Vaccine hesitancy among caregivers and association with childhood vaccination timeliness in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

The status of immunization program and challenges in Ethiopia: A mixed method study

Introduction

Immunization helps reduce morbidity and mortality attributable to severe vaccine-preventable childhood illnesses. However, vaccination coverage and the quality of immunization data remain challenging in Ethiopia. This has led to poor planning, suboptimal vaccination coverage, and the resurgence of vaccine-preventable disease outbreaks in under-immunized pocket areas. The problem is further compounded by the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the disruption of the health information system due to recurrent conflict. This study assessed the current status of the immunization service and its challenges in Ethiopia.

Methods

A mixed-methods study was conducted in three regions of Ethiopia from 21 to 31 May, 2023. A survey of administrative reports was done in a total of 69 health facilities in 14 woredas (districts). Nine KIIs were conducted at a district level among immunization coordinators selected from three regions to explore the challenges of the immunization program. Linear regression and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the quantitative data. Thematic analysis was applied to analyze the qualitative data. The findings from the qualitative data were triangulated to supplement the quantitative results.

Result

Two-thirds (66.4%) of the children were fully vaccinated, having received all vaccines, including the first dose of the MCV1, by 12 months of age, as reported through administrative reports collected from health facility records. Catchment area population size and region were significantly associated with the number of fully immunized children (p < 0.001 and p = 0.005, respectively). The vaccination dropout rates of the first to third dose of pentavalent vaccine and the first dose of pentavalent vaccine to the first dose of MCV1 were 8.6% and 7.4%, respectively. A considerable proportion of health facilities lack accurate data to calculate vaccination coverage, while most of them lack accurate data for dropout rates. Longer waiting time, interruptions in vaccine supply or shortage, inaccessibility of health facilities, internal conflict and displacement, power interruption and refrigerator breakdown, poor counseling practice, and caretakers' lack of awareness, fear of side effects, and forgetfulness were the reasons for the dropout rate and low coverage. The result also showed that internal conflict and displacement have significantly affected immunization coverage, with the worst effects seen on the most marginalized populations.

Conclusion

The study revealed low vaccination coverage, a high dropout rate, and poor quality of immunization data. Access and vaccination coverage among marginalized community groups (e.g., orphans and street children) were also low. Hence, interventions to address organizational, behavioral, technical, and contextual (conflict and the resulting internal displacement) bottlenecks affecting the immunization program should be addressed.

Relationship between vaccine hesitancy and vaccination behaviors: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Vaccination is crucial for prevention of infectious diseases, and identification of the impact of vaccine hesitancy on vaccination programs is crucial for early intervention and formulation of policies to alleviate vaccine hesitancy. The aim of this systematic review was to explore the relationship between vaccine hesitancy and negative vaccination behavior globally.

METHODS

We searched for observational studies in various databases. We conducted a meta-analysis using pooled odds ratios (OR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI), performed meta regression and subgroup analysis to explore the role factors such as location and individual characteristics on the association between vaccine hesitancy and vaccination behavior.

RESULTS

A total of 46 articles were included in systematic analysis and 34 articles were included in the meta-analysis. The systematic analysis comprised 162,601 samples, whereas the meta-analysis included 147,554 samples. The meta-analysis showed that a higher rate of vaccine hesitancy was associated with an increased likelihood of adverse vaccination behaviors (all adverse behaviors: OR = 1.50, 95 % CI, 1.33-1.70, P < 0.001; unvaccinated: OR = 1.48, 95 % CI, 1.29-1.70, P < 0.001; vaccine delay: OR = 2.61, 95 % CI, 1.97-3.44, P < 0.001). The meta-regression results indicated that the heterogeneity observed was mainly from sample selection methods, age of vaccinees and the health status of participants. The results showed that parents of minor vaccinees or without high-risk health status had a higher association between vaccine hesitancy and vaccine uptake compared with populations exposed to higher health risks or adult vaccinees.

CONCLUSION

The findings provide evidence on the association between vaccine hesitancy and adverse vaccination behaviors. The results showed that these population-specific factors should be considered in future research, and during formulation of interventions and implementation of policies to improve vaccination uptake.

Worldwide Child Routine Vaccination Hesitancy Rate among Parents of Children Aged 0-6 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cross-Sectional Studies

Routine vaccine hesitancy is a major global health challenge observed in over 190 countries worldwide. This meta-analysis aims to determine the worldwide prevalence of routine vaccination hesitancy among parents of children aged 0-6. An extensive search was conducted in four scientific databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library. Studies were included if they reported hesitancy related to WHO-recommended routine immunizations for children under 7 years of age. A single-arm meta-analysis was performed using the OpenMeta[Analyst] software. An initial search retrieved 5121 articles, of which only 23 publications, involving 29,131 parents, guardians, and caregivers from over 30 countries met the inclusion criteria and quality assessment. The cumulative prevalence of parental vaccine hesitancy was found to be 21.1% (95% CI = 17.5-24.7%, I2 = 98.86%, p < 0.001). When stratifying the prevalence of vaccine hesitancy per WHO region, significant variations were observed, ranging from 13.3% (95% CI = 6.7-19.9%, I2 = 97.72%, p < 0.001) in the Region of the Americas to 27.9% (95% CI = 24.3-31.4%) in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The study findings highlight the need for healthcare providers and governments to develop and improve comprehensive programs with communication strategies to reduce parental vaccine hesitancy.

Predictors of timeliness of vaccination among children of age 12-23 months in Boricha district, Sidama region Ethiopia, in 2019

BACKGROUND

Traditional measurement of vaccine coverage can mask the magnitude of timely uptake of vaccine. Hence, the optimal measurement of timeliness is unclear due to variations in vaccine schedule among countries in the world. In Ethiopia, Oral Polio Virus (OPV), Pentavalent, Tetanus, H. influenza type B, Hepatitis B, and Pneumonia-Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) are basic vaccines which are taken at birth, six weeks, ten weeks, and fourteen weeks respectively. Despite its importance, information is scarce about on-time vaccination in the study area. Therefore, this study aimed to assess prevalence and factors associated with on-time vaccination among children of age 12-23 months in Boricha district, Sidama Ethiopia, in 2019.

