Heterotrimeric kinesin-2 (KIF3) mediates transition zone and axoneme formation of mouse photoreceptors

Analytical Post-Embedding Immunogold-Electron Microscopy with Direct Gold-Labelled Monoclonal Primary Antibodies against RIBEYE A- and B-Domain Suggests a Refined Model of Synaptic Ribbon Assembly

Synaptic ribbons are the eponymous specializations of continuously active ribbon synapses. They are primarily composed of the RIBEYE protein that consists of a unique amino-terminal A-domain and carboxy-terminal B-domain that is largely identical to the ubiquitously expressed transcriptional regulator protein CtBP2. Both RIBEYE A-domain and RIBEYE B-domain are essential for the assembly of the synaptic ribbon, as shown by previous analyses of RIBEYE knockout and knockin mice and related investigations. How exactly the synaptic ribbon is assembled from RIBEYE subunits is not yet clear. To achieve further insights into the architecture of the synaptic ribbon, we performed analytical post-embedding immunogold-electron microscopy with direct gold-labelled primary antibodies against RIBEYE A-domain and RIBEYE B-domain for improved ultrastructural resolution. With direct gold-labelled monoclonal antibodies against RIBEYE A-domain and RIBEYE B-domain, we found that both domains show a very similar localization within the synaptic ribbon of mouse photoreceptor synapses, with no obvious differential gradient between the centre and surface of the synaptic ribbon. These data favour a model of the architecture of the synaptic ribbon in which the RIBEYE A-domain and RIBEYE B-domain are located similar distances from the midline of the synaptic ribbon.

IFT88 maintains sensory function by localising signalling proteins along Drosophila cilia

Ciliary defects cause several ciliopathies, some of which have late onset, suggesting cilia are actively maintained. Still, we have a poor understanding of the mechanisms underlying their maintenance. Here, we show Drosophila melanogaster IFT88 (DmIFT88/nompB) continues to move along fully formed sensory cilia. We further identify Inactive, a TRPV channel subunit involved in Drosophila hearing and negative-gravitaxis behaviour, and a yet uncharacterised Drosophila Guanylyl Cyclase 2d (DmGucy2d/CG34357) as DmIFT88 cargoes. We also show DmIFT88 binding to the cyclase´s intracellular part, which is evolutionarily conserved and mutated in several degenerative retinal diseases, is important for the ciliary localisation of DmGucy2d. Finally, acute knockdown of both DmIFT88 and DmGucy2d in ciliated neurons of adult flies caused defects in the maintenance of cilium function, impairing hearing and negative-gravitaxis behaviour, but did not significantly affect ciliary ultrastructure. We conclude that the sensory ciliary function underlying hearing in the adult fly requires an active maintenance program which involves DmIFT88 and at least two of its signalling transmembrane cargoes, DmGucy2d and Inactive.

The Logistical Backbone of Photoreceptor Cell Function: Complementary Mechanisms of Dietary Vitamin A Receptors and Rhodopsin Transporters

In this review, we outline our current understanding of the mechanisms involved in the absorption, storage, and transport of dietary vitamin A to the eye, and the trafficking of rhodopsin protein to the photoreceptor outer segments, which encompasses the logistical backbone required for photoreceptor cell function. Two key mechanisms of this process are emphasized in this manuscript: ocular and systemic vitamin A membrane transporters, and rhodopsin transporters. Understanding the complementary mechanisms responsible for the generation and proper transport of the retinylidene protein to the photoreceptor outer segment will eventually shed light on the importance of genes encoded by these proteins, and their relationship on normal visual function and in the pathophysiology of retinal degenerative diseases.

Super-resolution mapping in rod photoreceptors identifies rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway

Photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate retina have a highly compartmentalized morphology for efficient phototransduction and vision. Rhodopsin, the visual pigment in rod photoreceptors, is densely packaged into the rod outer segment sensory cilium and continuously renewed through essential synthesis and trafficking pathways housed in the rod inner segment. Despite the importance of this region for rod health and maintenance, the subcellular organization of rhodopsin and its trafficking regulators in the mammalian rod inner segment remain undefined. We used super-resolution fluorescence microscopy with optimized retinal immunolabeling techniques to perform a single molecule localization analysis of rhodopsin in the inner segments of mouse rods. We found that a significant fraction of rhodopsin molecules was localized at the plasma membrane, at the surface, in an even distribution along the entire length of the inner segment, where markers of transport vesicles also colocalized. Thus, our results collectively establish a model of rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway in mouse rod photoreceptors.

Control of protein and lipid composition of photoreceptor outer segments-Implications for retinal disease

Vision is arguably our most important sense, and its loss brings substantial limitations to daily life for affected individuals. Light is perceived in retinal photoreceptors (PRs), which are highly specialized neurons subdivided into several compartments with distinct functions. The outer segments (OSs) of photoreceptors represent highly specialized primary ciliary compartments hosting the phototransduction cascade, which transforms incoming light into a neuronal signal. Retinal disease can result from various pathomechanisms originating in distinct subcompartments of the PR cell, or in the retinal pigment epithelium which supports the PRs. Dysfunction of primary cilia causes human disorders known as "ciliopathies", in which retinal disease is a common feature. This chapter focuses on PR OSs, discussing the mechanisms controlling their complex structure and composition. A sequence of tightly regulated sorting and trafficking events, both upstream of and within this ciliary compartment, ensures the establishment and maintenance of the adequate proteome and lipidome required for signaling in response to light. We discuss in particular our current understanding of the role of ciliopathy proteins involved in multi-protein complexes at the ciliary transition zone (CC2D2A) or BBSome (BBS1) and how their dysfunction causes retinal disease. While the loss of CC2D2A prevents the fusion of vesicles and delivery of the photopigment rhodopsin to the ciliary base, leading to early OS ultrastructural defects, BBS1 deficiency results in precocious accumulation of cholesterol in mutant OSs and decreased visual function preceding morphological changes. These distinct pathomechanisms underscore the central role of ciliary proteins involved in multiple processes controlling OS protein and lipid composition.

Mapping rhodopsin trafficking in rod photoreceptors with quantitative super-resolution microscopy

Photoreceptor cells in the vertebrate retina have a highly compartmentalized morphology for efficient long-term phototransduction. Rhodopsin, the visual pigment in rod photoreceptors, is densely packaged into the rod outer segment sensory cilium and continuously renewed through essential synthesis and trafficking pathways housed in the rod inner segment. Despite the importance of this region for rod health and maintenance, the subcellular organization of rhodopsin and its trafficking regulators in the mammalian rod inner segment remain undefined. We used super-resolution fluorescence microscopy with optimized retinal immunolabeling techniques to perform a single molecule localization analysis of rhodopsin in the inner segments of mouse rods. We found that a significant fraction of rhodopsin molecules was localized at the plasma membrane in an even distribution along the entire length of the inner segment, where markers of transport vesicles also colocalized. Thus, our results collectively establish a model of rhodopsin trafficking through the inner segment plasma membrane as an essential subcellular pathway in mouse rod photoreceptors.

