small molecules such as calcium and lipids. Pivotal MCS components important for lipid transfer are the VAP receptor/tether protein, oxysterol binding proteins (OSBPs), the ceramide transport protein CERT, the phosphoinositide phosphatase Sac1, and the lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns(4)P). In this review, we discuss how these MCS components are subverted by bacterial pathogens and their secreted effector proteins to promote intracellular survival and replication.

An ARF1-binding factor triggering programmed cell death and periderm development in pear russet fruit skin

Plants have a cuticular membrane (CM) and periderm membrane (PM), which act as barriers to terrestrial stresses. The CM covers primary organs with a continuous hydrophobic layer of waxes embedded in cutin, while the PM stacks with suberized cells outermost to the secondary tissues. The formation of native periderm is regulated by a postembryonic meristem phellogen that produces suberized phellem (cork) outwardly. However, the mechanism controlling phellogen differentiation to phellem remains to be clarified. Here, map-based cloning in a pear F1 population with segregation for periderm development in fruit skin facilitated the identification of an aspartic acid repeat deletion in Pyrus Periderm Programmed Cell Death 1.1 (PyPPCD1.1) that triggers phellogen activity for cork formation in pear russet fruit skin. PyPPCD1.1 showed preferential expression in pear fruit skin, and the encoded protein shares a structural similarity to that of the viral capsid proteins. Asp deletion in PyPPCD1.1 weakened its nuclear localization but increased its accumulation in the chloroplast. Both PyPPCD1.1 and its recessive allele directly interact with ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1). PyPPCD1.1 triggered PCD in an ARF1-dependent manner. Thus, this study identified the switch gene for PCD and periderm development and provided a new molecular regulatory mechanism underlying the development of this trait.

Control of cell signaling by Arf GTPases and their regulators: Focus on links to cancer and other GTPase families

The ADP-ribosylation factors (Arfs) comprise a family of regulatory GTP binding proteins. The Arfs regulate membrane trafficking and cytoskeleton remodeling, processes critical for eukaryotes and which have been the focus of most studies on Arfs. A more limited literature describes a role in signaling and in integrating several signaling pathways to bring about specific cell behaviors. Here, we will highlight work describing function of Arf1, Arf6 and several effectors and regulators of Arfs in signaling.

Gβγ translocation to the Golgi apparatus activates ARF1 to spatiotemporally regulate G protein-coupled receptor signaling to MAPK

After activation of G protein-coupled receptors, G protein βγ dimers may translocate from the plasma membrane to the Golgi apparatus (GA). We recently report that this translocation activates extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) via PI3Kγ; however, how Gβγ-PI3Kγ activates the ERK1/2 pathway is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that chemokine receptor CXCR4 activates ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1), a small GTPase important for vesicle-mediated membrane trafficking. This activation is blocked by CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of the GA-translocating Gγ9 subunit. Inducible targeting of different Gβγ dimers to the GA can directly activate ARF1. CXCR4 activation and constitutive Gβγ recruitment to the GA also enhance ARF1 translocation to the GA. We further demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition and CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of PI3Kγ markedly inhibit CXCR4-mediated and Gβγ translocation-mediated ARF1 activation. We also show that depletion of ARF1 by siRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 and inhibition of GA-localized ARF1 activation abolish ERK1/2 activation by CXCR4 and Gβγ translocation to the GA and suppress prostate cancer PC3 cell migration and invasion. Collectively, our data reveal a novel function for Gβγ translocation to the GA to activate ARF1 and identify GA-localized ARF1 as an effector acting downstream of Gβγ-PI3Kγ to spatiotemporally regulate G protein-coupled receptor signaling to mitogen-activated protein kinases.

The immunogenic maturation of goat monocyte-derived dendritic cells and upregulation of toll-like receptors by five antigens of Haemonchus contortus in-vitro

Previously, it was found that several proteins of Haemonchus contortus were involved in the stimulation of the host immune system. However, the information about the selection of superlative antigens with immunogenic efficacies on host DCs is lacking. In the current study, the stimulatory effects of five recombinant proteins (elongation factor-1α, arginine kinase, ES-15, ES-24, and ADP-ribosylation factor 1) of H. contortus on the maturation of goat monocyte-derived dendritic cells (md-DCs) were reported. Recombinant proteins were purified separately in E. coli expression and incubated with isolated goat peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Immunofluorescence assay (IFA) results confirmed the binding of these molecules to the md-DC's surface as compared to control groups. In the flow cytometry analysis, recombinant proteins induced md-DC stimulation via the up-regulation of the expression of the costimulatory molecule (CD80) and MHC-II. Quantitative RT-PCR data showed a significant increase in the expression of specific genes of the WNT and toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways. The result of ELISA indicated the higher levels of cytokine (IL-10, IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) secretion in the md-DC compared to the negative (pET-32a His-Tag) and blank (PBS) control groups. The data gives valuable support in the selection of potential antigens for future studies on the immunomodulation of the host against the infection of H. contortus.

Cross-Kingdom Activation of Vibrio Toxins by ADP-Ribosylation Factor Family GTPases

Pathogenic Vibrio species use many different approaches to subvert, attack, and undermine the host response. The toxins they produce are often responsible for the devastating effects associated with their diseases. These toxins target a variety of host proteins, which leads to deleterious effects, including dissolution of cell organelle integrity and inhibition of protein secretion. Becoming increasingly prevalent as cofactors for Vibrio toxins are proteins of the small GTPase families. ADP-ribosylation factor small GTPases (ARFs) in particular are emerging as a common host cofactor necessary for full activation of Vibrio toxins. While ARFs are not the direct target of Vibrio cholerae cholera toxin (CT), ARF binding is required for its optimal activity as an ADP-ribosyltransferase. The makes caterpillars floppy (MCF)-like and the domain X (DmX) effectors of the Vibrio vulnificus multifunctional autoprocessing repeats-in-toxin (MARTX) toxin also both require ARFs to initiate autoprocessing and activation as independent effectors. ARFs are ubiquitously expressed in eukaryotes and are key regulators of many cellular processes, and as such they are ideal cofactors for Vibrio pathogens that infect many host species. In this review, we cover in detail the known Vibrio toxins that use ARFs as cross-kingdom activators to both stimulate and optimize their activity. We further discuss how these contrast to toxins and effectors from other bacterial species that coactivate, stimulate, or directly modify host ARFs as their mechanisms of action.