METHODS

A community based survey was conducted in Boricha district, Sidama region Ethiopia from January 1-30 in 2019. Study participants were selected using stratified multistage sampling technique. Kebeles were stratified based on residence. First, Kebeles were selected using random sampling. Then, systematic random sampling was employed to reach each household. Data were collected using structured and interviewer administered questionnaire. Logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors associated with timely vaccination. Then, independent variables with p-value < 0.25 in COR were fitted further into multivariate logistic regression analysis model to control the possible cofounders. AOR with 95% CI and p-value < 0.05 was computed and reported as the level of statistical significance.

RESULTS

From a total of 614 study participants, only 609 study participants have responded to questions completely making a response rate of 99.2%. Prevalence of timeliness of vaccination was 26.8% (95% CI: 25, 28) in this study. Factors like children of women with formal education (AOR = 5.3, 95%CI,2.7, 10.4), absence of antenatal care visit (AOR = 4.2,95%CI, 1.8,9.8), home delivery (AOR = 6.2,95%CI,4.0,9.3), lack of postnatal care (AOR = 3.7,95%CI,1.1,13.3), and lack of information about when vaccines completion date (AOR = 2.0, 95% CI,1.13,3.8) were factors influences timely vaccination among children of age 12-23 months.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of on-time vaccination among children of age 12-23 months is lower than national threshold. Therefore, sustained health education on vaccination schedule and reminder strategies should be designed and implemented. Furthermore, maternal and child health care services should be enhanced and coordinated to improve on-time uptake of vaccine.

Assessing vaccine hesitancy using the WHO scale for caregivers of children under 3 years old in China

Introduction

Vaccine hesitancy may increase infectious disease burden and impede disease control efforts, while few studies have measured such a phenomenon with a standardized tool in China. This study aimed to test the validation of the Vaccine Hesitancy Scale (VHS) developed by the WHO SAGE Working Group among caregivers and examine demographic characteristics associated with caregiver hesitancy in six provinces of China.

Methods

Using a multistage sampling design, this study was conducted in 36 immunization clinics in six provinces from December 2019 to August 2020. Caregivers of children aged 0-3  years were included. The VHS was used to assess vaccine hesitancy. The construct validity and internal consistency of the scale were assessed. Associations between caregivers' characteristics and vaccine hesitancy were examined by simple and multiple linear regression models.

Results

Of the 3,359 participants included, a two-factor structure within the scale was identified, consisting of "lack of confidence" (1.89 ± 0.53) and "risks" (3.20 ± 0.75). Caregivers engaged in medical work expressed more confidence and were less concerned about risks compared to those of non-medical staff (p < 0.05). Participants with higher income levels were more confident (p < 0.05), while those surveyed after the COVID-19 pandemic, who were mothers, who had an older child, or who were raising a second or above birth child, had less concern about risks (p < 0.05).

Discussion

We found that the VHS had acceptable reliability and construct validity and caregivers' hesitancy was driven more by concerns about risks than by the lack of confidence. Countering these concerns will be particularly important among non-medical staff, lower income, child's fathers, having a younger child, or raising first-birth child groups.

COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy: A Review of the Literature and Recommendations

Vaccines are important to improve immunity against pathogens and diseases. The current COVID-19 disease is rapidly evolving and spreading among people; therefore, it is important to utilize a proper vaccination strategy against it. Currently, many approved vaccines are available and accessible; however, there is a reported hesitancy against taking them among the public and even the health care workers. Mainly, this is attributed to the fear of the possible side effects and complications. Moreover, inaccurate knowledge disseminated through the media/social media especially by those who lack the proper expertise, adds confusion and more fear that affects the vaccination decision. For such reasons, it is essential to find strategies to increase the acceptability of vaccines and enhance confidence in the vaccination process. This should be accompanied by sufficient efforts and proper clinical studies to confirm the value and the safety of the vaccines. Those strategies are important to avoid the further spread of the COVID-19 disease and abort the pandemic worldwide, especially when considering the likely approach towards a COVID-19 booster vaccination program, in which booster vaccines are re-taken along intervals to adequately contain the rapidly evolving nature of the virus. This review article highlights the factors influencing the acceptability of the COVID-19 vaccination and enrollment in clinical trials among the public and some specific populations. Furthermore, it summarizes the suggested strategies and recommendations to improve attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination programs.

Prevalence of pain and fear as barriers to vaccination in children - Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Injection-related pain and fear are common adverse reactions in children undergoing vaccination and influence vaccine acceptance. Despite the large body of literature on sources of vaccine non-compliance, there is no estimate of the prevalence of pain and fear as contributing factors. The objective was to estimate the prevalence of injection pain or fear of needles as barriers to childhood (i.e., 0-18 years) vaccination.

METHODS

Four databases were searched from inception for relevant English and French articles until August 2021. In addition, the references of recent systematic reviews and all articles included in the review were hand searched. Article screening and data extractions were performed in duplicate. Studies were included if they reported on injection-related pain or fear of needles in children (0-18 years) using a checklist/closed-ended question(s). Results were stratified by respondent (parents or children), type of pediatric population (general or under-vaccinated), and relative importance of barrier (pain or needle fear as primary reason or any reason for under-vaccination). Prevalence rates of pain or needle fear were combined using a random effects model. Quality of included studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist for prevalence data. Quality across studies was assessed using GRADE.

RESULTS

There were 26 studies with 45 prevalence estimates published between 1995 and 2021. For parent reports (of children) and children self-reported reasons for non-compliance, prevalence rates of pain or needle fear ranged from 5 to 13% in a general population and 8 to 28% in an under-vaccinated population, with a substantial variation in the prevalence estimates. There was no difference between category of respondent or relative importance on pain or needle fear prevalence rate. A regression model demonstrated an overall prevalence rate of pain or needle fear as an obstacle to vaccination of 8% in the general population and 18.3% in the under-vaccinated population. All evidence was very low in quality.

CONCLUSION

This is the first review to systematically quantify the prevalence and therefore, importance, of pain and needle fear as obstacles to vaccination in children around the world. Pain from injection or fear of needles were demonstrated to be sufficiently prevalent as barriers to vaccination in children to warrant attention. Addressing pain and fear has the potential to significantly improve vaccination acceptance.

