Metabolic trajectories across early adolescence: differences by sex, weight, pubertal status and race/ethnicity

High Systolic Blood Pressure of High-Income African American Children

BACKGROUND

According to the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, racism may reduce the health returns of family socioeconomic status (SEP) resources such as family income for racial minorities, particularly African Americans, compared to Whites. However, we are unaware of any previous studies on racial variation in the protective effects of family income on children's blood pressure.

AIM

We conducted this study to compare the overall effects of family income on pre-adolescents' systolic and diastolic blood pressure, test racial variation in this effect, and investigate whether racial variation in this regard is due to racial differences in body mass index.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 4007 racially diverse US children 9-10 years old. The independent variable was family income measured as a three-level categorical variable: less than $50 K USD, 50-100 K USD, and 100 + K USD. The primary outcomes were systolic and diastolic blood pressure measured up to three times at 1-min time intervals. Body mass index was the mediator. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis to adjust for data nested to the centers, families, and individuals. Age, gender, parental education, family structure, and Latino ethnicity were covariates.

RESULTS

In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms in the model, family income did not show an inverse association with children's systolic (for 100 + K USD family income: β =  - 0.71, p = 0.233 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.01, p = 0.989) or diastolic blood pressure (for 100 + K USD family income: β =  - 0.66, p = 0.172 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.23, p = 0.600). However, race showed a significant interaction with family income on systolic blood pressure (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.75, p = 0.034), suggesting higher systolic blood pressure of African American adolescents from high-income backgrounds. Racial variation in the protective effect of family income on systolic BP was no more significant (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.14, p = 0.149) after we controlled for body mass index (BMI), which was higher for African American than White adolescents.

CONCLUSION

The association between high family income and reduced systolic blood pressure in pre-adolescence might be weaker for African Americans compared to Whites, a difference that African American adolescents' higher body mass index can explain.

Evaluation of the Prime Diet Quality Score from Early Childhood Through Mid-Adolescence

BACKGROUND

Few diet quality indices have been developed and validated for use among children and adolescents. Additionally, many available indices require completion of burdensome dietary assessments.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to calculate and evaluate the performance of a modified version of the food-based Prime Diet Quality Score (PDQS) derived from different diet assessment methods conducted at 4 time points in a single study population from childhood through adolescence.

METHODS

Among 1460 child participants in the Project Viva cohort, we calculated the PDQS in early and mid-childhood and early and mid-adolescence using dietary data obtained from food frequency questionnaire (early childhood: parent report), PrimeScreen (mid-childhood: parent report; early adolescence: self-report) and 24-h recall (mid-adolescence: self-report). We evaluated construct and relative validity and internal reliability of the score in each life stage.

RESULTS

The PDQS showed a range of scores at all life stages and higher scores were associated with intake of many health-promoting macronutrients and micronutrients (e.g., protein, fiber, and vitamins) in early childhood and mid-adolescence. The PDQS performed similarly to the Youth Healthy Eating Index/Healthy Eating Index (Spearman r = 0.63-0.85) in various assessments. Higher PDQS was associated with expected characteristics including more frequent breakfast eating, family dinners, and vigorous physical activity; with less frequent TV viewing and fast food intake; and with more sleep and higher maternal diet scores during pregnancy. Cross-sectional associations of the PDQS with various anthropometric measurements and biomarkers were inconsistent but generally in the expected directions (e.g., higher PDQS associated with lower triglycerides and insulin and higher HDL cholesterol). Internal reliability was consistent with what has been found for other diet quality indices.

CONCLUSIONS

The PDQS can be calculated from data collected using different and brief dietary assessment methods and appears to be a valid and useful measure of overall diet quality in children and adolescents. Project Viva was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02820402.

Metabolomic signatures for blood pressure from early to late adolescence: findings from a U.S. cohort

INTRODUCTION

Metabolite signatures for blood pressure (BP) may reveal biomarkers, elucidate pathogenesis, and provide prevention targets for high BP. Knowledge regarding metabolites associated with BP in adolescence remains limited.

OBJECTIVES

Investigate the associations between metabolites and adolescent BP, both cross-sectionally (in early and late adolescence) and prospectively (from early to late adolescence).