Deletion of CEP164 in mouse photoreceptors post-ciliogenesis interrupts ciliary intraflagellar transport (IFT)

Centrosomal protein of 164 kDa (CEP164) is located at distal appendages of primary cilia and is necessary for basal body (BB) docking to the apical membrane. To investigate the function of photoreceptor CEP164 before and after BB docking, we deleted CEP164 during retina embryonic development (Six3Cre), in postnatal rod photoreceptors (iCre75) and in mature retina using tamoxifen induction (Prom1-ETCre). BBs dock to the cell cortex during postnatal day 6 (P6) to extend a connecting cilium (CC) and an axoneme. P6 retina-specific knockouts (retCep164-/-) are unable to dock BBs, thereby preventing formation of CC or outer segments (OSs). In rod-specific knockouts (rodCep164-/-), Cre expression starts after P7 and CC/OS form. P16 rodCep164-/- rods have nearly normal OS lengths, and maintain OS attachment through P21 despite loss of CEP164. Intraflagellar transport components (IFT88, IFT57 and IFT140) were reduced at P16 rodCep164-/- BBs and CC tips and nearly absent at P21, indicating impaired intraflagellar transport. Nascent OS discs, labeled with a fluorescent dye on P14 and P18 and harvested on P19, showed continued rodCep164-/- disc morphogenesis but absence of P14 discs mid-distally, indicating OS instability. Tamoxifen induction with PROM1ETCre;Cep164F/F (tamCep164-/-) adult mice affected maintenance of both rod and cone OSs. The results suggest that CEP164 is key towards recruitment and stabilization of IFT-B particles at the BB/CC. IFT impairment may be the main driver of ciliary malfunction observed with hypomorphic CEP164 mutations.

Tmem138 is localized to the connecting cilium essential for rhodopsin localization and outer segment biogenesis

The connecting cilium (CC) of the photoreceptor provides the only route for the trafficking of the outer segment (OS) proteins. Failure of OS protein transport causes degenerative photoreceptor diseases, including retinitis pigmentosa. We demonstrate that Tmem138, a protein linked to ciliopathy, is localized to the photoreceptor CC. Germline deletion of Tmem138 abolished OS morphogenesis, followed by rapid photoreceptor degeneration. Tmem138 interacts with rhodopsin and two additional CC compartment proteins, Ahi1 and Tmem231, likely forming a membrane complex to facilitate trafficking of rhodopsin and other OS-bound proteins across the CC. The study thus implicates a new line of regulation on the delivery of OS proteins through interactions with CC membrane complex(es) and provides insights into photoreceptor ciliopathy diseases.

Photoreceptor connecting cilium (CC) is structurally analogous to the transition zone (TZ) of primary cilia and gates the molecular trafficking between the inner and the outer segment (OS). Retinal dystrophies with underlying CC defects are manifested in a broad array of syndromic conditions known as ciliopathies as well as nonsyndromic retinal degenerations. Despite extensive studies, many questions remain in the mechanism of protein trafficking across the photoreceptor CC. Here, we genetically inactivated mouse Tmem138, a gene encoding a putative transmembrane protein localized to the ciliary TZ and linked to ciliopathies. Germline deletion of Tmem138 abolished OS morphogenesis, followed by rapid photoreceptor degeneration. Tmem138 was found localized to the photoreceptor CC and was required for localization of Ahi1 to the distal subdomain of the CC. Among the examined set of OS proteins, rhodopsin was mislocalized throughout the mutant cell body prior to OS morphogenesis. Ablation of Tmem138 in mature rods recapitulated the molecular changes in the germline mutants, causing failure of disc renewal and disintegration of the OS. Furthermore, Tmem138 interacts reciprocally with rhodopsin and a related protein Tmem231, and the ciliary localization of the latter was also altered in the mutant photoreceptors. Taken together, these results suggest a crucial role of Tmem138 in the functional organization of the CC, which is essential for rhodopsin localization and OS biogenesis.

Spata7 is required for maintenance of the retinal connecting cilium

SPATA7, an early onset LCA3 retinal disease gene, encodes a putative scaffold protein that is essential for the proper assembly of the connecting cilium (CC) complex in photoreceptors. Previous studies have shown that SPATA7 interacts with other photoreceptor-specific ciliary proteins, such as RPGR and RPGRIP1, and maintains the integrity of CC integrity. However, although it is known that Spata7 is required for early formation of the CC, it is unclear if Spata7 is also required for the maintenance of the CC. To investigate Spata7 function in the retina at the adult stage, loss of function was induced in the adult retina upon tamoxifen induction of an inducible Spata7 knockout allele (Spata7flox/-; UbcCreERT2/+). The phenotype of mutant retina was characterized by a combination of histology, immunobiochemistry, and electroretinography (ERG). Our results demonstrated that Spata7 is also essential for maintaining the integrity of the mature retinal CC. Loss of Spata7 in adults caused phenotypes similar to those seen in germline mutant mice, including photoreceptor cell degeneration and defective ERG responses. Close examination of the CC revealed significantly shortened NPHP1 length as a result of Spata7 deletion. Furthermore, mislocalization of rhodopsin, leading to ER stress-mediated apoptosis, was observed in the retinal layers. Our results indicate that Spata7 is required not only for the establishment but also for the maintenance of the CC of photoreceptors.

METTL3-mediated m6A modification of KIF3C-mRNA promotes prostate cancer progression and is negatively regulated by miR-320d

The occurrence of distant metastasis is one of the leading causes of death in patients with prostate cancer (PCa). It is confirmed that kinesin protein is associated with a variety of malignancies, and the KIF3 family is related to cancer, but the relationship between KIF3C and prostate cancer is not clear. Our experiments have confirmed that KIF3C is highly expressed in prostate cancer tissues and cell lines. Further, functional tests have proven that KIF3C can promote the growth migration and invasion of PCa. We used Starbase 3.0 to discover that methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3) interacts with KIF3C. Our hypothesis and experiments concluded that METTL3 induced m6A modification on KIF3C, promoting the stabilization of KIF3C-mRNA by IGF2 binding protein 1 (IGF2BP1). The prediction that miR-320d inhibits KIF3C expression by targeting METTL3 using the miRmap website, was later confirmed experimentally. Further, a recovery experiment was used to confirm that miR-320d inhibited the progression of prostate cancer. KIF3C was overexpressed in prostate cancer, promoting its growth migration and invasion was induced by miR-320d/METTL3 in an m6A dependent process.

