Association of human papillomavirus infection and inflammation in cervical cancer

IL-32/NFκB/miR-205 loop sustains the high expression of IL-32 and enhances the motility of cervical cancer cells

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a major contributor to cervical cancer. Persistent HPV infection can trigger the expression of IL-32, yet the precise role of IL-32 in the occurrence and development of cervical cancer remains elusive. To investigate this, qRT‒PCR and western blotting were utilized to measure the mRNA and protein expression levels; bioinformatics analysis was used to screen differentially expressed miRNAs; wound healing and transwell assays were conducted to evaluate cell migration and invasion capabilities. Comparative analysis revealed significantly elevated IL-32 expression in cervical cancer tissues and cell lines compared to control groups. In SiHa and/or HeLa, overexpression of IL-32 and IL-32 exposure markedly upregulated miR-205, whereas its knockdown resulted in a substantial downregulation of miR-205. Furthermore, miR-205 also could significantly regulate the expression of IL-32 in HeLa and SiHa cells. Upregulation and downregulation of IL-32 led to a significant increase or decrease in NFκB expression, respectively. Treatment with BAY11-7082 (an NFκB inhibitor) notably decreased miR-205 expression but had no effect on IL-32 levels. qRT‒PCR and western blotting analyses demonstrated that both overexpression and underexpression of IL-32 and miR-205 significantly enhanced or reduced MMP2 and MMP9 expression in cervical cancer cells, respectively. Knockdown of IL-32 significantly inhibited the migration and invasion of HeLa and SiHa; conversely, treatment with rIL-32α and rIL-32γ notably promoted their migration and invasion. In brief, IL-32 is highly expressed via the formation of a positive regulatory loop with NFκB/miR-205, contributing to the persistence of inflammation and promoting the progression of cervical cancer.

HPV DNA status and clinical history of patients are supplements for accurate reporting of the cytological Pap smear

The present study was aimed at showing the importance of HPV DNA status and the clinical history of the patients required by the cytologist for accurate reporting. A total of 1250 symptomatic women who attended the gynaecology outpatient department of the Mahavir Cancer Sansthan and Nalanda Medical College, Patna, for pap smear examinations were screened and recruited for the study. Due to highly clinical symptoms out of the negative with inflammatory smears reported, one hundred and ten patients were randomly advised for biopsy and HPV 16/18 DNA analysis by a gynaecologist to correlate negative smears included in the study. Pap smear reports revealed that 1178 (94.24%) were negative for intraepithelial lesions (NILM) with inflammatory smears, 23 (1.84%) smears showed low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), 12 (0.96%) smears showed high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and 37 (2.96%) smears showed an atypical squamous cell of undetermined significance (ASC-US). A biopsy of 110 out of 1178 (NILM) patients revealed that 15 (13.63%) women had cervical cancer, 29 women had CIN I, 17 women had CIN II + CIN III, 35 women had benign cervical changes, and 14 women had haemorrhages. On the other hand, HPV 16/18 DNA was detected as positive in 87 out of 110. The high positivity of HPV in biopsied cases where frank cervical cancer and at-risk cancer were also observed in the negative smear-screened patients reveals that the HPV status and clinical history of the patients will be quite helpful to the cytologist for accurate reporting, and suggests that a negative HPV DNA result may be a stronger predictor of cervical cancer risk than a negative Pap test.

Emerging paradigms: unmasking the role of oxidative stress in HPV-induced carcinogenesis

The contribution of the human papillomavirus (HPV) to cancer is significant but not exclusive, as carcinogenesis involves complex mechanisms, notably oxidative stress. Oxidative stress and HPV can independently cause genome instability and DNA damage, contributing to tumorigenesis. Oxidative stress-induced DNA damage, especially double-strand breaks, aids in the integration of HPV into the host genome and promotes the overexpression of two viral proteins, E6 and E7. Lifestyle factors, including diet, smoking, alcohol, and psychological stress, along with genetic and epigenetic modifications, and viral oncoproteins may influence oxidative stress, impacting the progression of HPV-related cancers. This review highlights various mechanisms in oxidative-induced HPV-mediated carcinogenesis, including altered mitochondrial morphology and function leading to elevated ROS levels, modulation of antioxidant enzymes like Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Glutathione (GSH), and Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx), induction of chronic inflammatory environments, and activation of specific cell signaling pathways like the Phosphoinositide 3-kinase, Protein kinase B, Mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) and the Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway. The study highlights the significance of comprehending and controlling oxidative stress in preventing and treating cancer. We suggested that incorporating dietary antioxidants and targeting cancer cells through mechanisms involving ROS could be potential interventions to mitigate the impact of oxidative stress on HPV-related malignancies.

Knowledge on Human Papillomavirus Infections, Cancer Biology, Immune Interactions, Vaccination Coverage and Common Treatments: A Comprehensive Review

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a circular, double-stranded DNA virus and recognized as the most prevalent sexually transmitted infectious agent worldwide. The HPV life cycle encompasses three primary stages. First, the virus infiltrates the basal cells of the stratified epidermis. Second, there is a low-level expression of viral genes and preservation of the viral genome in the basal layer. Lastly, productive replication of HPV occurs in differentiated cells. An effective immune response, involving various immune cells, including innate immunity, keratinocytes, dendritic cells, and natural killer T cells, is instrumental in clearing HPV infection and thwarting the development of HPV-associated tumors. Vaccines have demonstrated their efficacy in preventing genital warts, high-grade precancerous lesions, and cancers in females. In males, the vaccines can also aid in preventing genital warts, anal precancerous lesions, and cancer. This comprehensive review aims to provide a thorough and detailed exploration of HPV infections, delving into its genetic characteristics, life cycle, pathogenesis, and the role of high-risk and low-risk HPV strains. In addition, this review seeks to elucidate the intricate immune interactions that govern HPV infections, spanning from innate immunity to adaptive immune responses, as well as examining the evasion mechanisms used by the virus. Furthermore, the article discusses the current landscape of HPV vaccines and common treatments, contributing to a holistic understanding of HPV and its associated diseases.

A microRNA Profile Regulates Inflammation-Related Signaling Pathways in Young Women with Locally Advanced Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer (CC) remains among the most frequent cancers worldwide despite advances in screening and the development of vaccines against human papillomavirus (HPV), involved in virtually all cases of CC. In mid-income countries, a substantial proportion of the cases are diagnosed in advanced stages, and around 40% of them are diagnosed in women under 49 years, just below the global median age. This suggests that members of this age group share common risk factors, such as chronic inflammation. In this work, we studied samples from 46 patients below 45 years old, searching for a miRNA profile regulating cancer pathways. We found 615 differentially expressed miRNAs between tumor samples and healthy tissues. Through bioinformatic analysis, we found that several of them targeted elements of the JAK/STAT pathway and other inflammation-related pathways. We validated the interactions of miR-30a and miR-34c with JAK1 and STAT3, respectively, through dual-luciferase and expression assays in cervical carcinoma-derived cell lines. Finally, through knockdown experiments, we observed that these miRNAs decreased viability and promoted proliferation in HeLa cells. This work contributes to understanding the mechanisms through which HPV regulates inflammation, in addition to its canonical oncogenic function, and brings attention to the JAK/STAT signaling pathway as a possible diagnostic marker for CC patients younger than 45 years. To our knowledge to date, there has been no previous description of a panel of miRNAs or even ncRNAs in young women with locally advanced cervical cancer.