METHODS

Participants are from the Project Viva prospective cohort. During the early (median: 12.8 years; N = 556) and late (median: 17.4 years; N = 501) adolescence visits, we conducted untargeted plasma metabolomic profiling and measured systolic (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP). We used linear regression to identify metabolites cross-sectionally associated with BP at each time point, and to assess prospective associations of changes in metabolite levels from early to late adolescence with late adolescence BP. We used Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis and Spearman's partial correlation to identify metabolite clusters associated with BP at each time point.

RESULTS

In the linear models, higher androgenic steroid levels were consistently associated with higher SBP and DBP in early and late adolescence. A cluster of 59 metabolites, mainly composed of androgenic steroids, correlated with higher SBP and DBP in early adolescence. A cluster primarily composed of fatty acid lipids was marginally associated with higher SBP in females in late adolescence. Multiple metabolites, including those in the creatine and purine metabolism sub-pathways, were associated with higher SBP and DBP both cross-sectionally and prospectively.

CONCLUSION

Our results shed light on the potential metabolic processes and pathophysiology underlying high BP in adolescents.

The Effects of COVID-19 Virtual Learning on Body Fat and Insulin Resistance in Adolescents with Overweight or Obesity

(1) Background: COVID-19 virtual learning reduced structural supports for adolescent physical activity and diet, threatening metabolic health, especially in teens with overweight or obesity (OWOB). (2) Methods: Adolescents (N = 14) with OWOB completed fasting blood draws (measuring insulin resistance, IR) and Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA, measuring total body fat percent, TBF%) pre-COVID-19 and during COVID-19. Changes in TBF% and IR were calculated (1) pre-COVID-19 and (2) from pre-COVID-19 to during COVID-19. Age and body mass index (BMI) percentile-matched data assessed normative changes across similar, non-COVID-19 time periods. Paired t-tests compared TBF% change pre- to during COVID-19 with (1) TBF% change pre-COVID19 and (2) TBF% normative change. Two ANCOVAs compared IR change pre- to during COVID-19 with (1) IR change pre-COVID-19 controlling for BMI z-score and difference in time between assessments and (2) normative change in IR controlling for sex/race. (3) Results: The TBF% change pre-COVID-19 and the normative change were similar. The TBF% increased more (~six percentage points) during COVID-19 compared to normative change (p < 0.01). During COVID-19, IR increased more (~2.5 units) than change pre-COVID-19 (p = 0.03) and increased more (~3.5 units) than normative change (p = 0.01). (4) Conclusions: TBF% and IR increased exponentially during COVID-19 in teens with OWOB compared to pre-COVID-19 and normative changes.

Tracking of serum lipids in healthy children on a year-to-year basis

OBJECTIVES

To assess the stability of lipid profiles throughout childhood and evaluate their onset and dynamic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lipid markers were longitudinally measured in more than 1300 healthy children from the LIFE Child study (Germany) and categorized into normal, at-risk, or adverse. Year-to-year intra-person persistence of the categories during follow-ups was examined and Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated.

RESULTS

We found strong positive correlations for TC, LDL-C and ApoB (r > 0.75, p < 0.001) from the age of four years. Correlations were lowest during the first two years of life. Most children with normal levels also had normal levels the following year. Children with at-risk levels showed a tendency towards normal levels at the follow-up visit. Adverse levels of TC, LDL-C, ApoB (all ages), and HDL-C (from age 15) persisted in more than half of the affected children. Age-dependent patterns of stability were most pronounced and similar for TC, LDL-C, and ApoB.

CONCLUSIONS

Normal levels of serum lipids show high stability and adverse levels stabilized in early childhood for TC, LDL, and ApoB. At-risk and adverse levels of TC, LDL-C or ApoB may warrant further or repeated diagnostic measurements with regards to preventing CVD in the long run.

What Happens In Utero Does Not Stay In Utero: a Review of Evidence for Prenatal Epigenetic Programming by Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Infants, Children, and Adolescents

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Review human literature on the relationship between prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and epigenetic modifications in infants, children, and adolescents < 18 years of age.