Structure and dynamics of photoreceptor sensory cilia

The rod and cone photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate retina have highly specialized structures that enable them to carry out their function of light detection over a broad range of illumination intensities with optimized spatial and temporal resolution. Most prominent are their unusually large sensory cilia, consisting of outer segments packed with photosensitive disc membranes, a connecting cilium with many features reminiscent of the primary cilium transition zone, and a pair of centrioles forming a basal body which serves as the platform upon which the ciliary axoneme is assembled. These structures form a highway through which an enormous flux of material moves on a daily basis to sustain the continual turnover of outer segment discs and the energetic demands of phototransduction. After decades of study, the details of the fine structure and distribution of molecular components of these structures are still incompletely understood, but recent advances in cellular imaging techniques and animal models of inherited ciliary defects are yielding important new insights. This knowledge informs our understanding both of the mechanisms of trafficking and assembly and of the pathophysiological mechanisms of human blinding ciliopathies.

Kinesin-2 transports Orco into the olfactory cilium of Drosophila melanogaster at specific developmental stages

The cilium, the sensing centre for the cell, displays an extensive repertoire of receptors for various cell signalling processes. The dynamic nature of ciliary signalling indicates that the ciliary entry of receptors and associated proteins must be regulated and conditional. To understand this process, we studied the ciliary localisation of the odour-receptor coreceptor (Orco), a seven-pass transmembrane protein essential for insect olfaction. Little is known about when and how Orco gets into the cilia. Here, using Drosophila melanogaster, we show that the bulk of Orco selectively enters the cilia on adult olfactory sensory neurons in two discrete, one-hour intervals after eclosion. A conditional loss of heterotrimeric kinesin-2 during this period reduces the electrophysiological response to odours and affects olfactory behaviour. We further show that Orco binds to the C-terminal tail fragments of the heterotrimeric kinesin-2 motor, which is required to transfer Orco from the ciliary base to the outer segment and maintain within an approximately four-micron stretch at the distal portion of the ciliary outer-segment. The Orco transport was not affected by the loss of critical intraflagellar transport components, IFT172/Oseg2 and IFT88/NompB, respectively, during the adult stage. These results highlight a novel developmental regulation of seven-pass transmembrane receptor transport into the cilia and indicate that ciliary signalling is both developmentally and temporally regulated.

Photoreceptor Compartment-Specific TULP1 Interactomes

Photoreceptors are highly compartmentalized cells with large amounts of proteins synthesized in the inner segment (IS) and transported to the outer segment (OS) and synaptic terminal. Tulp1 is a photoreceptor-specific protein localized to the IS and synapse. In the absence of Tulp1, several OS-specific proteins are mislocalized and synaptic vesicle recycling is impaired. To better understand the involvement of Tulp1 in protein trafficking, our approach in the current study was to physically isolate Tulp1-containing photoreceptor compartments by serial tangential sectioning of retinas and to identify compartment-specific Tulp1 binding partners by immunoprecipitation followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Our results indicate that Tulp1 has two distinct interactomes. We report the identification of: (1) an IS-specific interaction between Tulp1 and the motor protein Kinesin family member 3a (Kif3a), (2) a synaptic-specific interaction between Tulp1 and the scaffold protein Ribeye, and (3) an interaction between Tulp1 and the cytoskeletal protein microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) in both compartments. Immunolocalization studies in the wild-type retina indicate that Tulp1 and its binding partners co-localize to their respective compartments. Our observations are compatible with Tulp1 functioning in protein trafficking in multiple photoreceptor compartments, likely as an adapter molecule linking vesicles to molecular motors and the cytoskeletal scaffold.

CEP164C regulates flagellum length in stable flagella

Cilia and flagella are required for cell motility and sensing the external environment and can vary in both length and stability. Stable flagella maintain their length without shortening and lengthening and are proposed to “lock” at the end of growth, but molecular mechanisms for this lock are unknown. We show that CEP164C contributes to the locking mechanism at the base of the flagellum in Trypanosoma brucei. CEP164C localizes to mature basal bodies of fully assembled old flagella, but not to growing new flagella, and basal bodies only acquire CEP164C in the third cell cycle after initial assembly. Depletion of CEP164C leads to dysregulation of flagellum growth, with continued growth of the old flagellum, consistent with defects in a flagellum locking mechanism. Inhibiting cytokinesis results in CEP164C acquisition on the new flagellum once it reaches the old flagellum length. These results provide the first insight into the molecular mechanisms regulating flagella growth in cells that must maintain existing flagella while growing new flagella.

Piccolo is essential for the maintenance of mouse retina but not cochlear hair cell function

Piccolo is a presynaptic protein with high conservation among different species, and the expression of Piccolo is extensive in vertebrates. Recently, a small fragment of Piccolo (Piccolino), arising due to the incomplete splicing of intron 5/6, was found to be present in the synapses of retinas and cochleae. However, the comprehensive function of Piccolo in the retina and cochlea remains unclear. In this study, we generated Piccolo knockout mice using CRISPR-Cas9 technology to explore the function of Piccolo. Unexpectedly, whereas no abnormalities were found in the cochlear hair cells of the mutant mice, significant differences were found in the retinas, in which two layers (the outer nuclear layer and the outer plexiform layer) were absent. Additionally, the amplitudes of electroretinograms were significantly reduced and pigmentation was observed in the fundoscopy of the mutant mouse retinas. The expression levels of Bassoon, a homolog of Piccolo, as well as synapse-associated proteins CtBP1, CtBP2, Kif3A, and Rim1 were down-regulated. The numbers of ribbon synapses in the retinas of the mutant mice were also reduced. Altogether, the phenotype of Piccolo-/- mice resembled the symptoms of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) in humans, suggesting Piccolo might be a candidate gene of RP and indicates Piccolo knockout mice are a good model for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of RP.

Functional compartmentalization of photoreceptor neurons

Retinal photoreceptors are neurons that convert dynamically changing patterns of light into electrical signals that are processed by retinal interneurons and ultimately transmitted to vision centers in the brain. They represent the essential first step in seeing without which the remainder of the visual system is rendered moot. To support this role, the major functions of photoreceptors are segregated into three main specialized compartments-the outer segment, the inner segment, and the pre-synaptic terminal. This compartmentalization is crucial for photoreceptor function-disruption leads to devastating blinding diseases for which therapies remain elusive. In this review, we examine the current understanding of the molecular and physical mechanisms underlying photoreceptor functional compartmentalization and highlight areas where significant knowledge gaps remain.