Human papillomavirus infection: Epidemiology, biology, host interactions, cancer development, prevention, and therapeutics

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide. It is caused by the HPV, a DNA virus that infects epithelial cells in various mucous membranes and skin surfaces. HPV can be categorised into high-risk and low-risk types based on their association with the development of certain cancers. High-risk HPV types, such as HPV-16 and HPV-18, are known to be oncogenic and are strongly associated with the development of cervical, anal, vaginal, vulvar, penile, and oropharyngeal cancers. These types of HPV can persist in the body for an extended period and, in some cases, lead to the formation of precancerous lesions that may progress to cancer if left untreated. Low-risk HPV types, such as HPV-6 and HPV-11, are not typically associated with cancer but can cause benign conditions like genital warts. Genital warts are characterised by the growth of small, cauliflower-like bumps on the genital and anal areas. Although not life-threatening, they can cause discomfort and psychological distress. HPV is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. It can also be transmitted through non-penetrative sexual activities that involve skin-to-skin contact. In addition to sexual transmission, vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth is possible but relatively rare. Prevention of HPV infection includes vaccination and safe sexual practices. HPV vaccines, such as Gardasil and Cervarix, are highly effective in preventing infection with the most common high-risk HPV types. These vaccines are typically administered to adolescents and young adults before they become sexually active. Safe sexual practices, such as consistent and correct condom use and limiting the number of sexual partners, can also reduce the risk of HPV transmission. Diagnosis of HPV infection can be challenging because the infection is often asymptomatic, especially in men. In women, HPV testing can be done through cervical screening programs, which involve the collection of cervical cells for analysis. Abnormal results may lead to further diagnostic procedures, such as colposcopy or biopsy, to detect precancerous or cancerous changes. Overall, HPV infection is a prevalent sexually transmitted infection with significant implications for public health. Vaccination, regular screening, and early treatment of precancerous lesions are key strategies to reduce the burden of HPV-related diseases and their associated complications. Education and awareness about HPV and its prevention are crucial in promoting optimal sexual health. This study aimed to carry out a literature review considering several aspects involving HPV infection: Global distribution, prevalence, biology, host interactions, cancer development, prevention, therapeutics, coinfection with other viruses, coinfection with bacteria, association with head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, and association with anal cancer.

Modulation of sHLA-G, PD-1, and PD-L1 Expression in Cervical Lesions Following Imiquimod Treatment and Its Association with Treatment Success

(1) Background: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) is a precancerous condition linked to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, often necessitating surgical interventions carrying the risk of subsequent preterm births. This study explores the potential of imiquimod (IMQ), as a non-invasive alternative treatment. The focus is on understanding IMQ impact on immune checkpoint molecules, particularly PD-1, PD-L1, and sHLA-G, which play pivotal roles in shaping immune responses and cancer progression. (2) Methods: Forty-three patients diagnosed with a high-risk squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL, p16-positive) self-applied 5% IMQ encapsulated in sachets containing 250 g of cream into the vaginal cavity three times a week for 16 weeks. The impact of IMQ therapy on cervical lesion regression was assessed through immunohistochemistry (IHC), examining changes in sHLA-G, PD-L1, and PD-1 levels. The antiviral activity of IMQ was evaluated through HPV-E7 immunofluorescence. Ethical considerations were adhered to, and the research methods were based on a previously approved clinical trial (clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT04859361). (3) Results: IMQ treatment demonstrated efficacy, leading to lesion regression. sHLA-G levels in CIN before starting IMQ application were associated with unsuccessful treatment (p = 0.0036). IMQ did not significantly alter the expression of PD-1. We observed a decrease in PD-L1 levels in those who were successfully treated (p = 0.0509) and a reduction in HPV burden. (4) Conclusions: IMQ exhibits promise as a non-invasive treatment for CIN, emphasising its potential to modulate the immune microenvironment. Baseline sHLA-G levels emerge as potential predictors of treatment response. Understanding the nuanced dynamics of immune checkpoints sheds light on IMQ mechanism of action. Further exploration is warranted to decipher the intricate mechanisms underlying IMQ treatment in the context of cervical lesions.

Essential Oils in Cervical Cancer: Narrative Review on Current Insights and Future Prospects

Cervical cancer is a prevalent and often devastating disease affecting women worldwide. Traditional treatment modalities such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy have significantly improved survival rates, but they are often accompanied by side effects and challenges that can impact a patient's quality of life. In recent years, the integration of essential oils into the management of cervical cancer has gained attention. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the role of various essential oils in cervical cancer, offering insights into their potential benefits and the existing body of research. The review also delves into future directions and challenges in this emerging field, emphasizing promising research areas and advanced delivery systems. The encapsulation of essential oils with solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsification of essential oils, or the combination of essential oils with conventional treatments showed promising results by increasing the anticancer properties of essential oils. As the use of essential oils in cervical cancer treatment or management evolves, this review aims to provide a comprehensive perspective, balancing the potential of these natural remedies with the challenges and considerations that need to be addressed.

Role of Mangiferin in Management of Cancers through Modulation of Signal Transduction Pathways

Cancer is a major public health concern worldwide in terms of mortality. The exact reason behind the development of cancer is not understood clearly, but it is evidenced that alcohol consumption, radiation, and exposure to chemicals are main players in this pathogenesis. The current mode of treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are effective, but, still, cancer is a major problem leading to death and other side effects. However, safer and effective treatment modules are needed to overcome the adverse effects of current treatment modules. In this regard, natural compounds have been recognized to ameliorate diseases by exerting anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-tumor potential through several mechanisms. Mangiferin, a xanthone C-glucoside, is found in several plant species including Mangifera indica (mango), and its role in disease prevention has been confirmed through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Furthermore, its anti-cancer-potential mechanism has been designated through modulation of cell signaling pathways such as inflammation, angiogenesis, PI3K/AKT, apoptosis, and cell cycle. This article extensively reviews the anticancer potential of mangiferin in different cancers through the modulation of cell signaling pathways. Moreover, the synergistic effects of this compound with some commonly used anti-cancer drugs against different cancer cells are discussed. More clinical trials should be performed to reconnoiter the anti-cancer potential of this compound in human cancer treatment. Further, understanding of mechanisms of action and the safety level of this compound can help to manage diseases, including cancer.