RECENT FINDINGS

Eleven studies were identified, with study populations located in the U.S., Taiwan, Japan, and the Kingdom of Denmark. Many studies (n = 5) were cross-sectional, with PFAS exposure and epigenetic outcomes measured in the same tissue collected at delivery via cord blood or dried newborn blood spots. The other six studies were prospective, with prenatal PFAS measured on maternal blood during pregnancy and DNA methylation (DNAm) assessed in cord blood and childhood peripheral leukocytes (n = 1 study). Epigenetic marks of interest included global DNAm measures (LINE-1, Alu, and an ELISA-based method), candidate genes (IFG2, H19, and MEST), and epigenome-wide DNA methylation via array-based methods (Infinium 450 K and EPIC). Two studies using array-based methods employed discovery and validation paradigms, in which a small subset of loci (n = 6 and n = 4) were replicated in the discovery population. One site (TNXB) was a hit in two independent studies. Collectively, loci associated with PFAS were in regions involved in growth and development, lipid metabolism, and nutrient metabolism. There is moderate human evidence supporting associations of prenatal PFAS exposure on DNAm at birth, with one study suggesting sustained effects into childhood. Future studies are warranted to link PFAS-associated DNAm to health outcomes, as well as to investigate the role of other epigenetic marks such as hydroxymethylation, miRNA expression, and histone modifications.

Hypertension in children and adolescents

Definition and management of arterial hypertension in children and adolescents are uncertain, due to different positions of current guidelines. The European Society of Cardiology task-force, constituted by Associations and Councils with interest in arterial hypertension, has reviewed current literature and evidence, to produce a Consensus Document focused on aspects of hypertension in the age range of 6-16 years, including definition, methods of measurement of blood pressure, clinical evaluation, assessment of hypertension-mediated target organ damage, evaluation of possible vascular, renal and hormonal causes, assessment and management of concomitant risk factors with specific attention for obesity, and anti-hypertensive strategies, especially focused on life-style modifications. The Consensus Panel also suggests aspects that should be studied with high priority, including generation of multi-ethnic sex, age and height specific European normative tables, implementation of randomized clinical trials on different diagnostic and therapeutic aspects, and long-term cohort studies to link with adult cardiovascular risk. Finally, suggestions for the successful implementation of the contents of the present Consensus document are also given.

Puberty Timing and Sex-Specific Trajectories of Systolic Blood Pressure: a Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Sex differences in systolic blood pressure (SBP) emerge during adolescence but the role of puberty is not well understood. We examined sex-specific changes in SBP preceding and following puberty and examined the impact of puberty timing on SBP trajectories in females and males.

METHODS

Trajectories of SBP before and after puberty and by timing of puberty in females and males in a contemporary birth cohort study were analyzed. Repeated measures of height from age 5 to 20 years were used to identify puberty timing (age at peak height velocity). SBP was measured on ten occasions from 3 to 24 years (N participants, 4062; repeated SBP measures, 29 172). Analyses were performed using linear spline multilevel models based on time before and after puberty and were adjusted for parental factors and early childhood factors.

RESULTS

Mean age at peak height velocity was 11.7 years (SD, 0.8) for females and 13.6 years (SD, 0.9) for males. Males had faster rates of increase in SBP before puberty leading to 10.19 mm Hg (95% CI, 6.80-13.57) higher mean SBP at puberty which remained similar at 24 years (mean difference, 11.43 mm Hg [95% CI, 7.22-15.63]). Puberty timing was associated with small transient differences in SBP trajectories postpuberty in both sexes and small differences at 24 years in females only.

CONCLUSIONS

A large proportion of the higher SBP observed in males compared with females in early adulthood is accrued before puberty. Interventions targeting puberty timing are unlikely to influence SBP in early adulthood.

Metabolomic Predictors of Dysglycemia in Two U.S. Youth Cohorts

Here, we seek to identify metabolite predictors of dysglycemia in youth. In the discovery analysis among 391 youth in the Exploring Perinatal Outcomes among CHildren (EPOCH) cohort, we used reduced rank regression (RRR) to identify sex-specific metabolite predictors of impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and elevated fasting glucose (EFG: Q4 vs. Q1 fasting glucose) 6 years later and compared the predictive capacity of four models: Model 1: ethnicity, parental diabetes, in utero exposure to diabetes, and body mass index (BMI); Model 2: Model 1 covariates + baseline waist circumference, insulin, lipids, and Tanner stage; Model 3: Model 2 + baseline fasting glucose; Model 4: Model 3 + baseline metabolite concentrations. RRR identified 19 metabolite predictors of fasting glucose in boys and 14 metabolite predictors in girls. Most compounds were on lipid, amino acid, and carbohydrate metabolism pathways. In boys, no improvement in aurea under the receiver operating characteristics curve AUC occurred until the inclusion of metabolites in Model 4, which increased the AUC for prediction of IFG (7.1%) from 0.81 to 0.97 (p = 0.002). In girls, %IFG was too low for regression analysis (3.1%), but we found similar results for EFG. We replicated the results among 265 youth in the Project Viva cohort, focusing on EFG due to low %IFG, suggesting that the metabolite profiles identified herein have the potential to improve the prediction of glycemia in youth.