The Drosophila melanogaster Rab GAP RN-tre cross-talks with the Rho1 signaling pathway to regulate nonmuscle myosin II localization and function

To identify novel regulators of nonmuscle myosin II (NMII) we performed an image-based RNA interference screen using stable Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells expressing the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-tagged regulatory light chain (RLC) of NMII and mCherry-Actin. We identified the Rab-specific GTPase-activating protein (GAP) RN-tre as necessary for the assembly of NMII RLC into contractile actin networks. Depletion of RN-tre led to a punctate NMII phenotype, similar to what is observed following depletion of proteins in the Rho1 pathway. Depletion of RN-tre also led to a decrease in active Rho1 and a decrease in phosphomyosin-positive cells by immunostaining, while expression of constitutively active Rho or Rho-kinase (Rok) rescues the punctate phenotype. Functionally, RN-tre depletion led to an increase in actin retrograde flow rate and cellular contractility in S2 and S2R+ cells, respectively. Regulation of NMII by RN-tre is only partially dependent on its GAP activity as overexpression of constitutively active Rabs inactivated by RN-tre failed to alter NMII RLC localization, while a GAP-dead version of RN-tre partially restored phosphomyosin staining. Collectively, our results suggest that RN-tre plays an important regulatory role in NMII RLC distribution, phosphorylation, and function, likely through Rho1 signaling and putatively serving as a link between the secretion machinery and actomyosin contractility.

Critical roles of phosphoinositides and NF2 in Hippo pathway regulation

In this study, Hong et al. provide new insights into how NF2 mediates upstream signals to regulate the Hippo pathway. They show that NF2's lipid-binding ability is critical for its function in activating the Hippo pathway in response to osmotic stress in mammalian cells, and identify the PIP5K family as novel regulators upstream of Hippo signaling.

The Hippo pathway is a master regulator of tissue homeostasis and organ size. NF2 is a well-established tumor suppressor, and loss of NF2 severely compromises Hippo pathway activity. However, the precise mechanism of how NF2 mediates upstream signals to regulate the Hippo pathway is not clear. Here we report that, in mammalian cells, NF2's lipid-binding ability is critical for its function in activating the Hippo pathway in response to osmotic stress. Mechanistically, osmotic stress induces PI(4,5)P₂ plasma membrane enrichment by activating the PIP5K family, allowing for NF2 plasma membrane recruitment and subsequent downstream Hippo pathway activation. An NF2 mutant deficient in lipid binding is unable to activate the Hippo pathway in response to osmotic stress, as measured by LATS and YAP phosphorylation. Our findings identify the PIP5K family as novel regulators upstream of Hippo signaling, and uncover the importance of phosphoinositide dynamics, specifically PI(4,5)P₂, in Hippo pathway regulation.

Role of Phospholipase D-Derived Phosphatidic Acid in Regulated Exocytosis and Neurological Disease

Lipids play a vital role in numerous cellular functions starting from a structural role as major constituents of membranes to acting as signaling intracellular or extracellular entities. Accordingly, it has been known for decades that lipids, especially those coming from diet, are important to maintain normal physiological functions and good health. On the other side, the exact molecular nature of these beneficial or deleterious lipids, as well as their precise mode of action, is only starting to be unraveled. This recent improvement in our knowledge is largely resulting from novel pharmacological, molecular, cellular, and genetic tools to study lipids in vitro and in vivo. Among these important lipids, phosphatidic acid plays a unique and central role in a great variety of cellular functions. This review will focus on the proposed functions of phosphatidic acid generated by phospholipase D in the last steps of regulated exocytosis with a specific emphasis on hormonal and neurotransmitter release and its potential impact on different neurological diseases.

Arf GTPase interplay with Rho GTPases in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton

The Arf and Rho subfamilies of small GTPases are nucleotide-dependent molecular switches that act as master regulators of vesicular trafficking and the actin cytoskeleton organization. Small GTPases control cell processes with high fidelity by acting through distinct repertoires of binding partners called effectors. While we understand a great deal about how these GTPases act individually, relatively little is known about how they cooperate, especially in the control of effectors. This review highlights how Arf GTPases collaborate with Rac1 to regulate actin cytoskeleton dynamics at the membrane via recruiting and activating the Wave Regulatory Complex (WRC), a Rho effector that underpins lamellipodia formation and macropinocytosis. This provides insight into Arf regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, while putting the spotlight on small GTPase cooperation with emerging evidence of its importance in fundamental cell biology and interactions with pathogenic bacteria.

The Caenorhabditis elegans Tubby homolog dynamically modulates olfactory cilia membrane morphogenesis and phospholipid composition

Plasticity in sensory signaling is partly mediated via regulated trafficking of signaling molecules to and from primary cilia. Tubby-related proteins regulate ciliary protein transport; however, their roles in remodeling cilia properties are not fully understood. We find that the C. elegans TUB-1 Tubby homolog regulates membrane morphogenesis and signaling protein transport in specialized sensory cilia. In particular, TUB-1 is essential for sensory signaling-dependent reshaping of olfactory cilia morphology. We show that compromised sensory signaling alters cilia membrane phosphoinositide composition via TUB-1-dependent trafficking of a PIP5 kinase. TUB-1 regulates localization of this lipid kinase at the cilia base in part via localization of the AP-2 adaptor complex subunit DPY-23. Our results describe new functions for Tubby proteins in the dynamic regulation of cilia membrane lipid composition, morphology, and signaling protein content, and suggest that this conserved family of proteins plays a critical role in mediating cilia structural and functional plasticity.

Membrane Recognition and Binding by the Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate Kinase PIP5K1A: A Multiscale Simulation Study

Phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs) are lipid signaling molecules that play key roles in many cellular processes. PIP5K1A kinase catalyzes phosphorylation of PI4P to form PIP₂, which in turn interacts with membrane and membrane-associated proteins. We explore the mechanism of membrane binding by the PIP5K1A kinase using a multiscale molecular dynamics approach. Coarse-grained simulations show binding of monomeric PIP5K1A to a model cell membrane containing PI4P. PIP5K1A did not bind to zwitterionic or anionic membranes lacking PIP molecules. Initial encounter of kinase and bilayer was followed by reorientation to enable productive binding to the PI4P-containing membrane. The simulations suggest that unstructured regions may be important for the preferred orientation for membrane binding. Atomistic simulations indicated that the dimeric kinase could not bind to the membrane via both active sites at the same time, suggesting a conformational change in the protein and/or bilayer distortion may be needed for dual-site binding to occur.