Deletion of the phosphatase INPP5E in the murine retina impairs photoreceptor axoneme formation and prevents disc morphogenesis

INPP5E, also known as pharbin, is a ubiquitously expressed phosphatidylinositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase that is typically located in the primary cilia and modulates the phosphoinositide composition of membranes. Mutations to or loss of INPP5E is associated with ciliary dysfunction. INPP5E missense mutations of the phosphatase catalytic domain cause Joubert syndrome in humans-a syndromic ciliopathy affecting multiple tissues including the brain, liver, kidney, and retina. In contrast to other primary cilia, photoreceptor INPP5E is prominently expressed in the inner segment and connecting cilium and absent in the outer segment, which is a modified primary cilium dedicated to phototransduction. To investigate how loss of INPP5e causes retina degeneration, we generated mice with a retina-specific KO (Inpp5e^F/F;Six3Cre, abbreviated as ^retInpp5e^-/-). These mice exhibit a rapidly progressing rod-cone degeneration resembling Leber congenital amaurosis that is nearly completed by postnatal day 21 (P21) in the central retina. Mutant cone outer segments contain vesicles instead of discs as early as P8. Although P10 mutant outer segments contain structural and phototransduction proteins, axonemal structure and disc membranes fail to form. Connecting cilia of ^retInpp5e^-/- rods display accumulation of intraflagellar transport particles A and B at their distal ends, suggesting disrupted intraflagellar transport. Although INPP5E ablation may not prevent delivery of outer segment-specific proteins by means of the photoreceptor secretory pathway, its absence prevents the assembly of axonemal and disc components. Herein, we suggest a model for INPP5E-Leber congenital amaurosis, proposing how deletion of INPP5E may interrupt axoneme extension and disc membrane elaboration.

Compartmentalization of Photoreceptor Sensory Cilia

Functional compartmentalization of cells is a universal strategy for segregating processes that require specific components, undergo regulation by modulating concentrations of those components, or that would be detrimental to other processes. Primary cilia are hair-like organelles that project from the apical plasma membranes of epithelial cells where they serve as exclusive compartments for sensing physical and chemical signals in the environment. As such, molecules involved in signal transduction are enriched within cilia and regulating their ciliary concentrations allows adaptation to the environmental stimuli. The highly efficient organization of primary cilia has been co-opted by major sensory neurons, olfactory cells and the photoreceptor neurons that underlie vision. The mechanisms underlying compartmentalization of cilia are an area of intense current research. Recent findings have revealed similarities and differences in molecular mechanisms of ciliary protein enrichment and its regulation among primary cilia and sensory cilia. Here we discuss the physiological demands on photoreceptors that have driven their evolution into neurons that rely on a highly specialized cilium for signaling changes in light intensity. We explore what is known and what is not known about how that specialization appears to have driven unique mechanisms for photoreceptor protein and membrane compartmentalization.

Targeting the photoreceptor cilium for the treatment of retinal diseases

Photoreceptors, as polarised sensory neurons, are essential for light sensation and phototransduction, which are highly dependent on the photoreceptor cilium. Structural defects and/or dysfunction of the photoreceptor cilium caused by mutations in photoreceptor-specific genes or common ciliary genes can lead to retinal diseases, including syndromic and nonsyndromic diseases. In this review, we describe the structure and function of the photoreceptor cilium. We also discuss recent findings that underscore the dysregulation of the photoreceptor cilium in various retinal diseases and the therapeutic potential of targeting ciliary genes in these diseases.

ARF family GTPases with links to cilia

The ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) superfamily of regulatory GTPases, including both the ARF and ARF-like (ARL) proteins, control a multitude of cellular functions, including aspects of vesicular traffic, lipid metabolism, mitochondrial architecture, the assembly and dynamics of the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons, and other pathways in cell biology. Considering their general utility, it is perhaps not surprising that increasingly ARF/ARLs have been found in connection to primary cilia. Here, we critically evaluate the current knowledge of the roles four ARF/ARLs (ARF4, ARL3, ARL6, ARL13B) play in cilia and highlight key missing information that would help move our understanding forward. Importantly, these GTPases are themselves regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that activate them and by GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) that act as both effectors and terminators of signaling. We believe that the identification of the GEFs and GAPs and better models of the actions of these GTPases and their regulators will provide a much deeper understanding and appreciation of the mechanisms that underly ciliary functions and the causes of a number of human ciliopathies.

Mouse Models of Inherited Retinal Degeneration with Photoreceptor Cell Loss

Inherited retinal degeneration (RD) leads to the impairment or loss of vision in millions of individuals worldwide, most frequently due to the loss of photoreceptor (PR) cells. Animal models, particularly the laboratory mouse, have been used to understand the pathogenic mechanisms that underlie PR cell loss and to explore therapies that may prevent, delay, or reverse RD. Here, we reviewed entries in the Mouse Genome Informatics and PubMed databases to compile a comprehensive list of monogenic mouse models in which PR cell loss is demonstrated. The progression of PR cell loss with postnatal age was documented in mutant alleles of genes grouped by biological function. As anticipated, a wide range in the onset and rate of cell loss was observed among the reported models. The analysis underscored relationships between RD genes and ciliary function, transcription-coupled DNA damage repair, and cellular chloride homeostasis. Comparing the mouse gene list to human RD genes identified in the RetNet database revealed that mouse models are available for 40% of the known human diseases, suggesting opportunities for future research. This work may provide insight into the molecular players and pathways through which PR degenerative disease occurs and may be useful for planning translational studies.

Gli2 Rescues Delays in Brain Development Induced by Kif3a Dysfunction

The primary cilium in neural stem cells plays distinct roles in different stages during cortical development. Ciliary dysfunctions in human (i.e., ciliopathy) cause developmental defects in multiple organs, including brain developmental delays, which lead to intellectual disabilities and cognitive deficits. However, effective treatment to this devastating developmental disorder is still lacking. Here, we first investigated the effects of ciliopathy on neural stem cells by knocking down Kif3a, a kinesin II motor required for ciliogenesis, in the neurogenic stage of cortical development by in utero electroporation of mouse embryos. Brains electroporated with Kif3a shRNA showed defects in neuronal migration and differentiation, delays in neural stem cell cycle progression, and failures in interkinetic nuclear migration. Interestingly, introduction of Gli1 and Gli2 both can restore the cell cycle progression by elevating cyclin D1 in neural stem cells. Remarkably, enforced Gli2 expression, but not Gli1, partially restored the ability of Kif3a-knockdown neurons to differentiate and move from the germinal ventricular zone to the cortical plate. Moreover, Cyclin D1 knockdown abolished Gli2's rescue effect. These findings suggest Gli2 may rescue neural stem cell proliferation, differentiation and migration through Cyclin D1 pathway and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for human ciliopathy syndromes through modulating the progression of neural stem cell cycle.