Dynamic relationships between body fat and circulating adipokine levels from adolescence to young adulthood: The Santiago Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Adipose tissue secretes adipokines such as adiponectin and leptin, playing important roles in energy metabolism. The longitudinal associations between such adipokines and body fat accumulation have not been established, especially during adolescence and young adulthood and in diverse populations. The study aims to assess the longitudinal association between body fat measured with dual X-ray absorptiometry and plasma adipokines from adolescence to young adulthood.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Among Hispanic/Latino participants (N = 537) aged 16.8 (SD: 0.3) years of the Santiago Longitudinal Study, we implemented structural equation modeling to estimate the sex-specific associations between adiposity (body fat percent (BF%) and proportion of trunk fat (PTF)) and adipokines (adiponectin and leptin levels) during adolescence (16 y) and these values after 6 years of follow-up (22 y). In addition, we further investigated whether the associations differed by baseline insulin resistance (IR) status. We found evidence for associations between 16 y BF% and 22 y leptin levels (β (SE): 0.58 (0.06) for females; 0.53 (0.05) for males), between 16 y PTF and 22 y adiponectin levels (β (SE): -0.31 (0.06) for females; -0.18 (0.06) for males) and between 16 y adiponectin levels and 22 y BF% (β (SE): 0.12 (0.04) for both females and males).

CONCLUSION

We observed dynamic relationships between adiposity and adipokines levels from late adolescence to young adulthood in a Hispanic/Latino population further demonstrating the importance of this period of the life course in the development of obesity.

Associations of midchildhood to early adolescence central adiposity gain with cardiometabolic health in early adolescence

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations of central adiposity gain from midchildhood to early adolescence with cardiometabolic health markers in early adolescence.

METHODS

A total of 620 participants were studied in Project Viva. In midchildhood (mean age = 7.8 years) and early adolescence (12.9 years), waist circumference and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry-measured visceral adipose tissue, subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue, and trunk fat were obtained. Central adiposity gain was calculated as change per year between visits. Cardiometabolic health markers, including blood pressure, lipids, markers of insulin resistance, inflammation, and adipokines, were collected in early adolescence.

RESULTS

Greater waist circumference gain was associated with higher log triglycerides (β 0.07 mg/dL; 95% CI: 0.02-0.13), log alanine aminotransferase (0.07 U/L; 95% CI: 0.03-0.12), log high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (0.43 mg/L; 95% CI: 0.28-0.58), and other cardiometabolic markers in early adolescence. Directly measured central adiposity gains were associated with higher systolic blood pressure z score in early adolescence (visceral adipose tissue [0.13 SD units; 95% CI: 0.04-0.23], subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue [0.18 SD units; 95% CI: 0.04-0.31], and trunk fat [0.21 SD units; 95% CI: 0.06-0.36]). These associations were independent of baseline and change in total adiposity from midchildhood to early adolescence.

CONCLUSIONS

Monitoring central adiposity gain may enable identification and intervention in children vulnerable to developing cardiometabolic health risks.

Longitudinal associations of fruit juice intake in infancy with DXA-measured abdominal adiposity in mid-childhood and early adolescence

BACKGROUND

Excessive abdominal adiposity is associated with health risks in children and adults. Higher consumption of fruit juice and other sources of fructose has been shown to promote weight gain and specifically visceral adiposity in adulthood.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the longitudinal associations of fruit juice intake in infancy with visceral adiposity in mid-childhood and early adolescence.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 783 participants in Project Viva, a US prebirth cohort. Our exposure was fruit juice intake at 1 y old. We measured visceral adipose tissue (VAT), subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT), and total abdominal adipose tissue (TAAT) in mid-childhood (mean age 7.8 ± 0.7 y) and early adolescence (13 ± 0.8 y) using DXA. We examined longitudinal associations of fruit juice intake at 1 y with VAT, SAAT, and TAAT area sex-specific standard deviation scores (SDSs) in mid-childhood and early adolescence using linear mixed models. We adjusted for child age at outcome, sex, race/ethnicity, age and BMI z-score at 1 y-questionnaire, maternal prepregnancy BMI, level of education, and prenatal sugar-sweetened beverage intake, paternal BMI, and median household income at birth.