Vaccine escape challenges virus prevention: The example of two vaccine-preventable oncogenic viruses

Over the years, the pace of developing vaccines for HBV and HPV has never stopped. After more than 30 years of application, the HBV vaccine has reduced 80% of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, vaccine escape variants occur under selective pressure induced by widespread vaccination and antiviral therapy, which results in fulminant infection and horizontal transmission. Several mechanisms have been studied to explain HBV vaccine escape, including vaccine escape mutations (VEMs) in the major hydrophilic region, which leads to a decrease in the binding ability to neutralize antibodies and is the primary escape mechanism, protein conformational and N-linked glycosylation sites changes caused by VEMs, differences in genotype distribution, gene recombination, and some temporarily unknown reasons. However, effective solutions are still being explored. The HPV vaccine has also been proven to prevent 70%-90% of cervical cancer worldwide. Cases of HPV infection after being vaccinated have been observed in clinical practice. However, few researchers have paid attention to the mechanism of HPV vaccine escape. Thus, we reviewed the literature on vaccine escape of both HBV and HPV to discuss the mechanism of the virus escaping from vaccine protection and possible solutions to this problem. We analyzed the gap between studies of HPV and HBV and made prospects for further research in HPV vaccine escape.

The Relationship between Furin and Chronic Inflammation in the Progression of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia to Cancer: A Cross-Sectional Study

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to delineate the relationship between furin and chronic inflammation while cervical intraepithelial neoplasia progresses to cancer.

STUDY DESIGN

This cross-sectional study included 81 women who required colposcopic examinations. The study groups were formed based on pathological results: Group I included women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) I (n = 30); Group II included women with CIN II-III (n = 28); and Group III included women with cervical cancer (CC) (n = 23). Furin, ki-67, and p16 levels were evaluated based on immunostaining intensity. The inflammatory indices were calculated in parallel with the literature from routine blood samples retrieved within one week before the procedure.

RESULTS

Furin expression gradually increased from CIN I to CIN II-III and from CIN II-III to CC, respectively (p < 0.001, p = 0.005). NLR, MLR, PLR, and SII were significantly higher in the CC group (p < 0.001). ROC curve analysis unveiled that NLR, MLR, PLR, and SII predicted the presence of CC with a cutoff value of 2.39 for NLR (sensitivity: 91.3%, specificity: 63.8%, AUROC: 0.79, p < 0.001); a cutoff value of 0.27 for MLR (sensitivity: 78.3%, specificity: 72.4%, AUROC: 0.77, p = 0.009); a cutoff value of 123 for PLR (sensitivity: 100%, specificity: 41.4%, AUROC: 0.70, p = 0.04); and a cutoff value of 747 for SII (sensitivity: 69.6%, specificity: 90.7%, AUROC: 0.71, p = 0.014).

CONCLUSION

Furin expression increased gradually in parallel with the severity of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. The inflammatory indices were higher in the presence of CC and denoted a good discrimination ability for predicting cervical cancer.

Advances in molecular mechanism of HPV16 E5 oncoprotein carcinogenesis

For a considerable duration, cervical cancer has posed a significant risk to the well-being and survival of women. The emergence and progression of cervical cancer have garnered extensive attention, with prolonged chronic infection of HPV serving as a crucial etiological factor. Consequently, investigating the molecular mechanism underlying HPV-induced cervical cancer has become a prominent research area. The HPV molecule is composed of a long control region (LCR), an early coding region and a late coding region.The early coding region encompasses E1, E2, E4, E5, E6, E7, while the late coding region comprises L1 and L2 ORF.The investigation into the molecular structure and function of HPV has garnered significant attention, with the aim of elucidating the carcinogenic mechanism of HPV and identifying potential targets for the treatment of cervical cancer. Research has demonstrated that the HPV gene and its encoded protein play a crucial role in the invasion and malignant transformation of host cells. Consequently, understanding the function of HPV oncoprotein is of paramount importance in comprehending the pathogenesis of cervical cancer. E6 and E7, the primary HPV oncogenic proteins, have been the subject of extensive study. Moreover, a number of contemporary investigations have demonstrated the significant involvement of HPV16 E5 oncoprotein in the malignant conversion of healthy cells through its regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis via diverse pathways, albeit the precise molecular mechanism remains unclear. This manuscript aims to provide a comprehensive account of the molecular structure and life cycle of HPV.The HPV E5 oncoprotein mechanism modulates cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and energy metabolism through its interaction with cell growth factor receptors and other cellular proteins. This mechanism is crucial for the survival, adhesion, migration, and invasion of tumor cells in the early stages of carcinogenesis. Recent studies have identified the HPV E5 oncoprotein as a promising therapeutic target for early-stage cervical cancer, thus offering a novel approach for treatment.

Nuclear proinflammatory cytokine S100A9 enhances expression of human papillomavirus oncogenes via transcription factor TEAD1

Transcription of the human papillomavirus (HPV) oncogenes, E6 and E7, is regulated by the long control region (LCR) of the viral genome. Although various transcription factors have been reported to bind to the LCR, little is known about the transcriptional cofactors that modulate HPV oncogene expression in association with these transcription factors. Here, we performed in vitro DNA-pulldown purification of nuclear proteins in cervical cancer cells, followed by proteomic analyses to identify transcriptional cofactors that bind to the HPV16 LCR via the transcription factor TEAD1. We detected the proinflammatory cytokine S100A9 that localized to the nucleus of cervical cancer cells and associated with the LCR via direct interaction with TEAD1. Nuclear S100A9 levels and its association with the LCR were increased in cervical cancer cells by treatment with a proinflammatory phorbol ester. Knockdown of S100A9 decreased HPV oncogene expression and reduced the growth of cervical cancer cells and their susceptibility to cisplatin, whereas forced nuclear expression of S100A9 using nuclear localization signals exerted opposite effects. Thus, we conclude that nuclear S100A9 binds to the HPV LCR via TEAD1 and enhances viral oncogene expression by acting as a transcriptional coactivator. IMPORTANCE Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the primary cause of cervical cancer, and the viral oncogenes E6 and E7 play crucial roles in carcinogenesis. Although cervical inflammation contributes to the development of cervical cancer, the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of these inflammatory responses in HPV carcinogenesis are not fully understood. Our study shows that S100A9, a proinflammatory cytokine, is induced in the nucleus of cervical cancer cells by inflammatory stimuli, and it enhances HPV oncogene expression by acting as a transcriptional coactivator of TEAD1. These findings provide new molecular insights into the relationship between inflammation and viral carcinogenesis.

Implications of viral infections and oncogenesis in uterine cervical carcinoma etiology and pathogenesis

Background

Uterine Cervical Carcinoma (UCC) is the most prevalent gynecological malignancy globally, with a rising incidence in recent years. Accumulating evidence indicates that specific viral infections, including human papillomavirus (HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV), and human herpesvirus (HHV), may contribute to UCC development and progression. Understanding the complex interplay between viral infections and UCC risk is crucial for developing novel preventative and therapeutic interventions.

Methods

This comprehensive review investigates the association between viral infections and UCC risk by examining the roles of various viral pathogens in UCC etiology and pathogenesis, and possible molecular mechanisms. Additionally, we evaluate current diagnostic methods and potential therapeutic strategies targeting viral infections for UCC prevention or treatment.