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PIP5K1A kinase interacts with PIP-containing membranes via its activation loop

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PIP5K1A does not bind to zwitterionic or anionic membranes lacking PIP molecules

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Initial encounter of protein and bilayer is followed by reorientation and binding

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Dimeric PIP5K1A binds with membrane contacts via only one catalytic site at a time

ARF GTPases and their GEFs and GAPs: concepts and challenges

Detailed structural, biochemical, cell biological, and genetic studies of any gene/protein are required to develop models of its actions in cells. Studying a protein family in the aggregate yields additional information, as one can include analyses of their coevolution, acquisition or loss of functionalities, structural pliability, and the emergence of shared or variations in molecular mechanisms. An even richer understanding of cell biology can be achieved through evaluating functionally linked protein families. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of three protein families: the ARF GTPases, the guanine nucleotide exchange factors (ARF GEFs) that activate them, and the GTPase-activating proteins (ARF GAPs) that have the ability to both propagate and terminate signaling. However, despite decades of scrutiny, our understanding of how these essential proteins function in cells remains fragmentary. We believe that the inherent complexity of ARF signaling and its regulation by GEFs and GAPs will require the concerted effort of many laboratories working together, ideally within a consortium to optimally pool information and resources. The collaborative study of these three functionally connected families (≥70 mammalian genes) will yield transformative insights into regulation of cell signaling.

Localization of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) α, β, γ in the three major salivary glands in situ of mice and their response to β-adrenoceptor stimulation

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K), which is composed of three isozymes (α, β and γ), catalyzes the production of phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2). This phospholipid functions in membrane trafficking, as an anchor for actin cytoskeletons and as a regulator of intramembranous channels/transporters. It is also a precursor of such second messengers as diacylglycerol, inositol triphosphate and phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate. In the present study, the expression and localization of endogenous PIP5Ks were examined in the three major salivary glands of young adult mice in situ. In western blotting of normal control glands, immunoreactive bands for individual PIP5Ks were detectable, with the highest density in the parotid gland and the weakest density in the submandibular gland. In immuno-light microscopy under non-stimulated condition, weak immunoreactivity for PIP5Kα was confined to the apical plasmalemma in parotid, but not sublingual or submandibular, acinar cells. Immunoreactivity for PIP5Kβ was weak to moderate and confined to ductal cells but not acinar cells, whereas that for PIP5Kγ was selectively and intensely detected in myoepithelial cells but not acinar cells, and it was weak in ductal cells in the three glands. In western blot of the parotid gland stimulated by isoproterenol, a β-adrenoceptor agonist, no changes were seen in the intensity of immunoreactive bands for any of the PIP5Ks. In contrast, in immuno-light microscopy, the apical immunoreactivity for PIP5Kα in parotid acinar cells was transiently and distinctly increased after the stimulation. The increased immunoreactivity was ultrastructurally localized on most apical microvilli and along contiguous plasma membrane, where membranous invaginations of various shapes and small vesicles were frequently found. It was thus suggested that PIP5Kα is involved in post-exocytotic membrane dynamics via microvillous membranes. The present finding further suggests that each of the three isoforms of PIP5K functions through its product PIP2 discretely in different cells of the glands to regulate saliva secretion.

Rab and Arf proteins at the crossroad between membrane transport and cytoskeleton dynamics

The intracellular movement and positioning of organelles and vesicles is mediated by the cytoskeleton and molecular motors. Small GTPases like Rab and Arf proteins are main regulators of intracellular transport by connecting membranes to cytoskeleton motors or adaptors. However, it is becoming clear that interactions between these small GTPases and the cytoskeleton are important not only for the regulation of membrane transport. In this review, we will cover our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the connection between Rab and Arf GTPases and the cytoskeleton, with special emphasis on the double role of these interactions, not only in membrane trafficking but also in membrane and cytoskeleton remodeling. Furthermore, we will highlight the most recent findings about the fine control mechanisms of crosstalk between different members of Rab, Arf, and Rho families of small GTPases in the regulation of cytoskeleton organization.

Recombinant protein of Haemonchus contortus small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (HcARF1) modulate the cell mediated immune response in vitro

ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) are members of the Ras-related small GTPase family involved in the vesicular trafficking regulation. Immunomodulatory effects of these proteinson host cell arenot being addressed yet. H. contortus small GTPase ADP-ribosylation 1 gene (HcARF1) was cloned and recombinant protein of HcARF1 (rHcARF1) was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli. Binding activity of rHcARF1 to goat PBMCs was confirmed by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and its immunomudulatory effects on cytokine secretion, cell proliferation, cell migration and nitric oxide production (NO) were observed by co-incubation of rHcARF1. IFA results revealed that rHcARF1 could bind to the PBMCs. The interaction of rHcARF1 modulated the cytokine production, the production of IL-4, IL-10 and IL-17 was increased in a dose dependent manner, however, the IFN-γ production was significantly decreased. Cell migration and NO production were significantly increased by rHcARF1, whereas, rHcARF1 treatment significantly suppressed the proliferation of the PBMC in a dose dependent manner. Our findings showed that the rHcARF1 play important roles on the goat PBMCs.

Segregation of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate into distinct microdomains on the endosome membrane

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns(4)P) is the immediate precursor of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P₂), which is located on the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane and has been reported to possess multiple cellular functions. Although PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ have been reported to localize to multiple intracellular compartments and to each function as regulatory molecules, their generation, regulation and functions in most intracellular compartments are not well-defined. To analyze PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ distributions, at a nanoscale, we employed an electron microscopy technique that specifically labels PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ on the freeze-fracture replica of intracellular biological membranes. This method minimizes the possibility of artificial perturbation, because molecules in the membrane are physically immobilized in situ. Using this technique, we found that PtdIns(4)P was localized to the cytoplasmic leaflet of Golgi apparatus and vesicular-shaped structures. The PtdIns(4,5)P₂ labeling was observed in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the mitochondrial inner membrane and vesicular-shaped structures. Double labeling of PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ with endosome markers illustrated that PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ were mainly localized to the late endosome/lysosome and early endosome, respectively. PtdIns(4)P and PtdIns(4,5)P₂ were colocalized in some endosomes, with the two phospholipids separated into distinct microdomains on the same endosomes. This is the first report showing, at a nanoscale, segregation of PtdIns(4)P- and PtdIns(4,5)P₂-enriched microdomains in the endosome, of likely importance for endosome functionality.