Sensory Processing at Ribbon Synapses in the Retina and the Cochlea

In recent years, sensory neuroscientists have made major efforts to dissect the structure and function of ribbon synapses which process sensory information in the eye and ear. This review aims to summarize our current understanding of two key aspects of ribbon synapses: 1) their mechanisms of exocytosis and endocytosis and 2) their molecular anatomy and physiology. Our comparison of ribbon synapses in the cochlea and the retina reveals convergent signaling mechanisms, as well as divergent strategies in different sensory systems.

Diffuse or hitch a ride: how photoreceptor lipidated proteins get from here to there

Photoreceptors are polarized neurons, with specific subcellular compartmentalization and unique requirements for protein expression and trafficking. Each photoreceptor contains an outer segment (OS) where vision begins, an inner segment (IS) where protein synthesis occurs and a synaptic terminal for signal transmission to second-order neurons. The OS is a large, modified primary cilium attached to the IS by a slender connecting cilium (CC), the equivalent of the transition zone (TZ). Daily renewal of ~10% of the OS requires massive protein biosynthesis in the IS with reliable transport and targeting pathways. Transport of lipidated (‘sticky’) proteins depends on solubilization factors, phosphodiesterase δ (PDEδ) and uncoordinated protein-119 (UNC119), and the cargo dispensation factor (CDF), Arf-like protein 3-guanosine triphosphate (ARL3-GTP). As PDE6 and transducin still reside prominently in the OS of PDEδ and UNC119 germline knockout mice, respectively, we propose the existence of an alternate trafficking pathway, whereby lipidated proteins migrate in rhodopsin-containing vesicles of the secretory pathway.

Rescue of cone function in cone-only Nphp5 knockout mouse model with Leber congenital amaurosis phenotype

Purpose

Recessive mutations in the human IQCB1/NPHP5 gene are associated with Senior-Løken syndrome (SLS), a ciliopathy presenting with nephronophthisis and Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA). Nphp5-knockout mice develop LCA without nephronophthisis. Mutant rods rapidly degenerate while mutant cones survive for months. The purpose of this study was to reinitiate cone ciliogenesis in a Nphp5 ^-/-; Nrl ^-/- mouse with viral expression of full-length NPHP5 and rescue function.

Methods

Nphp5 ^-/- mice were mated with Nrl ^-/- mice to generate Nphp5^-/-; Nrl^-/- double-knockouts. Nphp5^-/-; Nrl^-/- mice and Nphp5^+/-; Nrl^-/- controls were phenotyped with confocal microscopy from postnatal day 10 (P10) until 6 months of age. Nphp5^-/-; Nrl^-/- mice and Nphp5^+/-; Nrl^-/- controls were injected at P15 with self-complementary adenoassociated virus 8 (Y733F) (AAV8(Y733F)) expressing GRK1-FL-cNPHP5. Expression of mutant NPHP5 was verified with confocal microscopy and electroretinography (ERG).

Results

In the Nphp5 ^-/- and cone-only Nphp5 ^-/-; Nrl ^-/- mice, cone outer segments did not form, but mutant cones continued to express cone pigments in the inner segments without obvious signs of cone cell death. The mutant cone outer nuclear layer (ONL) and the inner segments were stable for more than 6 months in the cone-only Nphp5 ^-/-; Nrl ^-/- retinas. Viral expression of NPHP5 initiated after eye opening showed that connecting cilia and RP1-positive axonemes were formed. Furthermore, cone pigments and other cone outer segment proteins (cone transducin and cone PDE6) were present in the nascent mutant cone outer segments, and rescued mutant cones exhibited a significant photopic b-wave (30% of Nphp5 ^+/-; Nrl ^-/- controls).

Conclusions

Nphp5^-/-; Nrl^-/- cones persistently express cone pigments in the inner segments without obvious degeneration, providing an extended duration interval for viral gene expression. Viral expression of full-length NPHP5 initiates ciliogenesis between P15 and P60, and mutant cones are, in part, functional, encouraging future retina gene replacement therapy.

Insights into photoreceptor ciliogenesis revealed by animal models

Photoreceptors are polarized neurons, with very specific subcellular compartmentalization and unique requirements for protein expression and trafficking. Each photoreceptor contains an outer segment, the site of photon capture that initiates vision, an inner segment that houses the biosynthetic machinery and a synaptic terminal for signal transmission to downstream neurons. Outer segments and inner segments are connected by a connecting cilium (CC), the equivalent of a transition zone (TZ) of primary cilia. The connecting cilium is part of the basal body/axoneme backbone that stabilizes the outer segment. This report will update the reader on late developments in photoreceptor ciliogenesis and transition zone formation, specifically in mouse photoreceptors, focusing on early events in photoreceptor ciliogenesis. The connecting cilium, an elongated and narrow structure through which all outer segment proteins and membrane components must traffic, functions as a gate that controls access to the outer segment. Here we will review genes and their protein products essential for basal body maturation and for CC/TZ genesis, sorted by phenotype. Emphasis is given to naturally occurring mouse mutants and gene knockouts that interfere with CC/TZ formation and ciliogenesis.

ADP-Ribosylation Factor-Like 2 (ARL2) regulates cilia stability and development of outer segments in rod photoreceptor neurons

Photoreceptor cells are specialized neurons with a sensory cilium carrying an elaborate membrane structure, the outer segment (OS). Inherited mutations in genes involved in ciliogenesis frequently result in OS malformation and blindness. ADP-ribosylation factor-like 2 (ARL2) has recently been implicated in OS formation through its association with Binder of ARL2 (BART or ARL2BP), a protein linked to inherited blinding disease. To test the role of ARL2 in vision we created a transgenic mouse model expressing a tagged-dominant active form of human ARL2 (ARL2-Q70L) under a rod-specific promoter. Transgenic ARL2-Q70L animals exhibit reduced photoreceptor cell function as early as post-natal day 16 and progressive rod degeneration. We attribute loss of photoreceptor function to the defective OS morphogenesis in the ARL2-Q70L transgenic model. ARL2-Q70L expression results in shortened inner and outer segments, shortened and mislocalized axonemes and cytoplasmic accumulation of rhodopsin. In conclusion, we show that ARL2-Q70L is crucial for photoreceptor neuron sensory cilium development. Future research will expand upon our hypothesis that ARL2-Q70L mutant interferes with microtubule maintenance and tubulin regulation resulting in impaired growth of the axoneme and elaboration of the photoreceptor outer segment.