Results

The prevention of UCC has been significantly advanced by the emergence of self-sampling for HPV testing as a crucial tool, allowing for early detection and intervention. However, an essential challenge in UCC prevention lies in understanding how HPV and other viral coinfections, including EBV, HBV, HCV, HHV, HIV, or their concurrent presence, may potentially contribute to UCC development. The molecular mechanisms implicated in the association between viral infections and cervical cancer development include: (1) interference of viral oncogenes with cellular regulatory proteins, resulting in uncontrolled cell proliferation and malignant transformation; (2) inactivation of tumor suppressor genes by viral proteins; (3) evasion of host immune responses by viruses; (4) induction of a persistent inflammatory response, contributing to a tumor-promoting microenvironment; (5) epigenetic modifications that lead to aberrant gene expression; (6) stimulation of angiogenesis by viruses; and (7) activation of telomerase by viral proteins, leading to cellular immortalization. Additionally, viral coinfections can also enhance oncogenic potential through synergistic interactions between viral oncoproteins, employ immune evasion strategies, contribute to chronic inflammation, modulate host cellular signaling pathways, and induce epigenetic alterations, ultimately leading to cervical carcinogenesis.

Conclusion

Recognizing the implications of viral oncogenes in UCC etiology and pathogenesis is vital for addressing the escalating burden of UCC. Developing innovative preventative and therapeutic interventions requires a thorough understanding of the intricate relationship between viral infections and UCC risk.

Human Papilloma Virus: An Unraveled Enigma of Universal Burden of Malignancies

HPV, or Human Papilloma Virus, has been the primary causative agent of genital warts and cervical cancer worldwide. It is a sexually transmitted infection mainly affecting women of reproductive age group, also infecting men and high-risk group individuals globally, resulting in high mortality. In recent years, HPV has also been found to be the major culprit behind anogenital cancers in both gender and oropharyngeal and colorectal cancers. Few studies have reported the incidence of HPV in breast cancers as well. For a few decades, the burden of HPV-associated malignancies has been increasing at an alarming rate due to a lack of adequate awareness, famine vaccine coverage and hesitancy. The effectiveness of currently available vaccines has been limited to prophylactic efficacy and does not prevent malignancies associated with post-exposure persistent infection. This review focuses on the current burden of HPV-associated malignancies, their causes and strategies to combat the growing prevalence of the cancers. With the advent of new technologies associated with treatment pertaining to therapeutic interventions and employing effective vaccine coverage, the burden of this disease may be reduced in the population.

Research Progress in the Relationship Between P2X7R and Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is one of the most common and serious tumors in women. Finding new biomarkers and therapeutic targets plays an important role in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cervical cancer. Purinergic ligand-gated ion channel 7 receptor (P2X7R) is a purine ligand cation channel, activated by adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Studies have shown that P2X7R plays an important role in a variety of diseases and cancers. More and more studies have shown that P2X7R is also closely related to cervical cancer; therefore, the role of P2X7R in the development of cervical cancer deserves further discussion. The expression level of P2X7R in uterine epithelial cancer tissues was lower than that of the corresponding normal tissues. P2X7R plays an important role in the apoptotic process of cervical cancer through various mechanisms of action, and both antagonists and agonists of P2X7R can inhibit the proliferation of cervical cancer cells, while P2X7R is involved in the antitumor effect of Atr-I on cervical cancer cells. This review evaluates the current role of P2X7R in cervical cancer in order to develop more specific therapies for cervical cancer. In conclusion, P2X7R may become a biomarker for cervical cancer screening, and even a new target for clinical treatment of cervical cancer.

Systematic Analysis of IL-1 Cytokine Signaling Suppression by HPV16 Oncoproteins

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E6 and E7 oncogenes are expressed at all stages of HPV-mediated carcinogenesis and are essential drivers of cancers caused by high-risk HPV. Some of the activities of HPV E6 and E7, such as their interactions with host cellular tumor suppressors, have been characterized extensively. There is less information about how high-risk HPV E6 and E7 alter cellular responses to cytokines that are present in HPV-infected tissues and are an important component of the tumor microenvironment. We used several models of HPV oncoprotein activity to assess how HPV16 E6 and E7 alter the cellular response to the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β. Models of early stage HPV infection and of established HPV-positive head and neck cancers exhibited similar dysregulation of IL-1 pathway genes and suppressed transcriptional responses to IL-1β treatment. Such overlap in cell responses supports that changes induced by HPV16 E6 and E7 early in infection could persist and contribute to a dysregulated immune environment throughout carcinogenesis. HPV16 E6 and E7 also drove the upregulation of several suppressors of IL-1 cytokine signaling, including SIGIRR, both in primary keratinocytes and in cancer cells. SIGIRR knockout was insufficient to increase IL-1β-dependent gene expression in the presence of HPV16 E6 and E7, suggesting that multiple suppressors of IL-1 signaling contribute to dampened IL-1 responses in HPV16-positive cells. IMPORTANCE Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible for nearly 5% of the worldwide cancer burden. HPV-positive tumors develop over years to decades in tissues that are subject to frequent stimulation by proinflammatory cytokines. However, the effects of HPV oncoproteins on the cellular response to cytokine stimulation are not well defined. We analyzed IL-1 cytokine signaling in several models of HPV biology and disease. We found that HPV16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins mediate a broad and potent suppression of cellular responses to IL-1β in models of both early and late stages of carcinogenesis. Our data provide a resource for future investigation of IL-1 signaling in HPV-positive cells and cancers.

An updated systematic review of the association between the TLR4 polymorphism rs4986790 and cancers risk

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a lipopolysaccharide receptor that may influence tumor progression through inflammatory response and immune response. This complex process mainly occurs within cells. The correlation between TLR4 and neoplasms has been of great interest, but discrepancies remain.

METHODS

We analyze the literature retrieved from five databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, CNKI, and Wan Fang) to assess the intensity of association using odds ratio (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Meta-regression and subgroup analysis were utilized to find sources of heterogeneity. Publication bias is estimated using contour-enhanced funnel plots, Begg's test, and Egger's test, and we implemented sensitivity analysis to clarify the reliability of the outcomes. We also conducted an evaluation of the sample size using trial sequential analysis (TSA) method.

RESULTS

We found a significant association between rs4986790 and tumors (dominant model: OR [95% CI] = 1.25 [1.11-1.42]; heterozygous model OR [95% CI] = 1.25 [1.11-1.41]; and additive model: OR [95% CI] = 1.25 [1.10-1.41]. Specifically, the rs4986790 minor allele G may increase the risk of gastric cancer (dominant model: OR [95% CI] = 1.62 [1.3-2.03]; heterozygous model: OR [95% CI] = 1.57 [1.24-1.97]; additive model: OR [95% CI] = 1.64 [1.31-2.05] and other tumors (dominant model: OR [95% CI] = 1.36 [1.17-1.57]; heterozygous model: OR [95% CI] = 1.43 [1.25-1.63]; additive model: OR [95% CI] = 1.35 [1.18-1.55]. Further subgroup analysis showed that this association are both present in Caucasian and Asian.