A systematic literature review to clarify the concept of vaccine hesitancy

Vaccine hesitancy (VH) is considered a top-10 global health threat. The concept of VH has been described and applied inconsistently. This systematic review aims to clarify VH by analysing how it is operationalized. We searched PubMed, Embase and PsycINFO databases on 14 January 2022. We selected 422 studies containing operationalizations of VH for inclusion. One limitation is that studies of lower quality were not excluded. Our qualitative analysis reveals that VH is conceptualized as involving (1) cognitions or affect, (2) behaviour and (3) decision making. A wide variety of methods have been used to measure VH. Our findings indicate the varied and confusing use of the term VH, leading to an impracticable concept. We propose that VH should be defined as a state of indecisiveness regarding a vaccination decision.

Preventing invasive meningococcal disease in early infancy

This review considers the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and epidemiology of invasive meningococcal disease in infants, to examine and critique meningococcal disease prevention in this population through vaccination. High rates of meningococcal disease and poor outcomes, particularly for very young infants, highlight the importance of meningococcal vaccination in early infancy. Although effective and safe meningococcal vaccines are available for use from 6 weeks of age, they are not recommended globally. Emerging real-world data from the increased incorporation of these vaccines within immunization programs inform recommendations regarding effectiveness, appropriate vaccination schedule, possible long-term safety effects, and persistence of antibody responses. Importantly, to protect infants from IMD, national vaccination recommendations should be consistent with available data regarding vaccine safety, effectiveness, and disease risk.

Improving timeliness and completion of infant vaccination among infants in Nigerian urban slums through older women's participation

Nigerian urban slums have a high population of infants with suboptimal vaccination despite previous interventions. Older women traditionally play supervisory roles in infant care in Nigeria but their influence is untapped in infant vaccination. This study sought to determine if training of older women (≥35 years) in urban slum communities in Ibadan, South west Nigeria, and involving them in infant vaccination will improve infant vaccination timeliness and completion. This was a randomized experimental community study and pregnant women in their third trimester, residing in seven urban slum communities were randomized using their antenatal clinics (ANCs) into intervention (six ANCs) and control groups (six ANCs). The older women who will supervise the care of the infants of pregnant women in the intervention group had seven sessions of training on the importance of infant vaccination timeliness and completion. The vaccinations of the infants from both groups were compared from birth till 9 months. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Chi square test at α = 0.05. There were 96 older women, 198 pregnant women (105 in intervention group and 93 controls) and 202 infants (109 in intervention group and 93 controls). Infants in the intervention group (67.9%) significantly had both timely and complete vaccinations compared with those in the control group (36.6%). Vaccines given at birth were the least timely in both groups. More infants whose older women caregiver were married had timely and complete vaccinations. Also, a higher proportion of male infants, low birth weight babies and infants with older women caregiver with at most two children had timely and completed vaccinations but these were not statistically significant. Training of older women caregivers improved infant vaccination timeliness and completion in these urban slum communities. This model may improve infant vaccination in other similar urban slum settings.

Timeliness of routine childhood vaccination in 103 low-and middle-income countries, 1978-2021: A scoping review to map measurement and methodological gaps

Empiric studies exploring the timeliness of routine vaccination in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) have gained momentum in the last decade. Nevertheless, there is emerging evidence suggesting that these studies have key measurement and methodological gaps that limit their comparability and utility. Hence, there is a need to identify, and document these gaps which could inform the design, conduct, and reporting of future research on the timeliness of vaccination. We synthesised the literature to determine the methodological and measurement gaps in the assessment of vaccination timeliness in LMICs. We searched five electronic databases for peer-reviewed articles in English and French that evaluated vaccination timeliness in LMICs, and were published between 01 January 1978, and 01 July 2021. Two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts and reviewed full texts of relevant articles, following the guidance framework for scoping reviews by the Joanna Briggs Institute. From the 4263 titles identified, we included 224 articles from 103 countries. China (40), India (27), and Kenya (23) had the highest number of publications respectively. Of the three domains of timeliness, the most studied domain was 'delayed vaccination' [99.5% (223/224)], followed by 'early vaccination' [21.9% (49/224)], and 'untimely interval vaccination' [9% (20/224)]. Definitions for early (seven different definitions), untimely interval (four different definitions), and delayed vaccination (19 different definitions) varied across the studies. Most studies [72.3% (166/224)] operationalised vaccination timeliness as a categorical variable, compared to only 9.8% (22/224) of studies that operationalised timeliness as continuous variables. A large proportion of studies [47.8% (107/224)] excluded the data of children with no written vaccination records irrespective of caregivers' recall of their vaccination status. Our findings show that studies on vaccination timeliness in LMICs has measurement and methodological gaps. We recommend the development and implement of guidelines for measuring and reporting vaccination timeliness to bridge these gaps.

Knowledge and Attitude on Childhood Vaccination among Healthcare Workers in Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia

(1) Background: Vaccine hesitancy is recognized as an important issue globally and healthcare workers (HCWs) have a powerful influence on the public. Recent studies have reported that there are increasing numbers of vaccine hesitancies among HCWs. This study was conducted to assess the knowledge and attitudes on childhood vaccinations among HCWs in Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia (HUSM). (2) Methods: This is a cross-sectional study conducted among one hundred and ninety-eight HCWs in HUSM, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan who were selected via convenient sampling. Data on their socio-demographic details, working experience, and main source of information regarding childhood vaccination were collected. A validated, Malay version of the knowledge and attitude on childhood vaccination (KACV) questionnaire was used during the study. (3) Results: Female (OR (95% CI):3.15, (1.39, 7.12), p < 0.05) and a higher education level (degree and above) (OR (95% CI): 2.36 (1.14, 4.89), p < 0.05) are significantly associated with good knowledge. Respondents with a history of side effects of the vaccines among their relatives were about 66% less likely to have good knowledge (OR (95% CI): 0.342 (0.16, 0.73), p < 0.05). A positive attitude towards childhood vaccination was significantly associated with a higher level of education participants, who had significantly better knowledge than participants with a lower education level (OR (95% CI): 3.81, (1.92, 7.57), p < 0.001). On the contrary, participants having direct contact with patients were less likely to have a good attitude towards childhood vaccination (OR (95% CI): 0.207 (0.043, 0.10), p < 0.05), and those with a history of severe side effects of the vaccines among their relatives were also significantly associated with a poor attitude towards childhood vaccination (OR (95% CI: 0.342 (0.16, 0.76), p < 0.05).; (4) Conclusions: The survey findings showed a good level of knowledge and a good attitude of participants towards childhood vaccination. Good knowledge is important for the HCWs to have a favourable attitude to educate the general population on childhood vaccination.