Control of diverse subcellular processes by a single multi-functional lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2]

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] is a multi-functional lipid that regulates several essential subcellular processes in eukaryotic cells. In addition to its well-established function as a substrate for receptor-activated signalling at the plasma membrane (PM), it is now recognized that distinct PI(4,5)P2 pools are present at other organelle membranes. However, a long-standing question that remains unresolved is the mechanism by which a single lipid species, with an invariant functional head group, delivers numerous functions without loss of fidelity. In the present review, we summarize studies that have examined the molecular processes that shape the repertoire of PI(4,5)P2 pools in diverse eukaryotes. Collectively, these studies indicate a conserved role for lipid kinase isoforms in generating functionally distinct pools of PI(4,5)P2 in diverse metazoan species. The sophistication underlying the regulation of multiple functions by PI(4,5)P2 is also shaped by mechanisms that regulate its availability to enzymes involved in its metabolism as well as molecular processes that control its diffusion at nanoscales in the PM. Collectively, these mechanisms ensure the specificity of PI(4,5)P2 mediated signalling at eukaryotic membranes.

Small GTPases in peroxisome dynamics

In this review article, we summarize current knowledge on peroxisome biogenesis/functions and the role that small GTPases may play in these processes. Precise intracellular distribution of cell organelles requires their regulated association to microtubules and the actin cytoskeleton. In this respect, RhoGDP/RhoGTP favor binding of peroxisomes to microtubules and actin filaments. In its GTP-bound form, RhoA activates a regulatory cascade involving Rho kinaseII and non-muscle myosinIIA. Such interactions frequently depend on phosphoinositides (PIs) of which PI4P, PI(4,5)P2, and PI(3,5)P2 were found to be present in the peroxisomal membrane. PIs are pivotal determinants of intracellular signaling and known to regulate a wide range of cellular functions. In many of these functions, small GTPases are implicated. The small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (Arf1), for example, is known to stimulate synthesis of PI4P and PI(4,5)P2 on the Golgi to regulate protein and lipid sorting. In vitro binding assays localized Arf1 and the COPI complex to peroxisomes. In light of the recent discussion of pre-peroxisomal vesicle generation at the ER, peroxisomal Arf1-COPI vesicles may serve retrograde transport of ER-resident components. A mass spectrometric screen localized various Rab proteins to peroxisomes. Overexpression of these proteins in combination with laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy co-localized Rab6, Rab8, Rab10, Rab14, and Rab18 with peroxisomal structures. By analogy to the role these proteins play in other organelle dynamics, we may envisage what the function of these proteins may be in relation to the peroxisomal compartment.

Resolution of structure of PIP5K1A reveals molecular mechanism for its regulation by dimerization and dishevelled

Type I phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase (PIP5K1) phosphorylates the head group of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns4P) to generate PtdIns4,5P₂, which plays important roles in a wide range of cellular functions including Wnt signalling. However, the lack of its structural information has hindered the understanding of its regulation. Here we report the crystal structure of the catalytic domain of zebrafish PIP5K1A at 3.3 Å resolution. This molecule forms a side-to-side dimer. Mutagenesis study of PIP5K1A reveals two adjacent interfaces for the dimerization and interaction with the DIX domain of the Wnt signalling molecule dishevelled. Although these interfaces are located distally to the catalytic/substrate-binding site, binding to these interfaces either through dimerization or the interaction with DIX stimulates PIP5K1 catalytic activity. DIX binding additionally enhances PIP5K1 substrate binding. Thus, this study elucidates regulatory mechanisms for this lipid kinase and provides a paradigm for the understanding of PIP5K1 regulation by their interacting molecules.

Type I phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase is an important component of many cellular pathways, including Wnt signalling. Here the authors report the crystal structure of the zebrafish protein along with in vitro assays that help to elucidate the regulation and function of this kinase.

The mechanism and function of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation by ARF1

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) can be activated by a number of biochemical pathways through distinct signaling molecules. We have recently revealed a novel function for the Ras-like small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) in mediating the activation of Raf1-MEK-ERK1/2 pathway by G protein-coupled receptors [Dong C, Li C and Wu G (2011) J Biol Chem 286, 43,361-43,369]. Here, we have further defined the underlying mechanism and the possible function of ARF1-mediated MAPK pathway. We demonstrated that the blockage of ARF1 activation and the disruption of ARF1 localization to the Golgi by mutating Thr48, a highly conserved residue involved in the exchange of GDP for GTP, and the myristoylation site Gly2 abolished ARF1's ability to activate ERK1/2. In addition, treatment with Golgi structure disrupting agents markedly attenuated ARF1-mediated ERK1/2 activation. Furthermore, ARF1 significantly promoted cell proliferation. More interestingly, ARF1 activated 90kDa ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (RSK1) without influencing Elk-1 activation and ERK2 translocation to the nuclei. These data demonstrate that, once activated, ARF1 activates the MAPK pathway likely using the Golgi as a main platform, which in turn activates the cytoplasmic RSK1, leading to cell proliferation.

PIP kinases define PI4,5P₂signaling specificity by association with effectors

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P₂) is an essential lipid messenger with roles in all eukaryotes and most aspects of human physiology. By controlling the targeting and activity of its effectors, PI4,5P₂modulates processes, such as cell migration, vesicular trafficking, cellular morphogenesis, signaling and gene expression. In cells, PI4,5P₂has a much higher concentration than other phosphoinositide species and its total content is largely unchanged in response to extracellular stimuli. The discovery of a vast array of PI4,5P₂ binding proteins is consistent with data showing that the majority of cellular PI4,5P₂is sequestered. This supports a mechanism where PI4,5P₂functions as a localized and highly specific messenger. Further support of this mechanism comes from the de novo synthesis of PI4,5P₂which is often linked with PIP kinase interaction with PI4,5P₂effectors and is a mechanism to define specificity of PI4,5P₂signaling. The association of PI4,5P₂-generating enzymes with PI4,5P₂effectors regulate effector function both temporally and spatially in cells. In this review, the PI4,5P₂effectors whose functions are tightly regulated by associations with PI4,5P₂-generating enzymes will be discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

The AP2 clathrin adaptor protein complex regulates the abundance of GLR-1 glutamate receptors in the ventral nerve cord of Caenorhabditis elegans

Regulation of glutamate receptor trafficking controls synaptic strength and plasticity. This study takes advantage of viable, null mutations in subunits of the clathrin adaptor protein 2 (AP2) complex in Caenorhabditis elegans to reveal a novel and unexpected AP2-dependent trafficking step for glutamate receptors early in the secretory pathway.