Regulation of ciliary membrane protein trafficking and signalling by kinesin motor proteins

Primary cilia are antenna-like sensory organelles that regulate a substantial number of cellular signalling pathways in vertebrates, both during embryonic development as well as in adulthood, and mutations in genes coding for ciliary proteins are causative of an expanding group of pleiotropic diseases known as ciliopathies. Cilia consist of a microtubule-based axoneme core, which is subtended by a basal body and covered by a bilayer lipid membrane of unique protein and lipid composition. Cilia are dynamic organelles, and the ability of cells to regulate ciliary protein and lipid content in response to specific cellular and environmental cues is crucial for balancing ciliary signalling output. Here we discuss mechanisms involved in regulation of ciliary membrane protein trafficking and signalling, with main focus on kinesin-2 and kinesin-3 family members.

Photoreceptor outer segment as a sink for membrane proteins: hypothesis and implications in retinal ciliopathies

The photoreceptor outer segment (OS) is a unique modification of the primary cilium, specialized for light perception. Being homologous organelles, the primary cilium and the OS share common building blocks and molecular machinery to construct and maintain them. The OS, however, has several unique structural features that are not seen in primary cilia. Although these unique features of the OS have been well documented, their implications in protein localization have been under-appreciated. In this review, we compare the structural properties of the primary cilium and the OS, and propose a hypothesis that the OS can act as a sink for membrane proteins. We further discuss the implications of this hypothesis in polarized protein localization in photoreceptors and mechanisms of photoreceptor degeneration in retinal ciliopathies.

Maintaining centrosomes and cilia

Centrosomes and cilia are present in organisms from all branches of the eukaryotic tree of life. These structures are composed of microtubules and various other proteins, and are required for a plethora of cell processes such as structuring the cytoskeleton, sensing the environment, and motility. Deregulation of centrosome and cilium components leads to a wide range of diseases, some of which are incompatible with life. Centrosomes and cilia are thought to be very stable and can persist over long periods of time. However, these structures can disappear in certain developmental stages and diseases. Moreover, some centrosome and cilia components are quite dynamic. While a large body of knowledge has been produced regarding the biogenesis of these structures, little is known about how they are maintained. In this Review, we propose the existence of specific centrosome and cilia maintenance programs, which are regulated during development and homeostasis, and when deregulated can lead to disease.

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor Arf-like protein 13b is essential for assembly of the mouse photoreceptor transition zone and outer segment

Arf-like protein 13b (ARL13b) is a small GTPase that functions as a guanosine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for ARL3-GDP. ARL13b is located exclusively in photoreceptor outer segments (OS) presumably anchored to discs by palmitoylation, whereas ARL3 is an inner segment cytoplasmic protein. Hypomorphic mutations affecting the ARL13b G-domain inactivate GEF activity and lead to Joubert syndrome (JS) in humans. However, the molecular mechanisms in ARL13b mutation-induced Joubert syndrome, particularly the function of primary cilia, are still incompletely understood. Because Arl13b germline knockouts in mouse are lethal, we generated retina-specific deletions of ARL13b in which ARL3-GTP formation is impaired. In mouse ^retArl13b^-/- central retina at postnatal day 6 (P6) and older, outer segments were absent, thereby preventing trafficking of outer segment proteins to their destination. Ultrastructure of postnatal day 10 (P10) central ^retArl13b^-/- photoreceptors revealed docking of basal bodies to cell membranes, but mature transition zones and disc structures were absent. Deletion of ARL13b in adult mice via tamoxifen-induced Cre/loxP recombination indicated that axonemes gradually shorten and outer segments progressively degenerate. IFT88, essential for anterograde intraflagellar transport (IFT), was significantly reduced at ^tamArl13b^-/- basal bodies, suggesting impairment of intraflagellar transport. AAV2/8 vector-mediated ARL13b expression in the ^retArl13b^-/- retina rescued ciliogenesis.

BBSome function is required for both the morphogenesis and maintenance of the photoreceptor outer segment

Genetic mutations disrupting the structure and function of primary cilia cause various inherited retinal diseases in humans. Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is a genetically heterogeneous, pleiotropic ciliopathy characterized by retinal degeneration, obesity, postaxial polydactyly, intellectual disability, and genital and renal abnormalities. To gain insight into the mechanisms of retinal degeneration in BBS, we developed a congenital knockout mouse of Bbs8, as well as conditional mouse models in which function of the BBSome (a protein complex that mediates ciliary trafficking) can be temporally inactivated or restored. We demonstrate that BBS mutant mice have defects in retinal outer segment morphogenesis. We further demonstrate that removal of Bbs8 in adult mice affects photoreceptor function and disrupts the structural integrity of the outer segment. Notably, using a mouse model in which a gene trap inhibiting Bbs8 gene expression can be removed by an inducible FLP recombinase, we show that when BBS8 is restored in immature retinas with malformed outer segments, outer segment extension can resume normally and malformed outer segment discs are displaced distally by normal outer segment structures. Over time, the retinas of the rescued mice become morphologically and functionally normal, indicating that there is a window of plasticity when initial retinal outer segment morphogenesis defects can be ameliorated.

The BBSome is a protein complex that regulates ciliary trafficking in primary cilia, and mutations that impair BBSome function cause Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS). BBS patients have retinal degeneration leading to blindness, but the disease pathophysiology has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we found that the BBSome is necessary for the structural organization of photoreceptor outer segments, and that the loss of different functional BBSome subunits causes outer segment malformation. Using a mouse model that allows the temporal inactivation of the BBSome, we inactivated BBSome function after the outer segment had formed normally. We found that the BBSome is required for both the initial formation and the continual maintenance of outer segment structures throughout life. In addition, using a mouse model that allows the temporal restoration of the BBSome, we restored BBSome function in immature photoreceptors and show that the malformed outer segment discs are displaced distally by normally formed outer segment structures. This finding indicates that when gene function is restored in immature retinas shortly after initial outer segment malformation, morphologically normal outer segments and a functionally normal retina can still result. This study has important implications for the timing of treatment of human retinal diseases.

Intraflagellar transport: mechanisms of motor action, cooperation, and cargo delivery

Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a form of motor-dependent cargo transport that is essential for the assembly, maintenance, and length control of cilia, which play critical roles in motility, sensory reception, and signal transduction in virtually all eukaryotic cells. During IFT, anterograde kinesin-2 and retrograde IFT dynein motors drive the bidirectional transport of IFT trains that deliver cargo, for example, axoneme precursors such as tubulins as well as molecules of the signal transduction machinery, to their site of assembly within the cilium. Following its discovery in Chlamydomonas, IFT has emerged as a powerful model system for studying general principles of motor-dependent cargo transport and we now appreciate the diversity that exists in the mechanism of IFT within cilia of different cell types. The absence of heterotrimeric kinesin-2 function, for example, causes a complete loss of both IFT and cilia in Chlamydomonas, but following its loss in Caenorhabditis elegans, where its primary function is loading the IFT machinery into cilia, homodimeric kinesin-2-driven IFT persists and assembles a full-length cilium. Generally, heterotrimeric kinesin-2 and IFT dynein motors are thought to play widespread roles as core IFT motors, whereas homodimeric kinesin-2 motors are accessory motors that mediate different functions in a broad range of cilia, in some cases contributing to axoneme assembly or the delivery of signaling molecules but in many other cases their ciliary functions, if any, remain unknown. In this review, we focus on mechanisms of motor action, motor cooperation, and motor-dependent cargo delivery during IFT.