Assessment of vaccination timeliness and associated factors among children in Toke Kutaye district, central Ethiopia: A Mixed study

Introduction

Age inappropriate vaccination of children increases the rate of mortality and morbidity. All studies conducted in some areas of Ethiopia were only quantitative in nature and focused on the main cities ignoring rural communities.

Objective

The objective of this study is to assess vaccination timeliness and associated factors among children in Toke Kutaye district, central Ethiopia.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional study with quantitative and qualitative data collection methods was used, for which simple random sampling was used to select 602 mothers/caregivers who have vaccinated children aged 12 to 23 months in the district. The collected data were entered into Epi-data version 3.1 and exported to SPSS version 23 for analysis. Bivariate analysis with a P-value of < 0.25 was used to select candidate variables for multivariate logistic regression. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% CI and p-value < 0.05 were used to declare a significant association. Qualitative data responses were classified and then organized by content with thematic analysis.

Results

A total of 590 respondents responded to the interviews, making a response rate of 98%. In this study, 23.9% (95% CI: 20.4–27.7) of children aged 12–23 months had received all vaccines in the recommended time intervals. Urban residence (AOR: 3.15, 95% CI: 1.56–6.4), participation of pregnant women in conferences (AOR: 2.35, 95% CI: 1.2–4.57), institutional delivery (AOR: 2.5: 95% CI: 1.32–4.20), and sufficient knowledge of mothers (AOR: 3, 95% CI: 1.82–5.10) were significantly associated with the timeliness of childhood vaccination. Qualitative findings revealed that lack of knowledge and lack of information from mothers or caregivers, and inadequate communication with health workers hindered timely vaccination.

Conclusion

The overall timeliness of the child’s vaccination was low in this study. Residence, participation in a conference, place of delivery, and knowledge of the mothers were predictors of vaccination timeliness. Hence, promoting institutional delivery and increasing pregnant mothers awreness on vaccination timeliness through conference participation is compulsory.

Vaccination timeliness and associated factors among children aged 12-23 months in Debre Libanos district of North Shewa Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Globally, vaccination is one of the most cost-effective interventions in promoting child survival, preventing 2-3 million child deaths annually from vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs). In Ethiopia, timely vaccination is stated as key to the prevention of unnecessary childhood mortality from measles, pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, and other VPDs. However, Ethiopia ranked fifth among the ten countries with the most unprotected children. Furthermore, previous vaccine timeliness studies produced widely disparate results. As a result, it was suggested that more research be conducted to investigate the potential factors behind the high proportion of untimely vaccination. Therefore, this study was intended to explore the association between different factors and the proportion of vaccination timeliness administered under the Expanded Program on Immunization in Debre Libanos district, Ethiopia.

METHODS

A community-based cross-sectional study design was employed from 1 May to 30 May 2021 among children aged 12 to 23 months with their mother/caregiver, who had started vaccination and had vaccination cards in the Debre Libanos. Simple random sampling techniques and pretested semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection. At last, a multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with the vaccination timeliness.

RESULT

In this study, 413 children aged 12 to 23 months were interviewed with their mother/caregiver. Overall, 33.7% [95% CI (29.1-38.3)] of children received their vaccines timely. Having a female child [AOR: 2.9, 95% CI: 1.58-5.35], mother/caregiver attending primary [AOR: 6.33, 95% CI: 2.66-15.06] and secondary/above education [AOR: 5.61, 95% CI: 2.41-13.04], sufficient vaccination knowledge [AOR: 3.46, 95% CI: 1.87-6.38], mother/caregiver with least hesitant [AOR: 3.35, 95% CI: 1.51-7.41] and middle hesitant [AOR: 1.89, 95% CI: 1.05-3.58], utilization of ANC [AOR: 2.89, 95% CI: 1.32-6.33], and giving birth at health facility [AOR: 4.32, 95% CI: 1.95-9.59] were the factors independently associated with vaccination timeliness.

CONCLUSION

In comparison to Ethiopia's existing vaccination coverage, the proportion of children immunized at the recommended time interval is low in the study district. Policymakers should prioritize vaccine timeliness and integrate it into childhood vaccination strategies.

Adaptation and validation of the Turkish version of the vaccine hesitancy 5 point Likert Scale

The decrease in vaccine acceptance has been recognized as an emerging public health problem and there is therefore a need for reliable and validated tools that identify vaccine hesitancy. The objective of this study was to adapt and validate the Turkish version of the Vaccine Hesitancy 5-point Likert Scale which was originally developed by the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization. The study was carried out in a Family Health Center (FHC) in Istanbul over the period June 1-November 30, 2020. The participants were parents who had applied to the FHC for well-child visits and had a child ≤18 months of age. After the process of translation and back-translation, the Turkish version was pilot-tested, and its test-retest reliability was evaluated among 40 parents at a two-week interval. The validation was carried out with 306 parents through exploratory factor analysis. There was no statistical difference between the test-retest scores (p = .17). The intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.98 (p < .001). Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.81. Factor analysis yielded two subscales that were named "confidence' and 'risk perception" and explained 63% of total variance. Our results suggest that the Turkish version of the Vaccine Hesitancy 5-point Likert Scale is a reliable and valid instrument.