Regulation of glutamate receptor (GluR) abundance at synapses by clathrin-mediated endocytosis can control synaptic strength and plasticity. We take advantage of viable, null mutations in subunits of the clathrin adaptor protein 2 (AP2) complex in Caenorhabditis elegans to characterize the in vivo role of AP2 in GluR trafficking. In contrast to our predictions for an endocytic adaptor, we found that levels of the GluR GLR-1 are decreased at synapses in the ventral nerve cord (VNC) of animals with mutations in the AP2 subunits APM-2/μ2, APA-2/α, or APS-2/σ2. Rescue experiments indicate that APM-2/μ2 functions in glr-1–expressing interneurons and the mature nervous system to promote GLR-1 levels in the VNC. Genetic analyses suggest that APM-2/μ2 acts upstream of GLR-1 endocytosis in the VNC. Consistent with this, GLR-1 accumulates in cell bodies of apm-2 mutants. However, GLR-1 does not appear to accumulate at the plasma membrane of the cell body as expected, but instead accumulates in intracellular compartments including Syntaxin-13– and RAB-14–labeled endosomes. This study reveals a novel role for the AP2 clathrin adaptor in promoting the abundance of GluRs at synapses in vivo, and implicates AP2 in the regulation of GluR trafficking at an early step in the secretory pathway.

Asymmetric neuroblast divisions producing apoptotic cells require the cytohesin GRP-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans

Cytohesins are Arf guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that regulate membrane trafficking and actin cytoskeletal dynamics. We report here that GRP-1, the sole Caenorhabditis elegans cytohesin, controls the asymmetric divisions of certain neuroblasts that divide to produce a larger neuronal precursor or neuron and a smaller cell fated to die. In the Q neuroblast lineage, loss of GRP-1 led to the production of daughter cells that are more similar in size and to the transformation of the normally apoptotic daughter into its sister, resulting in the production of extra neurons. Genetic interactions suggest that GRP-1 functions with the previously described Arf GAP CNT-2 and two other Arf GEFs, EFA-6 and BRIS-1, to regulate the activity of Arf GTPases. In agreement with this model, we show that GRP-1's GEF activity, mediated by its SEC7 domain, is necessary for the posterior Q cell (Q.p) neuroblast division and that both GRP-1 and CNT-2 function in the Q.posterior Q daughter cell (Q.p) to promote its asymmetry. Although functional GFP-tagged GRP-1 proteins localized to the nucleus, the extra cell defects were rescued by targeting the Arf GEF activity of GRP-1 to the plasma membrane, suggesting that GRP-1 acts at the plasma membrane. The detection of endogenous GRP-1 protein at cytokinesis remnants, or midbodies, is consistent with GRP-1 functioning at the plasma membrane and perhaps at the cytokinetic furrow to promote the asymmetry of the divisions that require its function.

Recruitment of the Mint3 adaptor is necessary for export of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) from the Golgi complex

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a ubiquitously expressed single-pass transmembrane protein that undergoes proteolytic processing by secretases to generate the pathogenic amyloid-β peptide, the major component in Alzheimer plaques. The traffic of APP through the cell determines its exposure to secretases and consequently the cleavages that generate the pathogenic or nonpathogenic peptide fragments. Despite the likely importance of APP traffic to Alzheimer disease, we still lack clear models for the routing and regulation of APP in cells. Like the traffic of most transmembrane proteins, the binding of adaptors to its cytoplasmic tail, which is 47 residues long and contains at least four distinct sorting motifs, regulates that of APP. We tested each of these for effects on the traffic of APP from the Golgi by mutating key residues within them and examining adaptor recruitment at the Golgi and traffic to post-Golgi site(s). We demonstrate strict specificity for recruitment of the Mint3 adaptor by APP at the Golgi, a critical role for Tyr-682 (within the YENPTY motif) in Mint3 recruitment and export of APP from the Golgi, and we identify LAMP1(+) structures as the proximal destination of APP after leaving the Golgi. Together, these data provide a detailed view of the first sorting step in its route to the cell surface and processing by secretases and further highlight the critical role played by Mint3.

RNAi screening reveals a large signaling network controlling the Golgi apparatus in human cells

RNAi screening and automated image analysis reveal 180 kinases and phosphatases regulating the organization of the Golgi apparatus. Most of these genes also control the expression of specific glycans, pointing to a web of interactions between signaling cascades and glycosylation at the Golgi.

Golgi organization was probed with three markers of different Golgi compartments and quantitative morphological analysis.

Knockdowns of ∼20% of all known kinases and phosphatases affected the Golgi globally or in a compartment-specific manner, and were comparable in degree to the depletion of known membrane traffic regulators such as SNAREs.

Several cell surface receptors, their cognate ligands and downstream effectors regulate Golgi organization, suggesting a large regulatory network.

Most signaling genes affected both Golgi morphology and the expression of specific glycans.

The Golgi apparatus has many important physiological functions, including sorting of secretory cargo and biosynthesis of complex glycans. These functions depend on the intricate and compartmentalized organization of the Golgi apparatus. To investigate the mechanisms that regulate Golgi architecture, we developed a quantitative morphological assay using three different Golgi compartment markers and quantitative image analysis, and performed a kinome- and phosphatome-wide RNAi screen in HeLa cells. Depletion of 159 signaling genes, nearly 20% of genes assayed, induced strong and varied perturbations in Golgi morphology. Using bioinformatics data, a large regulatory network could be constructed. Specific subnetworks are involved in phosphoinositides regulation, acto-myosin dynamics and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling. Most gene depletion also affected Golgi functions, in particular glycan biosynthesis, suggesting that signaling cascades can control glycosylation directly at the Golgi level. Our results provide a genetic overview of the signaling pathways that control the Golgi apparatus in human cells.

A role for cargo in Arf-dependent adaptor recruitment

Membrane traffic requires the specific concentration of protein cargos and exclusion of other proteins into nascent carriers. Critical components of this selectivity are the protein adaptors that bind to short, linear motifs in the cytoplasmic tails of transmembrane protein cargos and sequester them into nascent carriers. The recruitment of the adaptors is mediated by activated Arf GTPases, and the Arf-adaptor complexes mark sites of carrier formation. However, the nature of the signal(s) that initiates carrier biogenesis remains unknown. We examined the specificity and initial sites of recruitment of Arf-dependent adaptors (AP-1 and GGAs) in response to the Golgi or endosomal localization of specific cargo proteins (furin, mannose-6-phosphate receptor (M6PR), and M6PR lacking a C-terminal domain M6PRΔC). We find that cargo promotes the recruitment of specific adaptors, suggesting that it is part of an upstream signaling event. Cargos do not promote adaptor recruitment to all compartments in which they reside, and thus additional factors regulate the cargo's ability to promote Arf activation and adaptor recruitment. We document that within a given compartment different cargos recruit different adaptors, suggesting that there is little or no free, activated Arf at the membrane and that Arf activation is spatially and temporally coupled to the cargo and the adaptor. Using temperature block, brefeldin A, and recovery from each, we found that the cytoplasmic tail of M6PR causes the recruitment of AP-1 and GGAs to recycling endosomes and not at the Golgi, as predicted by steady state staining profiles. These results are discussed with respect to the generation of novel models for cargo-dependent regulation of membrane traffic.