CONCLUSION

The outcomes of our systemic review proved that the TLR4 polymorphism rs4986790 is associated with cancer, especially with gastric cancer, and this strong correlation are evident in Caucasians and Asian.

Monoclonal antibodies in cervical malignancy-related HPV

Despite many efforts to treat HPV infection, cervical cancer survival is still poor for several reasons, including resistance to chemotherapy and relapse. Numerous treatments such as surgery, radiation therapy, immune cell-based therapies, siRNA combined with various drugs, and immunotherapy are being studied and performed to provide the best treatment. Depending on the stage and size of the tumor, methods such as radical hysterectomy, pelvic lymphadenectomy, or chemotherapy can be utilized to treat cervical cancer. While accepted, these treatments lead to interruptions in cellular pathways and immune system homeostasis. In addition to a low survival rate, cervical neoplasm incidence has been rising significantly. However, new strategies have been proposed to increase patient survival while reducing the toxicity of chemotherapy, including targeted therapy and monoclonal antibodies. In this article, we discuss the types and potential therapeutic roles of monoclonal antibodies in cervical cancer.

Pulmonary manifestations of chronic HPV infection in patients with recurrent respiratory papillomatosis

Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 6 and 11 can infect the squamous epithelium of the respiratory tract. Up to 8·9% of patients with HPV-associated recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (RRP) have pulmonary involvement. Pulmonary manifestations of HPV infection are associated with considerable morbidity, in part because treatment options and management guidelines are lacking. Patients with pulmonary RRP have a 32-times increased lifetime risk of malignant transformation compared with the overall RRP population. We review the clinical and radiographic presentation, pathological features, and genetics of pulmonary RRP, and we provide management algorithms based on our clinical experience with this complex patient population. In patients with suspected pulmonary involvement, tissue-sparing procedures to address growing lesions might be warranted given the chronicity and multifocality of the disease over a patient's lifetime. However, malignant transformation of pulmonary lesion(s) warrants standard-of-care treatment for primary lung squamous cell carcinoma. Large cohort studies are needed to understand the clinical course of pulmonary RRP and to identify molecular markers of increased risk of malignant transformation in order to develop guidelines for optimal and standardised surveillance and treatment.

Dynamic changes of soluble HLA-G and cytokine plasma levels in cervical cancer patients: potential role in cancer progression and immunotherapy

PURPOSE

Chronic inflammation has been proven to be an important factor in carcinogenesis. Cytokines are the central mediators in the inflammatory microenvironment, and their release may be influenced by soluble HLA-G (sHLA-G). The aim of this study was to monitor the dynamic process of these soluble factors in patients with cervical cancer at Taizhou Hospital of Zhejiang Province, trying to understand their relationship with diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

METHODS

We quantified plasma levels of sHLA-G and 12 cytokines using ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively, in the peripheral blood of patients with cervical cancer divided into three groups: preoperation, postoperation and clinical relapse. Healthy women were used as the control group. Data were analysed by non-parametric tests, receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and Kaplan-Meier plotter (log-rank test).

RESULTS

In this study, our findings showed that preoperation plasma levels of sHLA-G and the cytokines IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-γ in cervical cancer patients had a good discriminatory effect between cervical cancer patients and healthy women. It should be noted that plasma levels of sHLA-G, IL-6, and IL-10 were significantly decreased within 30 days after radical hysterectomy (P < 0.05). A positive correlation was observed between IL-6 and IL-10, IL-8 and IL-17 levels preoperatively. In contrast, sHLA-G levels were negatively correlated with IL-10 but not with other cytokines. An increased survival rate in patients with cervical cancer was associated with IL-5 < 1.70 pg/mL, IL-17 < 2.30 pg/mL, and IFN-α < 2.26 pg/mL preoperatively. In addition, our findings showed that the levels of cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-12p70, IL-17, and IFN-γ may be related to 5-year relapse rates and/or the metastasis of cervical cancer.

CONCLUSION

The current findings enhance our understanding of the dynamic process (preoperation, postoperation and clinical relapse) of sHLA-G and these cytokines in the plasma of patients with cervical cancer from diagnosis to prognosis. These biomarkers may play a potential therapeutic target role of such dynamic changes in the immunotherapy for cervical cancer.

Dietary Vitamin K Intake and HPV-Infection Status Among American Women: A Secondary Analysis From National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data From 2003 to 2016

Objective: Cervical cancer is a serious potential risk to women’s health, and is closely related to persistent HPV infection. Vitamin K mainly existed in green vegetables, fruit, and dairy products. This research aims to observe the association between vitamin K and HPV-infection.

Methods: 13,447 participants from the NHANES were selected. Dietary vitamin K intake was used as the objective independent variable and continuous variable, HPV-infection status was used as the outcome variable, and characteristics of selected participants were used as the covariates.

Results: There was a nonlinearity between vitamin K intake and HPV-infection, and the inflection point is 3.81 of log2 vitamin K intake. In a range of 0–3.81, Each one-unit increase in log2 vitamin K intake was associated with a 43% reduction in the risk of HPV infection. When log2 vitamin K intake excess of 3.81, the risk of HPV infection did not continue to decline. The HPV-subtype was not associated with vitamin K intake.

Conclusion: There is a nonlinearity between vitamin K intake and HPV-infection status. But HPV-subtype was not associated with vitamin K intake.

DARS-AS1 recruits METTL3/METTL14 to bind and enhance DARS mRNA m6A modification and translation for cytoprotective autophagy in cervical cancer

Cervical cancer (CC) is one of the most prevalent malignancies among females. Cytoprotective autophagy could confer cancer cell tolerance to hypoxic stress, promoting cell survival and adaptation. Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase 1 antisense 1 (DARS-AS1) is an oncogenic long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in various cancers, but how DARS-AS1 regulates cytoprotective autophagy in hypoxic environment in CC remains unclear. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and luciferase reporter assays were conducted to explore the interaction between hypoxia-inducible factor 1 subunit alpha (HIF1α) and DARS-AS1 promoter. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation (MeRIP) followed by quantitative real-time polymerase-chain reaction (RT-qPCR) detected methylated RNA level. The process of autophagic maturation was monitored by immunofluorescence staining. Higher DARS-AS1 expression was found in CC tissues and cytoprotective. We also uncovered that hypoxic exposure induced cytoprotective autophagy via HIF1α/DARS-AS1/DARS axis. Moreover, DARS-AS1 was validated to facilitate DARS translation via recruiting N6-adenosine-methyltransferase methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3) and methyltransferase like 14 (METTL14), which bound with DARS mRNA DARS mRNA 5’ untranslated region (5ʹUTR) and promoting its translation. The present study demonstrated that the ‘HIF1α/DARS-AS1/DARS/ATG5/ATG3’ pathway regulated the hypoxia-induced cytoprotective autophagy of CC and might be a promising target of therapeutic strategies for patients afflicted with CC.