Caregivers' Willingness to Vaccinate Their Children against Childhood Diseases and Human Papillomavirus: A Cross-Sectional Study on Vaccine Hesitancy in Malawi

Background: Vaccines are among the most effective and cost-efficient public health interventions for promoting child health. However, uptake is considerably affected by vaccine hesitancy. An example is Malawi, with a decline in second vaccine doses and the highest cervical cancer incidence and mortality rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Understanding vaccine hesitancy is especially important when new vaccines are introduced. This study explores factors contributing to vaccine hesitancy for routine childhood immunization and the human papillomavirus vaccine in Malawi. Methods: The study used a cross-sectional survey design targeting caregivers of children under five years old and adolescent girls. The sample population was derived using three inclusion criteria: one district with low vaccine uptake (Dowa), one district with high vaccine uptake (Salima), and one district where human papillomavirus vaccine was piloted earlier (Zomba). A convenience sample of one primary and one secondary health facility was selected within each district, and participants were systematically included (n = 600). The measures were based on 5C scale for measuring vaccine hesitancy. Multiple regression analyses were performed to explore vaccination intention predictors. Results: Confidence in vaccine safety was the strongest predictor of routine childhood immunization, followed by constraints due to everyday stress. Caregivers had lower confidence in vaccine safety and efficacy when they believed rumors and misinformation and were unemployed. Confidence was higher for those who had more trust in healthcare workers. Age, gender, religion, education, employment, belief in rumors, and trust in healthcare workers were considered predictors of vaccination intention. A husband’s positive attitude (approval) increased childhood vaccination intention. For human papillomavirus, vaccination intentions were higher for those with lower education, more trust in healthcare workers, lower complacency, and a lower tendency toward calculating the benefits and risks of vaccination. Knowledge of human papillomavirus did not increase vaccination intention, but the need to attain a husband’s approval did. Being a young adult and unemployed increased belief in rumors, while trust in healthcare workers reduced the belief. Conclusions: This study provides good insights into the drivers of vaccine hesitancy across different contexts in Malawi. However, further studies are necessary to understand low risk perception among elderly people and the declining trend in second vaccine doses.

Vaccine coverage, timeliness and delay estimated from regional and national cross-sectional surveys in Ethiopia, 2016

Introduction

measures of vaccine timing require data on vaccination dates, which may be unavailable. This study compares estimates of vaccine coverage and timing; and compares regression techniques that model these measures in the presence of incomplete data.

Methods

this cross-sectional study used the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), and a 2016 survey from Worabe, Ethiopia. Three measures of vaccine uptake were calculated: coverage (regardless of timing), timeliness (within 1 week of recommended administration), and delay (the number of days between the recommended and actual date of vaccination). Vaccine coverage and timeliness were modeled with logistic regressions. After excluding those without dates, vaccine delay was estimated using linear regression or survival analysis. Vaccine delay was also estimated using accelerated failure time (AFT) models.

Results

the DHS survey included 3819 children aged 12-60 months and the Worabe survey included 484 children aged 12-23 months. In the Worabe survey, vaccine coverage for pentavalent vaccine dose 3 was 87.4%, with 8.6% receiving it within 1 week, and 71.7% within 4 weeks; the median delay was 19 days. Predictors of outcomes were similar in both the Worabe survey and Ethiopian DHS, with the largest numbers of significant associations seen in models with vaccine coverage or delays (with AFT models) as the outcomes.

Conclusion

estimates of coverage may miss a substantial proportion of infants who have delayed vaccination. Accelerated failure time (AFT) models are useful to estimate vaccine delay because they include information from all respondents (those with full and partial data on vaccination dates) and are agnostic about an age limit for timely vaccination.

Drivers of hesitancy towards recommended childhood vaccines in African settings: a scoping review of literature from Kenya, Malawi and Ethiopia

INTRODUCTION

There is a dearth of literature on vaccine hesitancy in Africa. In this study, we aimed to explore the drivers of hesitancy toward recommended childhood vaccines in Kenya, Malawi, and Ethiopia.

METHODS

A scoping review methodology was used as this evidence synthesis approach is suitable for mapping existing literature and identifying knowledge gaps. For this study, we systematically searched four electronic databases for published and unpublished literature from the three African countries. The methodological framework that was used is in line with Arksey and O'Malley's recommendations as modified by Levac.

RESULTS

A total of 23 publications met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. Majority of the studies were published after 2012. In these three African countries, hesitancy toward recommended childhood vaccines is driven by a mix of caregiver-related factors, health systems-related factors as well as the influence of community context.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that vaccine hesitancy in Kenya, Malawi, and Ethiopia is a complex phenomenon that is driven by multiple interrelated and interconnected factors.

The use of a speaking book® to enhance vaccine knowledge among caregivers in The Gambia: A study using qualitative and quantitative methods

OBJECTIVES

To measure the usefulness of a Speaking Book (SB) as an educational tool for enhancing knowledge, understanding and recall of key vaccine-related information among caregivers in The Gambia, as well as its acceptability and relevance as a health promotion tool for caregivers and healthcare workers.

DESIGN AND SETTING

We developed a multimedia educational tool, the vaccine Speaking Book, which contained prerecorded information about vaccines provided in The Gambia's Expanded Programme on Immunization. Using qualitative and quantitative methods, we then conducted a sequential study assessing the use of this tool among caregivers andhealthcare workers in The Gambia.Participants200 caregivers attending primary healthcare centres in The Gambia for routine immunisation services for their infants, and 15 healthcare workers employed to provide immunisation services at these clinics.

OUTCOME MEASURES

We calculated the median knowledge scores on vaccine-related information obtained at baseline, 1-month and 3-month follow-up visits. Wilcoxon's matched-pairs signed-rank test was used to compare the difference in the median knowledge scores between baseline and 1-month, and between baseline and 3-month follow-up visits.

RESULTS

Of the 113 caregivers who participated, 104 (92%) completed all three study visits, 108 (95.6%) completed the baseline and 1-month follow-up visits, and 107 (94.7%) completed the baseline and 3-month follow-up visits. The median knowledge score increased from 6.0 (IQR 5.0-7.0) at baseline to 11.0 (IQR 8.0-14.0) at 1-month visit (p<0.001), and 15.0 (IQR 10.0-20.0) at 3-month visit (p<0.001). Qualitative results showed high acceptability and enthusiasm for the Speaking Book among both caregivers and healthcare workers. The Speaking Book was widely shared in the community and this facilitated communication with healthcare workers at the primary healthcare centres.

CONCLUSIONS

Context-specific and subject-specific Speaking Books are a useful communication and educational tool to increase caregiver vaccine knowledge in low/middle-income countries.