G-protein-coupled receptor interaction with small GTPases

In addition to heterotrimeric G-proteins, Ras-like small GTPases are also involved in regulating physiological functions of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. In particular, Rab and ARF GTPases function either as "traffic cops" to coordinate receptor targeting to specific locations or as "signal transducers" to directly mediate receptor signal propagation. As revealed in protein-protein interaction assays, GPCRs may use specific motifs to physically interact with small GTPases, providing important insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this chapter, we describe coimmunoprecipitation and GST fusion protein pull-down approaches to study the GPCR-small GTPase interaction, by focusing on the interaction of α(2B)- and β(2)-adrenegic receptors with the small GTPases Rab8 and ARF1.

Secretive bacterial pathogens and the secretory pathway

Eukaryotic cells possess two extensive endomembrane systems, each consisting of several sub-compartments connected by vesicular trafficking. One of these systems, the endocytic pathway, serves incoming traffic, and the other system, the secretory pathway (SP), is responsible for surface-bound traffic of intracellularly formed vesicles. Compartments derived of either system can be colonized by intracellular pathogens. In this review, we discuss the interactions between the SP and prominent intracellular bacterial pathogens of the genera Legionella, Brucella, Chlamydia and Salmonella. We emphasize secreted bacterial effector proteins, which directly manipulate host components of this pathway.

Phosphoinositides and vesicular membrane traffic

Phosphoinositide lipids were initially discovered as precursors for specific second messengers involved in signal transduction, but have now taken the center stage in controlling many essential processes at virtually every cellular membrane. In particular, phosphoinositides play a critical role in regulating membrane dynamics and vesicular transport. The unique distribution of certain phosphoinositides at specific intracellular membranes makes these molecules uniquely suited to direct organelle-specific trafficking reactions. In this regulatory role, phosphoinositides cooperate specifically with small GTPases from the Arf and Rab families. This review will summarize recent progress in the study of phosphoinositides in membrane trafficking and organellar organization and highlight the particular relevance of these signaling pathways in disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Lipids and Vesicular Transport.

PLCζ causes Ca(2+) oscillations in mouse eggs by targeting intracellular and not plasma membrane PI(4,5)P(2)

Sperm-specific phospholipase C ζ (PLCζ) activates embryo development by triggering intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations in mammalian eggs indistinguishable from those at fertilization. Somatic PLC isozymes generate inositol 1,4,5-trisphophate-mediated Ca(2+) release by hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)) in the plasma membrane. Here we examine the subcellular source of PI(4,5)P(2) targeted by sperm PLCζ in mouse eggs. By monitoring egg plasma membrane PI(4,5)P(2) with a green fluorescent protein-tagged PH domain, we show that PLCζ effects minimal loss of PI(4,5)P(2) from the oolemma in contrast to control PLCδ1, despite the much higher potency of PLCζ in eliciting Ca(2+) oscillations. Specific depletion of this PI(4,5)P(2) pool by plasma membrane targeting of an inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase (Inp54p) blocked PLCδ1-mediated Ca(2+) oscillations but not those stimulated by PLCζ or sperm. Immunolocalization of PI(4,5)P(2), PLCζ, and catalytically inactive PLCζ (ciPLCζ) revealed their colocalization to distinct vesicular structures inside the egg cortex. These vesicles displayed decreased PI(4,5)P(2) after PLCζ injection. Targeted depletion of vesicular PI(4,5)P(2) by expression of ciPLCζ-fused Inp54p inhibited the Ca(2+) oscillations triggered by PLCζ or sperm but failed to affect those mediated by PLCδ1. In contrast to somatic PLCs, our data indicate that sperm PLCζ induces Ca(2+) mobilization by hydrolyzing internal PI(4,5)P(2) stores, suggesting that the mechanism of mammalian fertilization comprises a novel phosphoinositide signaling pathway.

The distribution of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in acinar cells of rat pancreas revealed with the freeze-fracture replica labeling method

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P₂] is a phospholipid that has been implicated in multiple cellular activities. The distribution of PI(4,5)P₂ has been analyzed extensively using live imaging of the GFP-coupled phospholipase C-δ1 pleckstrin homology domain in cultured cell lines. However, technical difficulties have prevented the study of PI(4,5)P₂ in cells of in vivo tissues. We recently developed a method to analyze the nanoscale distribution of PI(4,5)P₂ in cultured cells by using the quick-freezing and freeze-fracture replica labeling method. In principle, this method can be applied to any cell because it does not require the expression of artificial probes. In the present study, we modified the method to study cells of in vivo tissues and applied it to pancreatic exocrine acinar cells of the rat. We found that PI(4,5)P₂ in the plasma membrane is distributed in an equivalent density in the apical and basolateral domains, but exists in a significantly higher concentration in the gap junction. The intracellular organelles did not show labeling for PI(4,5)P₂. The results are novel or different from the reported distribution patterns in cell lines and highlight the importance of studying cells differentiated in vivo.

The non-catalytic carboxyl-terminal domain of ARFGAP1 regulates actin cytoskeleton reorganization by antagonizing the activation of Rac1

Background

The regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and membrane trafficking is coordinated in mammalian cells. One of the regulators of membrane traffic, the small GTP-binding protein ARF1, also activates phosphatidylinositol kinases that in turn affect actin polymerization. ARFGAP1 is a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for ARF1 that is found on Golgi membranes. We present evidence that ARFGAP1 not only serves as a GAP for ARF1, but also can affect the actin cytoskeleton.