Altered Vaginal Microbiota Composition Correlates With Human Papillomavirus and Mucosal Immune Responses in Women With Symptomatic Cervical Ectopy

Cervical ectopy is a benign condition of the lower genital tract that is frequently detected in women of reproductive age. Although cervical ectopy is regarded as a physiological condition, some women experience symptoms such as leucorrhoea, persistent bleeding and recurrent vaginal infections that require medical intervention. Cervical ectopy has not been linked to cervical cancer, but it is thought to facilitate the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection, as it provides a favorable microenvironment for virus infection and dissemination. We and others have described the presence of oncogenic HPV types in women with symptomatic cervical ectopy. The relevance of this finding and the impact of symptomatic cervical ectopy on the cervicovaginal microenvironment (vaginal microbiota, immune and inflammatory responses) are currently unknown. To shed some light into the interplay between HPV, the vaginal microbiota and mucosal immune and inflammatory responses in the context of this condition, we enrolled 156 women with symptomatic cervical ectopy and determined the presence of HPV using a type-specific multiplex genotyping assay. Overall, HPV was detected in 54.48% women, oncogenic HPV types were found in more than 90% of HPV-positive cases. The most prevalent HPV types were HPV16 (29.4%), HPV31 (21.17%) and HPV18 (15.29%). Next, we evaluated the vaginal microbial composition and diversity by 16S rDNA sequencing, and quantified levels of cytokines and chemokines by flow cytometry using bead-based multiplex assays in a sub-cohort of 63 women. IL-21 and CXCL9 were significantly upregulated in HPV-positive women (p=0.0002 and p=0.013, respectively). Women with symptomatic cervical ectopy and HPV infection had increased diversity (p<0.001), and their vaginal microbiota was enriched in bacterial vaginosis-associated anaerobes (Sneathia, Shuttleworthia, Prevotella, and Atopobium) and depleted in Lactobacillus spp. Furthermore, the vaginal microbiota of women with symptomatic cervical ectopy and HPV infection correlated with vaginal inflammation (IL-1β, rho=0.56, p=0.0004) and increased mucosal homeostatic response (IL-22, rho=0.60, p=0.0001). Taken together, our results suggest that HPV infection and dysbiotic vaginal communities could favor a vaginal microenvironment that might delay the recovery of the cervical epithelium in women with symptomatic cervical ectopy and favor STDs acquisition.

Molecular Detection Methods in HPV-Related Cancers

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is responsible for most cervical cancers and some head and neck cancers, including oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma and sinonasal carcinoma. Cervical cancer is commonly diagnosed by liquid-based cytology, followed by HPV testing using commercially available DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR), p16 immunohistochemistry (IHC), or DNA/RNA in situ hybridization. HPV in head and neck cancers is commonly diagnosed by p16 IHC or by RT-qPCR of HPV-16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins. Droplet digital PCR has been reported as an ultrasensitive and highly precise method of nucleic acid quantification for biomarker analysis and has been used to detect oncogenic HPV in oropharyngeal and cervical cancers.

Therapeutic Effects of Natural Products on Cervical Cancer: Based on Inflammatory Pathways

Inflammation is a protective response of the body to an irritant. When an inflammatory response occurs, immune cells are recruited to the injury, eliminating the irritation. The excessive inflammatory response can cause harm to the organism. Inflammation has been found to contribute to cervical cancer if there is a problem with the regulation of inflammatory response. Cervical cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors globally, and the incidence tends to be younger. The harm of cervical cancer cannot be ignored. The standard treatments for cervical cancer include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, the prognosis for this treatment is poor, so it is urgent to find a safer and more effective treatment. Natural products are considered excellent candidates for the treatment of cervical cancer. In this review, we first describe the mechanisms by which inflammation induces cervical cancer. Subsequently, we highlight natural products that can treat cervical cancer through inflammatory pathways. We also introduce natural products for the treatment of cervical cancer in clinical trials. Finally, methods to improve the anticancer properties of natural products were added, and the development status of natural products was discussed.

Characterizing the Inflammatory Microenvironment in K14-HPV16 Transgenic Mice: Mast Cell Infiltration and MicroRNA Expression

High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is the etiologic agent of several types of cancer. Mast cells’ role as either a driving or opposing force for cancer progression remains controversial. MicroRNAs are dysregulated in several HPV-induced cancers, and can influence mast cell biology. The aim of this study was to evaluate mast cell infiltration and to identify microRNAs potentially regulating this process. Transgenic male mice (K14-HPV16; HPV+) and matched wild-type mice (HPV−) received 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) (or vehicle) over 17 weeks. Following euthanasia, chest skin and ear tissue samples were collected. Mast cell infiltration was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. MicroRNAs associated with mast cell infiltration were identified using bioinformatic tools. MicroRNA and mRNA relative expression was evaluated by RT-qPCR. Immunohistochemistry showed increased mast cell infiltration in HPV+ mice (p < 0.001). DMBA did not have any statistically significant influence on this distribution. Ear tissue of HPV+ mice showed increased mast cell infiltration (p < 0.01) when compared with chest skin samples. Additionally, reduced relative expression of miR-125b-5p (p = 0.008, 2−ΔΔCt = 2.09) and miR-223-3p (p = 0.013, 2−ΔΔCt = 4.42) seems to be associated with mast cell infiltration and increased expression of target gene Cxcl10. These results indicate that HPV16 may increase mast cell infiltration by down-regulating miR-223-3p and miR-125b-5p.

Inflammatory profile in cervical cancer: influence of purinergic signaling and possible therapeutic targets

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

Cervical cancer is the fourth most prevalent type of cancer in the world. The tumor microenvironment of this disease is associated with the production of several cytokines, pro and anti-inflammatory, and with the purinergic signaling system so that changes in these components are observed throughout the pathological process. The aim of this review is to understand the pathophysiology of cervical cancer based on immunological processes and purinergic signaling pathways, in addition to suggesting possibilities of therapeutic targets.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To make up this review, studies covering topics of cervical cancer, inflammation and purinergic system were selected from the Pubmed.

RESULTS

The main pro-inflammatory cytokines involved are IL-17, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-18, and among the anti-inflammatory ones, IL-10 and TGF-β stand out. As new therapeutic targets, P2X7 and A2A receptors have been suggested, since blocking P2X7 would lead to reduced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and blocking A2A would increase activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes in the context of tumor combat. The association between the immune system and the purinergic system, already known in other types of disease, also presents possibilities for a better understanding of biomolecular processes and therapeutic possibilities in the context of cervical cancer.

Interaction of cervical microbiome with epigenome of epithelial cells: Significance of inflammation to primary healthcare

One pillar of the predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine framework strategies is the female health. The evaluation of women's lifestyle and dietary habits in context with genetic and modifiable risk factors may reflect the prevention of cervical cancer before the occurrence of clinical symptoms and prediction of cervical lesion behavior. The main aim of this review is to analyze publications in the field of precision medicine that allow the use of research knowledge of cervical microbiome, epigenetic modifications, and inflammation in potential application in clinical practice. Personalized approach in evaluating patient's risk of future development of cervical abnormality should consider the biomarkers of the local microenvironment characterized by the microbial composition, epigenetic pattern of cervical epithelium, and presence of chronic inflammation. Novel sequencing techniques enable a more detailed characterization of actual state in cervical epithelium. Better understanding of all changes in multiomics level enables a better assessment of disease prognosis and selects the eligible targeted therapy in personalized medicine. Restoring of healthy vaginal microflora and reversing the outbreak of cervical abnormality can be also achieved by dietary habits as well as uptake of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, microbial transplantation, and others.