The cytoplasmic tail of rhodopsin triggers rapid rod degeneration in kinesin-2 mutants

Photoreceptor degeneration can lead to blindness and represents the most common form of neural degenerative disease worldwide. Although many genes involved in photoreceptor degeneration have been identified, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here we examined photoreceptor development in zebrafish kif3a and kif3b mutants, which affect two subunits of the kinesin-2 complex. In both mutants, rods degenerated quickly, whereas cones underwent a slow degeneration process. Notably, the photoreceptor defects were considerably more severe in kif3a mutants than in kif3b mutants. In the cone photoreceptors of kif3a mutants, opsin proteins accumulated in the apical region and formed abnormal membrane structures. In contrast, rhodopsins were enriched in the rod cell body membrane and represented the primary reason for rapid rod degeneration in these mutants. Moreover, removal of the cytoplasmic tail of rhodopsin to reduce its function, but not decreasing rhodopsin expression levels, prevented rod degeneration in both kif3a and kif3b mutants. Of note, overexpression of full-length rhodopsin or its cytoplasmic tail domain, but not of rhodopsin lacking the cytoplasmic tail, exacerbated rod degeneration in kif3a mutants, implying an important role of the cytoplasmic tail in rod degeneration. Finally, we showed that the cytoplasmic tail of rhodopsin might trigger rod degeneration through activating the downstream calcium signaling pathway, as drug treatment with inhibitors of intracellular calcium release prevented rod degeneration in kif3a mutants. Our results demonstrate a previously unknown function of the rhodopsin cytoplasmic domain during opsin-triggered photoreceptor degeneration and may open up new avenues for managing this disease.

Cilia - The sensory antennae in the eye

Cilia are hair-like projections found on almost all cells in the human body. Originally believed to function merely in motility, the function of solitary non-motile (primary) cilia was long overlooked. Recent research has demonstrated that primary cilia function as signalling hubs that sense environmental cues and are pivotal for organ development and function, tissue hoemoestasis, and maintenance of human health. Cilia share a common anatomy and their diverse functional features are achieved by evolutionarily conserved functional modules, organized into sub-compartments. Defects in these functional modules are responsible for a rapidly growing list of human diseases collectively termed ciliopathies. Ocular pathogenesis is common in virtually all classes of syndromic ciliopathies, and disruptions in cilia genes have been found to be causative in a growing number of non-syndromic retinal dystrophies. This review will address what is currently known about cilia contribution to visual function. We will focus on the molecular and cellular functions of ciliary proteins and their role in the photoreceptor sensory cilia and their visual phenotypes. We also highlight other ciliated cell types in tissues of the eye (e.g. lens, RPE and Müller glia cells) discussing their possible contribution to disease progression. Progress in basic research on the cilia function in the eye is paving the way for therapeutic options for retinal ciliopathies. In the final section we describe the latest advancements in gene therapy, read-through of non-sense mutations and stem cell therapy, all being adopted to treat cilia dysfunction in the retina.

Ciliopathy-associated IQCB1/NPHP5 protein is required for mouse photoreceptor outer segment formation

Null mutations in the human IQCB1/NPHP5 (nephrocystin-5) gene that encodes NPHP5 are the most frequent cause of Senior-Løken syndrome, a ciliopathy that is characterized by Leber congenital amaurosis and nephronophthisis. We generated germline Nphp5-knockout mice by placing a β-Geo gene trap in intron 4, thereby truncating NPHP5 at Leu87 and removing all known functional domains. At eye opening, Nphp5-/- mice exhibited absence of scotopic and photopic electroretinogram responses, a phenotype that resembles Leber congenital amaurosis. Outer segment transmembrane protein accumulation in Nphp5-/- endoplasmic reticulum was evident as early as postnatal day (P)6. EGFP-CETN2, a centrosome and transition zone marker, identified basal bodies in Nphp5-/- photoreceptors, but without fully developed transition zones. Ultrastructure of P6 and 10 Nphp5-/- photoreceptors revealed aberrant transition zones of reduced diameter. Nphp5-/- photoreceptor degeneration was complete at 1 mo of age but was delayed significantly in Nphp5-/-;Nrl-/- (cone only) retina. Nphp5-/- mouse embryonic fibroblast developed normal cilia, and Nphp5-/- kidney histology at 1 yr of age showed no significant pathology. Results establish that nephrocystin-5 is essential for photoreceptor outer segment formation but is dispensable for kidney and mouse embryonic fibroblast ciliary formation.-Ronquillo, C. C., Hanke-Gogokhia, C., Revelo, M. P., Frederick, J. M., Jiang, L., Baehr, W. Ciliopathy-associated IQCB1/NPHP5 protein is required for mouse photoreceptor outer segment formation.

Photoreceptors at a glance

Retinal photoreceptor cells contain a specialized outer segment (OS) compartment that functions in the capture of light and its conversion into electrical signals in a process known as phototransduction. In rods, photoisomerization of 11-cis to all-trans retinal within rhodopsin triggers a biochemical cascade culminating in the closure of cGMP-gated channels and hyperpolarization of the cell. Biochemical reactions return the cell to its 'dark state' and the visual cycle converts all-trans retinal back to 11-cis retinal for rhodopsin regeneration. OS are continuously renewed, with aged membrane removed at the distal end by phagocytosis and new membrane added at the proximal end through OS disk morphogenesis linked to protein trafficking. The molecular basis for disk morphogenesis remains to be defined in detail although several models have been proposed, and molecular mechanisms underlying protein trafficking are under active investigation. The aim of this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster is to highlight our current understanding of photoreceptor structure, phototransduction, the visual cycle, OS renewal, protein trafficking and retinal degenerative diseases.

Abnormal photoreceptor outer segment development and early retinal degeneration in kif3a mutant zebrafish

Photoreceptors are highly specialized sensory neurons that possess a modified primary cilium called the outer segment. Photoreceptor outer segment formation and maintenance require highly active protein transport via a process known as intraflagellar transport. Anterograde transport in outer segments is powered by the heterotrimeric kinesin II and coordinated by intraflagellar transport proteins. Here, we describe a new zebrafish model carrying a nonsense mutation in the kinesin II family member 3A (kif3a) gene. Kif3a mutant zebrafish exhibited curved body axes and kidney cysts. Outer segments were not formed in most parts of the mutant retina, and rhodopsin was mislocalized, suggesting KIF3A has a role in rhodopsin trafficking. Both rod and cone photoreceptors degenerated rapidly between 4 and 9 days post fertilization, and electroretinography response was not detected in 7 days post fertilization mutant larvae. Loss of KIF3A in zebrafish also resulted in an intracellular transport defect affecting anterograde but not retrograde transport of organelles. Our results indicate KIF3A plays a conserved role in photoreceptor outer segment formation and intracellular transport.