RESULTS

After adjusting for child and parental covariates, each serving (120 mL) per day of fruit juice intake at 1 y was associated with persistently greater VAT area SDS (β = 0.08; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.13) at both timepoints in boys and girls. The association of fruit juice intake with VAT appeared stronger than that with SAAT (β = 0.05; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.09) and TAAT (β = 0.05; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.10).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher fruit juice intake in infancy was associated with greater abdominal adiposity, particularly VAT, in mid-childhood and early adolescence. Our findings support limiting fruit juice intake in infancy, which can have later impact on visceral adiposity in childhood and adolescence.Clinical Trial Registry number: NCT02820402 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02820402).

Independent predictors of insulin resistance in Brazilian adolescents: Results of the study of cardiovascular risk in adolescents-Brazil

Considering the current changes in dietary patterns and the increasing prevalence of excess weight throughout the world, several studies have reported insulin resistance, which is a key driver of many chronic diseases, to be an important public health problem in all age groups. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify the prevalence and independent predictors of insulin resistance in Brazilian adolescents. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a probabilistic, representative sample of Brazilian adolescents (n = 37,023) who participated in the Study of Cardiovascular Risk in Adolescents. Data were collected on demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, anthropometric, and biochemical characteristics as well as antioxidant micronutrient intake (vitamins A, C, E, zinc, and selenium). Insulin resistance was determined using the Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) and classified based on the 75th percentile of the sample distribution. Insulin resistance was detected in 27% of the adolescents and was more prevalent among those aged 12 to 14 years (PR: 1.26 [95%CI: 1.13;1.41]), those residing in the southern and south-eastern regions of the country (PR: 1.47 [95%CI: 1.27;1.70]), those who were physically inactive (PR: 1.12 [95%CI: 1.02;1.23]), and those did not consume alcohol (PR: 1.50 [95%CI: 1.13;1.99]). The prevalence of insulin resistance was 2.5-fold higher among individuals with severe obesity (PR: 2.49 [95%CI: 2.07;3.00]). Waist circumference indicative of cardiovascular risk and high serum triglyceride levels increased the likelihood of insulin resistance (PR: 1.37 [95%CI: 1.19;1.59] and 1.60 [95%CI: 1.45;1.78], respectively). The prevalence of the outcome was higher among adolescents in the lower quartiles of vitamin E intake (p<0.05). In the present study, the prevalence of insulin resistance was high among Brazilian adolescents and we identified sociodemographic, lifestyle, anthropometric, biochemical, and dietary predictors of this outcome.

Associations of DXA-measured abdominal adiposity with cardio-metabolic risk and related markers in early adolescence in Project Viva

BACKGROUND

Increased visceral adipose tissue (VAT) precedes development of insulin resistance and dyslipidemia in adults. The associations of abdominal adiposity derived from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), including VAT, subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) and total abdominal adipose tissue (TAAT) with cardio-metabolic risk in adolescents are understudied.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the cross-sectional associations of DXA-measured abdominal adiposity with cardio-metabolic risk and related markers in early adolescence (mean [SD] age 13.0 [0.7] years).

METHODS

We collected data from 740 adolescents (374 girls and 366 boys) in Project Viva, a U.S. pre-birth cohort. We used DXA estimates of VAT, SAAT and TAAT area. We conducted overall and sex-stratified linear regression models, adjusting for age, sex (in overall models), race/ethnicity, puberty score and body mass index (BMI) z-score.

RESULTS

Mean BMI z-score was 0.59 (1.28). After adjustment, greater VAT (per 1 SD score) was associated with higher metabolic risk z-score (β 0.14 units; 95% CI 0.08, 0.20), higher log high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (β 0.51 mg/L; 0.36, 0.66) and log leptin (β 0.36 ng/mL; 0.27, 0.44), and lower log adiponectin (β -0.08 ug/mL; -0.13, -0.02). SAAT and TAAT showed similar associations as VAT with comparable or greater effect sizes.