Epigenetic Regulation: A Link between Inflammation and Carcinogenesis

Simple Summary

Epigenetics encompasses all the modifications that occur within cells that are independent of gene mutations. The environment is the main influencer of these alterations. It is well known that a proinflammatory environment can promote and sustain the carcinogenic process and that this environment induces epigenetic alterations. In this review, we will report how a proinflammatory microenvironment that encircles the tumor core can be responsible for the induction of epigenetic drift.

Abstract

Epigenetics encompasses a group of dynamic, reversible, and heritable modifications that occur within cells that are independent of gene mutations. These alterations are highly influenced by the environment, from the environment that surrounds the human being to the internal microenvironments located within tissues and cells. The ways that pigenetic modifications promote the initiation of the tumorigenic process have been widely demonstrated. Similarly, it is well known that carcinogenesis is supported and prompted by a strong proinflammatory environment. In this review, we introduce our report of a proinflammatory microenvironment that encircles the tumor core but can be responsible for the induction of epigenetic drift. At the same time, cancer cells can alter their epigenetic profile to generate a positive loop in the promotion of the inflammatory process. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the epigenetic networks between the tumor microenvironment and cancer cells might highlight new targetable mechanisms that could prevent tumor progression.

Therapeutic Influence on Important Targets Associated with Chronic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Cancer Treatment

Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress are the interconnected pathological processes, which lead to cancer initiation and progression. The growing level of oxidative and inflammatory damage was shown to increase cancer severity and contribute to tumor spread. The overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is associated with the reduced capacity of the endogenous cell defense mechanisms and/or metabolic imbalance, is the main contributor to oxidative stress. An abnormal level of ROS was defined as a predisposing factor for the cell transformation that could trigger pro-oncogenic signaling pathways, induce changes in gene expression, and facilitate accumulation of mutations, DNA damage, and genomic instability. Additionally, the activation of transcription factors caused by a prolonged oxidative stress, including NF-κB, p53, HIF1α, etc., leads to the expression of several genes responsible for inflammation. The resulting hyperactivation of inflammatory mediators, including TNFα, TGF-β, interleukins, and prostaglandins can contribute to the development of neoplasia. Pro-inflammatory cytokines were shown to trigger adaptive reactions and the acquisition of resistance by tumor cells to apoptosis, while promoting proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis. Moreover, the chronic inflammatory response leads to the excessive production of free radicals, which further aggravate the initiated reactions. This review summarizes the recent data and progress in the discovery of mechanisms that associate oxidative stress and chronic inflammation with cancer onset and metastasis. In addition, the review provides insights for the development of therapeutic approaches and the discovery of natural substances that will be able to simultaneously inhibit several key oncological and inflammation-related targets.

Prediction of severe adverse events, modes of action and drug treatments for COVID-19's complications

Following SARS-CoV-2 infection, some COVID-19 patients experience severe host driven adverse events. To treat these complications, their underlying etiology and drug treatments must be identified. Thus, a novel AI methodology MOATAI-VIR, which predicts disease-protein-pathway relationships and repurposed FDA-approved drugs to treat COVID-19's clinical manifestations was developed. SARS-CoV-2 interacting human proteins and GWAS identified respiratory failure genes provide the input from which the mode-of-action (MOA) proteins/pathways of the resulting disease comorbidities are predicted. These comorbidities are then mapped to their clinical manifestations. To assess each manifestation's molecular basis, their prioritized shared proteins were subject to global pathway analysis. Next, the molecular features associated with hallmark COVID-19 phenotypes, e.g. unusual neurological symptoms, cytokine storms, and blood clots were explored. In practice, 24/26 of the major clinical manifestations are successfully predicted. Three major uncharacterized manifestation categories including neoplasms are also found. The prevalence of neoplasms suggests that SARS-CoV-2 might be an oncovirus due to shared molecular mechanisms between oncogenesis and viral replication. Then, repurposed FDA-approved drugs that might treat COVID-19's clinical manifestations are predicted by virtual ligand screening of the most frequent comorbid protein targets. These drugs might help treat both COVID-19's severe adverse events and lesser ones such as loss of taste/smell.

Blocking of EGFR Signaling Is a Latent Strategy for the Improvement of Prognosis of HPV-Induced Cancer

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) virus, and its high-risk subtypes increase cancer risks. However, the mechanism of HPV infection and pathogenesis still remain unclear. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms and the pathogenesis of HPV are crucial in the prevention of HPV-related cancers. In this study, we analyzed cervix squamous cell carcinoma (CESC) and head and neck carcinoma (HNSC) combined data to investigate various HPV-induced cancer common features. We showed that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was downregulated in HPV-positive (HPV+) cancer, and that HPV+ cancer patients exhibited better prognosis than HPV-negative (HPV-) cancer patients. Our study also showed that TP53 mutation rate is lower in HPV+ cancer than in HPV- cancer and that TP53 can be modulated by HPV E7 protein. However, there was no significant difference in the expression of wildtype TP53 in both groups. Subsequently, we constructed HPV-human interaction network and found that EGFR is a critical factor. From the network, we also noticed that EGFR is regulated by HPV E7 protein and hsa-miR-944. Moreover, while phosphorylated EGFR is associated with a worse prognosis, EGFR total express level is not significantly correlated with prognosis. This indicates that EGFR activation will induce a worse outcome in HPV+ cancer patients. Further enrichment analysis showed that EGFR downstream pathway and cancer relative pathway are diversely activated in HPV+ cancer and HPV- cancer. In summary, HPV E7 protein downregulates EGFR that downregulates phosphorylated EGFR and inhibit EGFR-related pathways which in turn and consequently induce better prognosis.

Implications of viral infection in cancer development

Since the identification of the first human oncogenic virus in 1964, viruses have been studied for their potential role in aiding the development of cancer. Through the modulation of cellular pathways associated with proliferation, immortalization, and inflammation, viral proteins can mimic the effect of driver mutations and contribute to transformation. Aside from the modulation of signaling pathways, the insertion of viral DNA into the host genome and the deregulation of cellular miRNAs represent two additional mechanisms implicated in viral oncogenesis. In this review, we will discuss the role of twelve different viruses on cancer development and how these viruses utilize the abovementioned mechanisms to influence oncogenesis. The identification of specific mechanisms behind viral transformation of human cells could further elucidate the process behind cancer development.