Principal Findings

As cells attach to a culture dish foci of actin appear prior to the cells flattening and spreading. We have observed that overexpression of a truncated ARFGAP1 that lacks catalytic activity for ARF, called GAP273, caused these foci to persist for much longer periods than non-transfected cells. This phenomenon was dependent on the level of GAP273 expression. Furthermore, cell spreading after re-plating or cell migration into a previously scraped area was inhibited in cells transfected with GAP273. Live cell imaging of such cells revealed that actin-rich membrane blebs formed that seldom made protrusions of actin spikes or membrane ruffles, suggesting that GAP273 interfered with the regulation of actin dynamics during cell spreading. The over-expression of constitutively active alleles of ARF6 and Rac1 suppressed the effect of GAP273 on actin. In addition, the activation of Rac1 by serum, but not that of RhoA or ARF6, was inhibited in cells over-expressing GAP273, suggesting that Rac1 is a likely downstream effector of ARFGAP1. The carboxyl terminal 65 residues of ARFGAP1 were sufficient to produce the effects on actin and cell spreading in transfected cells and co-localized with cortical actin foci.

Conclusions

ARFGAP1 functions as an inhibitor upstream of Rac1 in regulating actin cytoskeleton. In addition to its GAP catalytic domain and Golgi binding domain, it also has an actin regulation domain in the carboxyl-terminal portion of the protein.

Regulation of PIP5K activity by Arf6 and its physiological significance

The phospholipid kinase phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) catalyzes the phosphorylation of the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate to generate the pleiotropic phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2) ]. To date, three mammalian PIP5K isozymes, α, β, and γ, and several splicing variants of the γ isozyme have been identified. These PIP5K isozymes and PIP5Kγ variants play critical roles in various cellular functions through their product PI(4,5)P(2) . The small GTPase Arf6 is one of the key activators of PIP5K. Increasing evidence suggests that PIP5K functions as a downstream effector of Arf6 to regulate a wide variety of cellular functions, such as exocytosis, endocytosis, endosomal recycling, membrane ruffle formation, immune response, and bacterial invasion. In this review, we place our focus on the recent advances in Arf6/PIP5K signaling and its linkage to cellular functions.

Combined phosphoinositide and Ca2+ signals mediating receptor specificity toward neuronal Ca2+ channels

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) regulates Ca(2+) (I(Ca)) and M-type K(+) currents in superior cervical ganglion sympathetic neurons. In those cells, M(1) muscarinic and AT(1) angiotensin types do not elicit Ca(2+)(i) signals and suppress both currents via depletion of PIP(2), whereas the B(2) bradykinin and P2Y purinergic types elicit robust IP(3)-mediated [Ca(2+)](i) rises and neither deplete PIP(2) nor inhibit I(Ca). We have suggested that this specificity arises from differential Ca(2+)(i) signals underlying receptor-specific stimulation of PIP(2) synthesis by phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4-kinase. Here, we investigate which PI 4-kinase isoform underlies this signal, whether stimulation of PI 4-phosphate 5-kinase is also required, and the origin of receptor-specific Ca(2+)(i) signals. Recordings of I(Ca) were used as a PIP(2) "biosensor." In control, stimulation of M(1), but not B(2) or P2Y, receptors robustly suppressed I(Ca). However, when PI 4-kinase IIIβ, diacylglycerol kinase, Rho, or Rho-kinase was blocked, agonists of all three receptors robustly suppressed I(Ca). Overexpression of exogenous M(1) receptors yielded large [Ca(2+)](i) rises by muscarinic agonist, and transfection of wild-type IRBIT decreased Ca(2+)(i) signals, whereas dominant negative IRBIT-S68A had little effect on B(2) or P2Y responses but greatly increased muscarinic responses. We conclude that overlaid on microdomain organization is IRBIT, setting a "threshold" for [IP(3)], assisting in fidelity of receptor specificity.

Phosphatidylinositol- and phosphatidylcholine-transfer activity of PITPbeta is essential for COPI-mediated retrograde transport from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum

Vesicles formed by the COPI complex function in retrograde transport from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta (PITPbeta), an essential protein that possesses phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) and phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) lipid transfer activity is known to localise to the Golgi and ER but its role in these membrane systems is not clear. To examine the function of PITPbeta at the Golgi-ER interface, RNA interference (RNAi) was used to knockdown PITPbeta protein expression in HeLa cells. Depletion of PITPbeta leads to a decrease in PtdIns(4)P levels, compaction of the Golgi complex and protection from brefeldin-A-mediated dispersal to the ER. Using specific transport assays, we show that anterograde traffic is unaffected but that KDEL-receptor-dependent retrograde traffic is inhibited. This phenotype can be rescued by expression of wild-type PITPbeta but not by mutants defective in docking, PtdIns transfer and PtdCho transfer. These data demonstrate that the PtdIns and PtdCho exchange activity of PITPbeta is essential for COPI-mediated retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER.

Reversible bleb formation in mast cells stimulated with antigen is Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent and bleb size is regulated by ARF6

Mast cells stimulated with antigen undergo extensive changes in their cytoskeleton. In the present study, we assess the impact of actin-modifying drugs and report that, in the presence of cytochalasin D, mast cells stop membrane ruffling, but instead bleb. Bleb formation is reversible following washout of cytochalasin D and occurs in an actin-polymerization-dependent manner. Bleb formation is inhibited by expression of constitutively active ezrin-T567D. Blebbing is also inhibited by blebbistatin, a myosin II inhibitor, implying myosin II activation in the process. We used a selection of inhibitors and observed that myosin II activation is dependent mainly on Ca2+–calmodulin, with only a small contribution from Rho kinase. The signalling pathways stimulated by antigen include PLC (phospholipase C) and PLD (phospholipase D). Bleb formation was dependent on activation of PLC, but not PLD. Primary alcohols, used previously as a means to reduce PLD-derived phosphatidic acid, were potent inhibitors of membrane blebbing, but a more selective inhibitor of PLD, FIPI (5-fluoro-2-indolyl des-chlorohalopemide), was without effect. FIPI also did not inhibit membrane ruffling or degranulation of mast cells, indicating that inhibition by primary alcohols works through an unidentified mechanism rather than via diversion of PLD activity as assumed. We also examined the requirement for ARF6 (ADP-ribosylation factor 6) and observed that its expression led to an increase in bleb size and a further increase was observed with the dominant-active mutant, ARF6-Q67L. Since ARF6-T27N had no effect on bleb size, we conclude that ARF6 needs to be active to regulate the size of the blebs.

Regulation of Golgi function via phosphoinositide lipids

Phosphoinositides play important roles in Golgi traffic and structural integrity. Specific lipid kinases and phosphatases associate with the Golgi complex and regulate the multiplicity of trafficking routes from this organelle. Work in different model systems showed that the basic elements that regulate lipid signaling at the Golgi are conserved from yeast to humans. Many of the enzymes involved in Golgi phosphoinositide metabolism are essential for viability or cause severe human disease when malfunctioning. Phosphoinositide effectors at the Golgi control both non-vesicular transfer of lipids and sorting of secretory and membrane proteins. In addition, Golgi phosphoinositides were recently implicated in the metabolic and cell growth-dependent regulation of the secretory pathway.