Molecular basis for photoreceptor outer segment architecture

To serve vision, vertebrate rod and cone photoreceptors must detect photons, convert the light stimuli into cellular signals, and then convey the encoded information to downstream neurons. Rods and cones are sensory neurons that each rely on specialized ciliary organelles to detect light. These organelles, called outer segments, possess elaborate architectures that include many hundreds of light-sensitive membranous disks arrayed one atop another in precise register. These stacked disks capture light and initiate the chain of molecular and cellular events that underlie normal vision. Outer segment organization is challenged by an inherently dynamic nature; these organelles are subject to a renewal process that replaces a significant fraction of their disks (up to ∼10%) on a daily basis. In addition, a broad range of environmental and genetic insults can disrupt outer segment morphology to impair photoreceptor function and viability. In this chapter, we survey the major progress that has been made for understanding the molecular basis of outer segment architecture. We also discuss key aspects of organelle lipid and protein composition, and highlight distributions, interactions, and potential structural functions of key OS-resident molecules, including: kinesin-2, actin, RP1, prominin-1, protocadherin 21, peripherin-2/rds, rom-1, glutamic acid-rich proteins, and rhodopsin. Finally, we identify key knowledge gaps and challenges that remain for understanding how normal outer segment architecture is established and maintained.

Arf-like Protein 3 (ARL3) Regulates Protein Trafficking and Ciliogenesis in Mouse Photoreceptors

Arf-like protein 3 (ARL3) is a ubiquitous small GTPase expressed in ciliated cells of plants and animals. Germline deletion ofArl3in mice causes multiorgan ciliopathy reminiscent of Bardet-Biedl or Joubert syndromes. As photoreceptors are elegantly compartmentalized and have cilia, we probed the function of ARL3 (ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf)-like 3 protein) by generating rod photoreceptor-specific (prefix(rod)) and retina-specific (prefix(ret))Arl3deletions. In predegenerate(rod)Arl3(-/-)mice, lipidated phototransduction proteins showed trafficking deficiencies, consistent with the role of ARL3 as a cargo displacement factor for lipid-binding proteins. By contrast,(ret)Arl3(-/-)rods and cones expressing Cre recombinase during embryonic development formed neither connecting cilia nor outer segments and degenerated rapidly. Absence of cilia infers participation of ARL3 in ciliogenesis and axoneme formation. Ciliogenesis was rescued, and degeneration was reversed in part by subretinal injection of adeno-associated virus particles expressing ARL3-EGFP. The conditional knock-out phenotypes permitted identification of two ARL3 functions, both in the GTP-bound form as follows: one as a regulator of intraflagellar transport participating in photoreceptor ciliogenesis and the other as a cargo displacement factor transporting lipidated protein to the outer segment. Surprisingly, a farnesylated inositol polyphosphate phosphatase only trafficked from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi, thereby excluding it from a role in photoreceptor cilia physiology.

Functional differentiation of cooperating kinesin-2 motors orchestrates cargo import and transport in C. elegans cilia

Intracellular transport depends on cooperation between distinct motor proteins. Two anterograde intraflagellar transport (IFT) motors, heterotrimeric kinesin-II and homodimeric OSM-3, cooperate to move cargo along Caenorhabditis elegans cilia. Here, using quantitative fluorescence microscopy, with single-molecule sensitivity, of IFT in living strains containing single-copy transgenes encoding fluorescent IFT proteins, we show that kinesin-II transports IFT trains through the ciliary base and transition zone to a 'handover zone' on the proximal axoneme. There, OSM-3 gradually replaces kinesin-II, yielding velocity profiles inconsistent with in vitro motility assays, and then drives transport to the ciliary tip. Dissociated kinesin-II motors undergo rapid turnaround and recycling to the ciliary base, whereas OSM-3 is recycled mainly to the handover zone. This reveals a functional differentiation in which the slower, less processive kinesin-II imports IFT trains into the cilium and OSM-3 drives their long-range transport, thereby optimizing cargo delivery.

Photoreceptor Sensory Cilium: Traversing the Ciliary Gate

Cilia are antenna-like extensions of the plasma membrane found in nearly all cell types. In the retina of the eye, photoreceptors develop unique sensory cilia. Not much was known about the mechanisms underlying the formation and function of photoreceptor cilia, largely because of technical limitations and the specific structural and functional modifications that cannot be modeled in vitro. With recent advances in microscopy techniques and molecular and biochemical approaches, we are now beginning to understand the molecular basis of photoreceptor ciliary architecture, ciliary function and its involvement in human diseases. Here, I will discuss the studies that have revealed new knowledge of how photoreceptor cilia regulate their identity and function while coping with high metabolic and trafficking demands associated with processing light signal.

Kinesin family 17 (osmotic avoidance abnormal-3) is dispensable for photoreceptor morphology and function

In Caenorhabditis elegans, homodimeric [kinesin family (KIF) 17, osmotic avoidance abnormal-3 (OSM-3)] and heterotrimeric (KIF3) kinesin-2 motors are required to establish sensory cilia by intraflagellar transport (IFT) where KIF3 and KIF17 cooperate to build the axoneme core and KIF17 builds the distal segments. However, the function of KIF17 in vertebrates is unresolved. We expressed full-length and motorless KIF17 constructs in mouse rod photoreceptors using adeno-associated virus in Xenopus laevis rod photoreceptors using a transgene and in ciliated IMCD3 cells. We found that tagged KIF17 localized along the rod outer segment axoneme when expressed in mouse and X. laevis photoreceptors, whereas KIF3A was restricted to the proximal axoneme. Motorless KIF3A and KIF17 mutants caused photoreceptor degeneration, likely through dominant negative effects on IFT. KIF17 mutant lacking the motor domain translocated to nuclei after exposure of a C-terminal nuclear localization signal. Germ-line deletion of Kif17 in mouse did not affect photoreceptor function. A rod-specific Kif3/Kif17 double knockout mouse demonstrated that KIF17 and KIF3 do not act synergistically and did not prevent rhodopsin trafficking to rod outer segments. In summary, the nematode model of KIF3/KIF17 cooperation apparently does not apply to mouse photoreceptors in which the photosensory cilium is built exclusively by KIF3.