CONCLUSION

In early adolescence, DXA-measured VAT, SAAT and TAAT are associated with cardio-metabolic risk and related markers, independent of current BMI. Among two adolescents with the same BMI, there is an associated higher cardio-metabolic risk in the adolescent with greater DXA-measured abdominal adiposity.

Metabolite Profiles of the Relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) Milestones and Metabolic Risk during Early Adolescence

Early growth is associated with future metabolic risk; however, little is known of the underlying biological pathways. In this prospective study of 249 boys and 227 girls, we sought to identify sex-specific metabolite profiles that mark the relationship between age and magnitude of the infancy body mass index (BMI) peak, and the childhood BMI rebound with a metabolic syndrome z-score (MetS z-score) during early adolescence (median age 12.8 years). Thirteen consensus metabolite networks were generated between male and female adolescents using weighted correlation network analysis. In girls, none of the networks were related to BMI milestones after false discovery rate (FDR) correction at 5%. In boys, age and/or magnitude of BMI at rebound were associated with three metabolite eigenvector (ME) networks comprising androgen hormones (ME7), lysophospholipids (ME8), and diacylglycerols (ME11) after FDR correction. These networks were also associated with MetS z-score in boys after accounting for age and race/ethnicity: ME7 (1.43 [95% CI: 0.52, 2.34] units higher MetS z-score per 1 unit of ME7), ME8 (-1.01 [95% CI: -1.96, -0.07]), and ME11 (2.88 [95% CI: 2.06, 3.70]). These findings suggest that alterations in sex steroid hormone and lipid metabolism are involved in the relationship of early growth with future metabolic risk in males.

In utero exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk factors in youth: A longitudinal analysis in the EPOCH cohort

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations of maternal gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) with offspring cardiovascular biomarkers from late childhood through adolescence.

METHODS

We used mixed effects linear regression models to examine associations of maternal GDM (n = 92 cases of 597) with average offspring levels of serum lipids (total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein [HDL], low-density lipoprotein [LDL], and triglycerides) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) across two research visits spanning approximately 10.6 and 16.9 years of age. In sex-stratified analysis, we evaluated the impact of adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics, pubertal status, physical activity and total energy intake, maternal body mass index (BMI), GDM treatment, and child's BMI.

RESULTS

After adjusting for child's age, pubertal status, race/ethnicity, and maternal education and smoking, GDM exposure was associated with higher total (0.38 [95% CI, 0.16-0.61] mmol/L) and LDL cholesterol (0.34 [95% CI, 0.14-0.53] mmol/L) in girls. These estimates were robust to adjustment for lifestyle characteristics and maternal BMI but were attenuated after accounting for GDM treatment with no appreciable change following further adjustment for current BMI. In boys, maternal GDM corresponded with 4.50 (1.90-7.10) mmHg higher SBP. This association persisted after accounting for sociodemographic/lifestyle characteristics, maternal BMI, and GDM treatment but was attenuated after adjusting for current BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal GDM is related to offspring lipid profile and SBP in a sex-specific manner.

Plasma Adipokines Profile in Prepubertal Children with a History of Prematurity or Extrauterine Growth Restriction

Adipose tissue programming could be developed in very preterm infants with extrauterine growth restriction (EUGR), with an adverse impact on long-term metabolic status, as was studied in intrauterine growth restriction patterns. The aim of this cohort study was to evaluate the difference in levels of plasma adipokines in children with a history of EUGR. A total of 211 school age prepubertal children were examined: 38 with a history of prematurity and EUGR (EUGR), 50 with a history of prematurity with adequate growth (PREM), and 123 healthy children born at term. Anthropometric parameters, blood pressure, metabolic markers and adipokines (adiponectin, resistin, leptin) were measured. Children with a history of EUGR showed lower values of adiponectin (μg/mL) compared with the other two groups: (EUGR: 10.6 vs. PREM: 17.7, p < 0.001; vs. CONTROL: 25.7, p = 0.004) and higher levels of resistin (ng/mL) (EUGR: 19.2 vs. PREM: 16.3, p =0.007; vs. CONTROL: 7.1, p < 0.001. The PREM group showed the highest values of leptin (ng/mL), compared with the others: PREM: 4.9 vs. EUGR: 2.1, p = 0.048; vs. CONTROL: 3.2, p = 0.029). In conclusion, EUGR in premature children could lead to a distinctive adipokines profile, likely associated with an early programming of the adipose tissue, and likely to increase the risk of adverse health outcomes later in life.