Demographics of Vaccine Hesitancy in Chandigarh, India

The impact of vaccine hesitancy on childhood immunization in low- and middle-income countries remains largely uncharacterized. This study describes the sociodemographic patterns of vaccine hesitancy in Chandigarh, India. Mothers of children <5 years old were sampled from a two-stage cluster, systematic sample based on Anganwadi child care centers in Chandigarh. Vaccine hesitancy was measured using a 10-item Vaccine Hesitancy Scale, which was dichotomized. A multivariable logistic regression assessed the association between socioeconomic factors and vaccine hesitancy score. Among 305 mothers, >97% of mothers thought childhood vaccines were important, effective, and were a good way to protect against disease. However, many preferred their child to receive fewer co-administered vaccines (69%), and were concerned about side effects (39%). Compared to the “other caste” group, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes had 3.48 times greater odds of vaccine hesitancy (95% CI: 1.52, 7.99). Those with a high school education had 0.10 times the odds of vaccine hesitancy compared to those with less education (95% CI: 0.02, 0.61). Finally, those having more antenatal care visits were less vaccine hesitant (≥4 vs. <4 visits OR: 0.028, 95% CI: 0.1, 0.76). As India adds more vaccines to its Universal Immunization Program, consideration should be given to addressing maternal concerns about vaccination, in particular about adverse events and co-administration of multiple vaccines.

Prevalence and determinants of incomplete or not at all vaccination among children aged 12-36 months in Dabat and Gondar districts, northwest of Ethiopia: findings from the primary health care project

OBJECTIVE

Ethiopia is one of the Africa's signatory countries for implementation of the primary healthcare strategy including immunisation. In Ethiopia, however, 16% of child death is due to vaccine-preventable disease. Thus, this study aimed to assess the prevalence and determinants of incomplete or not at all vaccination among children aged 12-36 months in Dabat and Gondar districts, Northwest Ethiopia.

STUDY DESIGN

The study is community-based cross-sectional study.

STUDY SETTING

Dabat and Gondar Zuria districts, Northwest Ethiopia.

PARTICIPANTS

Mothers/caregivers with children aged 12-36 months were enrolled in the study. Participants were randomly selected through systematic sampling and a total of 603 participants were included in the analysis.

METHODS

A binary logistic regression analysis was done. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, a p value of <0.05 and adjusted OR (AOR) with 95% CI were used to identify statistically associated factors with incomplete or not at all vaccination.

OUTCOMES

Incomplete or not at all vaccination.

RESULTS

The prevalence of incomplete or not at all vaccinated children was 23.10% (95% CI 16.50 to 29.70). The multivariable analysis revealed that the odds of incomplete or not at all vaccination were higher among mothers who had no antenatal care (ANC) visit (AOR: 1.81, 95% CI 1.21 to 4.03) and no postnatal care (PNC) visit (AOR=1.52, 95% CI 1.05 to 2.25).

CONCLUSIONS

In the study area, nearly one-fourth of children are incompletely or not at all vaccinated. Our finding suggests that ANC and PNC visits are key determinants of incomplete or not at all vaccination. Thus, in low-resource settings like Ethiopia, the health system approaches to improved ANC and PNC services should be intensified with more effective advice on child immunisation to reduce vaccine preventable disease.

Parental concerns and uptake of childhood vaccines in rural Tanzania - a mixed methods study

BACKGROUND

Vaccine hesitancy has been recognized as an important barrier to timely vaccinations around the world, including in sub-Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, 1 in 4 children is not fully vaccinated. The objective of this mixed methods study was to describe and contextualize parental concerns towards vaccines in Tanzania.

METHODS

Between 2016 and 2017, we conducted a cross-sectional survey (n = 134) and four focus group discussions (FGDs, n = 38) with mothers of children under 2 years of age residing in Mtwara region in Southern Tanzania. The survey and FGDs assessed vaccination knowledge and concerns and barriers to timely vaccinations. Vaccination information was obtained from government-issued vaccination cards.

RESULTS

In the cross-sectional survey, 72% of mothers reported missed or delayed receipt of vaccines for their child. Although vaccine coverage was high, timeliness of vaccinations was lower and varied by vaccine. Rural mothers reported more vaccine-related concerns compared to urban mothers; literacy and access to information were identified as key drivers of the difference. Mothers participating in FGDs indicated high perceived risk of vaccine-preventable illnesses, but expressed concerns related to poor geographic accessibility, unreliability of services, and missed opportunities for vaccinations resulting from provider efforts to minimize vaccine wastage.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from our cross-sectional survey indicate the presence of vaccination delays and maternal concerns related to childhood vaccines in Tanzania. In FGDs, mothers raised issues related to convenience more often than issues related to vaccine confidence or complacency. Further research is necessary to understand how these issues may contribute to the emergence and persistence of vaccine hesitancy and to identify effective mitigation strategies.

Mapping global trends in vaccine confidence and investigating barriers to vaccine uptake: a large-scale retrospective temporal modelling study

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence of vaccine delays or refusals due to a lack of trust in the importance, safety, or effectiveness of vaccines, alongside persisting access issues. Although immunisation coverage is reported administratively across the world, no similarly robust monitoring system exists for vaccine confidence. In this study, vaccine confidence was mapped across 149 countries between 2015 and 2019.

METHODS

In this large-scale retrospective data-driven analysis, we examined global trends in vaccine confidence using data from 290 surveys done between September, 2015, and December, 2019, across 149 countries, and including 284 381 individuals. We used a Bayesian multinomial logit Gaussian process model to produce estimates of public perceptions towards the safety, importance, and effectiveness of vaccines. Associations between vaccine uptake and a large range of putative drivers of uptake, including vaccine confidence, socioeconomic status, and sources of trust, were determined using univariate Bayesian logistic regressions. Gibbs sampling was used for Bayesian model inference, with 95% Bayesian highest posterior density intervals used to capture uncertainty.

FINDINGS

Between November, 2015, and December, 2019, we estimate that confidence in the importance, safety, and effectiveness of vaccines fell in Afghanistan, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, and South Korea. We found significant increases in respondents strongly disagreeing that vaccines are safe between 2015 and 2019 in six countries: Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Serbia. We find signs that confidence has improved between 2018 and 2019 in some EU member states, including Finland, France, Ireland, and Italy, with recent losses detected in Poland. Confidence in the importance of vaccines (rather than in their safety or effectiveness) had the strongest univariate association with vaccine uptake compared with other determinants considered. When a link was found between individuals' religious beliefs and uptake, findings indicated that minority religious groups tended to have lower probabilities of uptake.

INTERPRETATION

To our knowledge, this is the largest study of global vaccine confidence to date, allowing for cross-country comparisons and changes over time. Our findings highlight the importance of regular monitoring to detect emerging trends to prompt interventions to build and sustain vaccine confidence.