The phox domain of sorting nexin 5 lacks phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns(3)P) specificity and preferentially binds to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2)

Subcellular retrograde transport of cargo receptors from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network is critically involved in a broad range of physiological and pathological processes and highly regulated by a genetically conserved heteropentameric complex, termed retromer. Among the retromer components identified in mammals, sorting nexin 5 and 1 (SNX5; SNX1) have recently been found to interact, possibly controlling the membrane binding specificity of the complex. To elucidate how the unique sequence features of the SNX5 phox domain (SNX5-PX) influence retrograde transport, we have determined the SNX5-PX structure by NMR and x-ray crystallography at 1.5 A resolution. Although the core fold of SNX5-PX resembles that of other known PX domains, we found novel structural features exclusive to SNX5-PX. It is most noteworthy that in SNX5-PX, a long helical hairpin is added to the core formed by a new alpha2'-helix and a much longer alpha3-helix. This results in a significantly altered overall shape of the protein. In addition, the unique double PXXP motif is tightly packed against the rest of the protein, rendering this part of the structure compact, occluding parts of the putative phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) binding pocket. The PtdIns binding and specificity of SNX5-PX was evaluated by NMR titrations with eight different PtdIns and revealed that SNX5-PX preferentially and specifically binds to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P(2)). The distinct structural and PtdIns binding characteristics of SNX5-PX impart specific properties on SNX5, influencing retromer-mediated regulation of retrograde trafficking of transmembrane cargo receptors.

Mammalian phosphoinositide kinases and phosphatases

Phosphoinositides are lipids that are present in the cytoplasmic leaflet of a cell's plasma and internal membranes and play pivotal roles in the regulation of a wide variety of cellular processes. Phosphoinositides are molecularly diverse due to variable phosphorylation of the hydroxyl groups of their inositol rings. The rapid and reversible configuration of the seven known phosphoinositide species is controlled by a battery of phosphoinositide kinases and phosphoinositide phosphatases, which are thus critical for phosphoinositide isomer-specific localization and functions. Significantly, a given phosphoinositide generated by different isozymes of these phosphoinositide kinases and phosphatases can have different biological effects. In mammals, close to 50 genes encode the phosphoinositide kinases and phosphoinositide phosphatases that regulate phosphoinositide metabolism and thus allow cells to respond rapidly and effectively to ever-changing environmental cues. Understanding the distinct and overlapping functions of these phosphoinositide-metabolizing enzymes is important for our knowledge of both normal human physiology and the growing list of human diseases whose etiologies involve these proteins. This review summarizes the structural and biological properties of all the known mammalian phosphoinositide kinases and phosphoinositide phosphatases, as well as their associations with human disorders.

Rhabdomere biogenesis in Drosophila photoreceptors is acutely sensitive to phosphatidic acid levels

Phosphatidic acid (PA) is postulated to have both structural and signaling functions during membrane dynamics in animal cells. In this study, we show that before a critical time period during rhabdomere biogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors, elevated levels of PA disrupt membrane transport to the apical domain. Lipidomic analysis shows that this effect is associated with an increase in the abundance of a single, relatively minor molecular species of PA. These transport defects are dependent on the activation state of Arf1. Transport defects via PA generated by phospholipase D require the activity of type I phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4 phosphate 5 kinase, are phenocopied by knockdown of PI 4 kinase, and are associated with normal endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi transport. We propose that PA levels are critical for apical membrane transport events required for rhabdomere biogenesis.

Phosphatidic acid regulation of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinases

Phosphatidic acid (PA) production by receptor-stimulated phospholipase D is believed to play an important role in the regulation of cell function. The second messenger function of PA remains to be elucidated. PA can bind and affect the activities of different enzymes and here we summarise the current status of activation of Type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase by PA. Type 1 phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase is also regulated by ARF proteins as is phospholipase D and we discuss the contributions of ARF and PA towards phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate synthesis at the plasma membrane.

Biogenesis of Dense-Core Secretory Granules

Dense core granules (DCGs) are vesicular organelles derived from outbound traffic through the eukaryotic secretory pathway. As DCGs are formed, the secretory pathway can also give rise to other types of vesicles, such as those bound for endosomes, lysosomes, and the cell surface. DCGs differ from these other vesicular carriers in both content and function, storing highly concentrated cores’ of condensed cargo in vesicles that are stably maintained within the cell until a specific extracellular stimulus causes their fusion with the plasma membrane. These unique features are imparted by the activities of membrane and lumenal proteins that are specifically delivered to the vesicles during synthesis. This chapter will describe the DCG biogenesis pathway, beginning with the sorting of DCG proteins from proteins that are destined for other types of vesicle carriers. In the trans-Golgi network (TGN), sorting occurs as DCG proteins aggregate, causing physical separation from non-DCG proteins. Recent work addresses the nature of interactions that produce these aggregates, as well as potentially important interactions with membranes and membrane proteins. DCG proteins are released from the TGN in vesicles called immature secretory granules (ISGs). The mechanism of ISG formation is largely unclear but is not believed to rely on the assembly of vesicle coats like those observed in other secretory pathways. The required cytosolic factors are now beginning to be identified using in vitro systems with purified cellular components. ISG transformation into a mature fusion-competent, stimulus-dependent DCG occurs as endoproteolytic processing of many DCG proteins causes continued condensation of the lumenal contents. At the same time, proteins that fail to be incorporated into the condensing core are removed by a coat-mediated budding mechanism, which also serves to remove excess membrane and membrane proteins from the maturing vesicle. This chapter will summarize the work leading to our current view of granule synthesis, and will discuss questions that need to be addressed in order to gain a more complete understanding of the pathway.

Regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics by Arf-family GTPases

Small GTPases of the Arf family are best known for their role in vesicular transport, wherein they nucleate the assembly of coat proteins at sites of carrier vesicle formation. However, accumulating evidence indicates that the Arfs are also important regulators of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and are involved in a variety of actin-based processes, including cell adhesion, migration and neurite outgrowth. The mechanisms of this regulation are remarkably diverse, ranging from the integration of vesicular transport with cytoskeleton assembly to the direct regulation of Rho-family GTPase function. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of how Arfs and their interacting proteins function to integrate membrane and cytoskeletal dynamics.