FUNDING

European Commission, Wellcome, and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council.

What we know and don't know about the immunization program of Ethiopia: a scoping review of the literature

BACKGROUND

There has been significant recent prioritization and investment in the immunization program in Ethiopia. However, coverage rates have stagnated and remained low for many years, suggesting the presence of systemic barriers to implementation. Hence, there is a need to consolidate the existing knowledge, in order to address them and consequently improve program effectiveness.

METHODS

A thorough literature review and Delphi method were used. In this review, we searched Pubmed/Medline, WHO library, Science direct, Cochrane library, Google scholar and Google using different combinations of search strategies. Studies that applied any study design, data collection and analysis methods related to immunization program were included. In the Delphi method, a panel of 28 national and international experts were participated to identify current evidence gaps and set research priorities under the immunization program.

RESULTS

In this review, a total of 55 studies and national documents were included. The review showed that the vaccination coverage ranged from 20.6% in Afar to 91.7% in Amhara region with large inequities related to socio-economic, health service access and knowledge about vaccination across different settings. Only one study reported evidence on timeliness of immunization as 60%. The review revealed that 80% of health facilities provide immunization service nationally while service availability was only 2% in private health facilities. This review indicated that poor vaccine storage, vaccine shortage, service interruptions, poor defaulter tracing, low community engagement and poor documentation were the main barriers for the Expanded Program on Immunization with variations across different regions. Through expert panel of discussion using Delphi method, 10 priority research areas were identified across different domains of the immunization program at national level.

CONCLUSION

We found out that there is substantial knowledge on vaccination coverage, however, there is little evidence on timeliness of vaccination. The existing barriers that affect full immunization coverage also varied from context to context which indicates there is a need to design and implement evidence based locally tailored interventions. This review also indicated evidence gaps with more focus on health system related implementation barriers at lower level and identified further research priorities in the immunization program of Ethiopia.

Timely completion of vaccination and its determinants among children in northwest, Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis

BACKGROUND

Timely vaccination is key to prevent unnecessary childhood mortality from vaccine-preventable diseases. Despite the substantial efforts to improve vaccination completeness, the effort towards timeliness of vaccination is limited with non-attendance and delays to vaccination appointments remaining a big challenge in developing countries. There is also a limited evidence on timeliness of vaccination. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the magnitude and associated factors for timely completion of vaccination among children in Gondar city administration, north-west, Ethiopia.

METHOD

This study employed a community-based cross sectional study design. A sample size of 821 children aged 12 to 23 months were considered. Two stages random sampling technique was used to select study subjects. To account the effect of clustering, bivariable and multivariable multilevel logistic regression analysis were applied. The measures of association estimates were expressed as adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with their 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Of the 774 children included for analysis, 498 (64.3%) were fully vaccinated while 247 (31.9%) were fully vaccinated on-time. Caregivers who had secondary education and above (AOR = 2.391; 95% CI: 1.317-4.343), from richest households (AOR = 2.381; 95% CI: 1.502-3.773), children whose mother attended four or more ante natal care visits (AOR = 2.844; 95% CI: 1.310-6.174) and whose mother had two or more post natal care visits (AOR = 2.054; 95%CI:1.377-3.063) were positively associated with on-time full vaccination. In contrary, caregivers aged above 35 years (AOR = 0.469; 95 % CI: 0.253-0.869], being vaccinated at health post (AOR = 0.144; 95%CI: 0.048-0.428) and travelling more than 30 min to the vaccination site (AOR = 0.158; 95%CI: 0.033-0.739) were negatively associated with on-time full vaccination. The random effects indicated that 26% of the variability in on-time full vaccination was attributable to differences between communities.

CONCLUSION

In this study, untimely vaccination was found to be high. Different individual and contextual factors were found to be associated with on-time full vaccination. Therefore, tailored strategies have to be designed and implemented to address people and the communities where they live. Moreover, timeliness of vaccination should be considered as important indicator of the immunization program performance in Ethiopia.

The association between vaccination confidence, vaccination behavior, and willingness to recommend vaccines among Finnish healthcare workers

Information and assurance from healthcare workers (HCWs) is reported by laypeople as a key factor in their decision to get vaccinated. However, previous research has shown that, as in the general population, hesitancy towards vaccines exists among HCWs as well. Previous studies further suggest that HCWs with a higher confidence in vaccinations and vaccine providers are more willing to take the vaccines themselves and to recommend vaccines to patients. In the present study with 2962 Finnish HCWs (doctors, head nurses, nurses, and practical nurses), we explored the associations between HCWs' vaccination confidence (perceived benefit and safety of vaccines and trust in health professionals), their decisions to accept vaccines for themselves and their children, and their willingness to recommend vaccines to patients. The results showed that although the majority of HCWs had high confidence in vaccinations, a notable share reported low vaccination confidence. Moreover, in line with previous research, HCWs with higher confidence in the benefits and safety of vaccines were more likely to accept vaccines for their children and themselves, and to recommend vaccines to their patients. Trust in other health professionals was not directly related to vaccination or recommendation behavior. Confidence in the benefits and safety of vaccines was highest among doctors, and increased along with the educational level of the HCWs, suggesting a link between confidence and the degree of medical training. Ensuring high confidence in vaccines among HCWs may be important in maintaining high vaccine uptake in the general population.

Comparisons of Vaccine Hesitancy across Five Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Vaccine hesitancy is a continuum of behaviors ranging from delay in receipt to vaccination refusal. Prior studies have typically focused on high-income countries, where vaccine hesitancy is particularly prevalent in more affluent groups, but the relationship between socioeconomic status and vaccine hesitancy in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) is less clear. The aim of this study was to describe vaccine hesitancy in five LMICs. Mothers of children in Sirajganj, Bangladesh (n = 60), Shanghai, China (n = 788), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (n = 341), Guatemala City and Quetzaltenango, Guatemala (n = 767), and Chandigarh, India (n = 309), completed a survey between 2016 and 2018 using the WHO's 10-item Vaccine Hesitancy Scale. The scores of different constructs were compared across countries and by the mother's education level using linear regression models with generalized estimating equations. Compared to mothers in China, mothers in Bangladesh perceived less vaccination benefit (β: 0.56, P = 0.0001), however, mothers in Ethiopia (β: -0.54, P < 0.0001) and Guatemala (β: -0.74, P = 0.0004) perceived greater benefit. Education level was not significantly linked with vaccine hesitancy. Local circumstances are important to consider when developing programs to promote vaccines. We did not find consistent associations between education and vaccine hesitancy. More research is needed to understand socio-cultural influences on vaccine decision-making.

Vaccination timeliness and associated factors among preterm infants at a tertiary hospital in Uganda

Background

Preterm infants are at increased risk of infections including vaccine preventable diseases. Therefore, timely vaccination is crucial to ensure adequate disease protection. Information on whether preterm infants are vaccinated according to chronological age as recommended is limited in low-income countries.

Objectives

We evaluated the timeliness of vaccination and associated factors among preterm infants at Mulago hospital, Uganda.

Methods

We conducted a mixed methods study between July 2016 and April 2017. Vaccination dates of preterm infants aged 6–24 months were obtained from child health cards. Additional data were collected using a questionnaire. Five key informant interviews with health workers and two focus group discussions with caregivers were conducted. Cox regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with vaccination timeliness. Qualitative data was transcribed and analysed manually using content thematic approach.

Results

We enrolled 350 preterm infants, with a median age of 8.4 months (IQR 6.8–10.8). Less than half, 149/350 (42.6%) of infants received all vaccines within the recommended time range. Timely vaccination was highest for BCG (92%) and lowest for OPV (45.4%). Untimely vaccination was highest for vaccines administered at 6 weeks (DPT 1, PCV 1 and OPV 1) compared to other vaccines in the EPI schedule. Delivering from home or private clinics and vaccine stock-out were significantly associated with untimely BCG and OPV 0 vaccination. Low maternal education level and being very preterm were associated with untimely DPT 1 and DPT 3 receipt. Admission and long stay in the neonatal unit were associated with untimely DPT 1 receipt while extreme low birth weight was associated with untimely DPT 3 vaccination. Increasing parity was associated with untimely measles vaccination. Qualitative findings revealed that lack of knowledge and poor attitudes of health workers and caregivers, gaps in documentation of vaccination status and inadequate communication by health workers hindered timely vaccination.

Conclusion

More than half of preterm infants attending a specialised clinic at Mulago National Referral hospital in Uganda did not receive vaccines within the recommended time range. Specific strategies to improve vaccination timeliness in preterm infants are needed especially among the extremely low birth weight, very preterm and those with prolonged hospitalisation.

Low immunization coverage in Wonago district, southern Ethiopia: A community-based cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

Immunization is a cost-effective intervention that prevented more than 5 million deaths worldwide from 2010 to 2015. Despite increased vaccination coverage over the past four decades in many African countries, including Ethiopia, universal coverage has not yet been reached. Only 39% of children aged 12-23 months received full vaccinations in Ethiopia, according to the 2016 Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey. This study aimed to evaluate immunization coverage and identify individual and community factors that explain incomplete vaccination coverage among children aged 6-36 months in the Wonago district of southern Ethiopia.

METHODS

We conducted a community-based, cross-sectional study in three randomly selected kebeles in the Wonago district from June to July 2017. Our nested sample of 1,116 children aged 6-36 months included 923 child-mother pairs (level 1) within kebeles (level 2). We conducted multilevel regression analysis using STATA software.

RESULTS

Among participants, 85.0% of children aged 12-36 months received at least one vaccine, and 52.4% had complete immunization coverage. After controlling for several individual and community variables, we identified six significant predictor variables for complete immunization: Older mothers' age (AOR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.00-1.09), higher utilization of antenatal care (AOR = 1.36, 95% CI: 1.14-1.62), one or more tetanus-toxoid vaccination during pregnancy (AOR = 2.64, 95% CI: 1.43-4.86), mothers knowing the age at which to complete child's vaccinations (AOR = 2.00, 95% CI: 1.25-3.20), being a female (AOR = 0.64, 95% CI: 0.43-0.95), and child receiving vitamin A supplementation within the last 6 months (AOR = 2.79, 95% CI: 1.59-4.90). We observed a clustering effect at the individual and community levels with an intra-cluster correlation coefficient of 48.1%.

CONCLUSIONS

We found low immunization coverage among children in the Wonago district of southern Ethiopia, with significant differences across communities. Promoting maternal health care and community service could enhance immunization coverage.

The use and significance of vaccination cards

Vaccination cards are useful health records that contain information about vaccination dates and dosage. This information is helpful for parents, vaccination providers, and public health researchers. However, as they currently are structured, many vaccination cards are very difficult to read by non-experts, like parents, and even by health-care providers. Many families also lose these vaccination cards; among the top 10 countries with the most unvaccinated children, the proportion of families who were able to find their vaccination cards and give them to researchers was low, ranging from 20.7% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to 69.2% in South Africa. Moreover, some families report that not having a vaccination card during a vaccination visit resulted in them being unable to obtain a vaccine (8% in one study in Ethiopia and 16% in one study in Bangladesh). This commentary provides recommendations about how vaccination cards should be used by parents, health-care providers, and researchers, and comments on their continued relevance in an era with increased use of electronic registries.

Special focus on challenges and opportunities for the development and use of vaccines in Africa

Immunization of children against vaccine-preventable diseases is one of the most cost-effective and potentially equitable public health interventions. Nevertheless, approximately 19.9 million of the world's annual birth cohort are either under-immunized or have not been vaccinated at all. Understanding the factors contributing to under-immunization in settinsg such as sub-Saharan Africa which bears a disproportionate burden of vaccine preventable diseases is key to unlocking the full potential that vaccines offer in reducing under-5 morbidity and mortality. The series or articles in this issue of the Journal, mainly through systematic analysis of District Health Surveillance data bases from 35 countries, highlight the challenges faced in improving vaccination coverage rates in sub-Saharan Africa which has stagnated at approximately 72% for completion of the primary series of infant vaccines over the past decade. The reasons for under-immunization of children is sub-Saharan Africa is identified to be multi-factorial and may differ between and within countries. This highlights the need for country-specific, possibly at a district or sub-regional level, interrogation of factors contributing to under-immunization of children, to work toward providing Universal Health Coverage as envisioned in the Sustainable Development Goals.