TLR4 signaling in the development of colitis-associated cancer and its possible interplay with microRNA-155

Ulcerative colitis (UC) has closely been associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. However, the exact mechanisms underlying colitis-associated cancer (CAC) development remain unclear. As a classic pattern-recognition receptor, Toll like receptor (TLR)4 is a canonical receptor for lipopolysaccharide of Gram-negative bacteria (including two CAC-associated pathogens Fusobacterium nucleatum and Salmonella), and functions as a key bridge molecule linking oncogenic infection to colonic inflammatory and malignant processes. Accumulating studies verified the overexpression of TLR4 in colitis and CAC, and the over-expressed TLR4 might promote colitis-associated tumorigenesis via facilitating cell proliferation, protecting malignant cells against apoptosis, accelerating invasion and metastasis, as well as contributing to the creation of tumor-favouring cellular microenvironment. In recent years, considerable attention has been focused on the regulation of TLR4 signaling in the context of colitis-associated tumorigenesis. MicroRNA (miR)-155 and TLR4 exhibited a similar dynamic expression change during CAC development and shared similar CAC-promoting properties. The available data demonstrated an interplay between TLR4 and miR-155 in the context of different disorders or cell lines. miR-155 could augment TLR4 signaling through targeting negative regulators SOCS1 and SHIP1; and TLR4 activation would induce miR-155 expression via transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. This possible TLR4-miR-155 positive feedback loop might result in the synergistic accelerating effect of TLR4 and miR-155 on CAC development.

Cervical cancer development, chemoresistance, and therapy: a snapshot of involvement of microRNA

Cervical cancer (CC) is one of the leading causes of death in women due to cancer and a major concern in the developing world. Persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is the major causative agent for CC. Besides HPV infection, genetic and epigenetic factors including microRNA (miRNA) also contribute to the malignant transformation. Earlier studies have revealed that miRNAs participate in cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance processes by binding and inversely regulating the target oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes. Based on functions and mechanistic insights, miRNAs have been identified as cellular modulators that have an enormous role in diagnosis, prognosis, and cancer therapy. Signatures of miRNA could be used as diagnostic markers which are necessary for early diagnosis and management of CC. The therapeutic potential of miRNAs has been shown in CC; however, more comprehensive clinical trials are required for the clinical translation of miRNA-based diagnostics and therapeutics. Understanding the molecular mechanism of miRNAs and their target genes has been useful to develop miRNA-based therapeutic strategies for CC and overcome chemoresistance. In this review, we summarize the role of miRNAs in the development, progression, and metastasis of CC as well as chemoresistance. Further, we discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of miRNAs to overcome chemoresistance and treatment of CC.

Targeting Human Papillomavirus-Associated Cancer by Oncoprotein-Specific Recombinant Antibodies

In recent decades, recombinant antibodies against specific antigens have shown great promise for the therapy of infectious diseases and cancer. Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are involved in the development of around 5% of all human cancers and HPV16 is the high-risk genotype with the highest prevalence worldwide, playing a dominant role in all HPV-associated cancers. Here, we describe the main biological activities of the HPV16 E6, E7, and E5 oncoproteins, which are involved in the subversion of important regulatory pathways directly associated with all known hallmarks of cancer. We then review the state of art of the recombinant antibodies targeted to HPV oncoproteins developed so far in different formats, and outline their mechanisms of action. We describe the advantages of a possible antibody-based therapy against the HPV-associated lesions and discuss the critical issue of delivery to tumour cells, which must be addressed in order to achieve the desired translation of the antibodies from the laboratory to the clinic.

Possible role of HPV/EBV coinfection in anoikis resistance and development in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the possible role of human papillomavirus (HPV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) coinfection as an etiological factor for prostate cancer (PCa) development.

METHODS

This case-control study was conducted on 67 patients with PCa and 40 control subjects. The expression levels of cellular and viral factors involved in inflammation, tumor progression, and metastasis were quantified, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay.

RESULTS

The EBV/HPV coinfection was reported in 14.9% of patients in the case group and 7.5% of the control subjects. The high-risk types of HPV, that is, HPV 16 and HPV 18, were responsible for 50 and 30% of HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa cases (n = 10), respectively. No significant relationship was observed between PCa and HPV/EBV coinfection (OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 0.18-45.2, P = 0.31). However, the highest percentage of HPV genome integration was found in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group (8/10; 80%). Also, the mean expression levels of inflammatory factors (IL-17, IL-6, TNF-α, NF-κB, VEGF, ROS, and RNS), anti-apoptotic mediators (Bcl-2 and survivin), and anti-anoikis factors (Twist and N-cadherin) were significantly higher in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group, compared to the non-coinfected PCa cases. Nevertheless, the tumor-suppressor proteins (p53 and pRb) and E-cadherin (inhibitor of anoikis resistance) showed significant downregulations in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group, compared to the non-coinfected PCa cases.

CONCLUSION

The HPV/EBV coinfection may be an etiological factor for PCa through modulation of cellular behaviors.

Contribution of the Microbiota and their Secretory Products to Inflammation and Colorectal Cancer Pathogenesis: The Role of Toll-like Receptors

Alterations in diversity and function of the gut microbiome are associated with concomitant changes in immune response, including chronic inflammation. Chronic inflammation is a major risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC). An important component of the inflammatory response system are the toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs are capable of sensing microbial components, including nucleic acids, lipopolysaccharides, and peptidoglycans, as well as bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMV). OMVs can be decorated with or carry as cargo these TLR activating factors. These microbial factors can either promote tolerance or activate signaling pathways leading to chronic inflammation. Herein we discuss the role of the microbiome and the OMVs that originate from intestinal bacteria in promoting chronic inflammation and the development of colitis-associated CRC. We also discuss the contribution of TLRs in mediating the microbiome-inflammation axis and subsequent cancer development. Understanding the role of the microbiome and its secretory factors in TLR response may lead to the development of better cancer therapeutics.

Increased PD-1 Level in Severe Cervical Injury Is Associated With the Rare Programmed Cell Death 1 (PDCD1) rs36084323 A Allele in a Dominant Model

The high-risk oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) has developed mechanisms for evasion of the immune system, favoring the persistence of the infection. The chronic inflammation further contributes to the progression of tissue injury to cervical cancer. The programmed cell death protein (PD-1) after contacting with its ligands (PD-L1 and PD-L2) exerts an inhibitory effect on the cellular immune response, maintaining the balance between activation, tolerance, and immune cell-dependent lesion. We evaluated 295 patients exhibiting or not HPV infection, stratified according to the location (injured and adjacent non-injured areas) and severity of the lesion (benign, pre-malignant lesions). Additionally, we investigated the role of the promoter region PDCD1 -606G>A polymorphism (rs36084323) on the studied variables. PD-1 and PDCD1 expression were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and qPCR, respectively, and the PDCD1 polymorphism was evaluated by nucleotide sequencing. Irrespective of the severity of the lesion, PD-1 levels were increased compared to adjacent uninjured areas. Additionally, in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) I, the presence of HPV was associated with increased (P = 0.0649), whereas in CIN III was associated with decreased (P = 0.0148) PD-1 levels, compared to the uninjured area in absence of HPV infection. The PDCD1 -606A allele was rare in our population (8.7%) and was not associated with the risk for development of HPV infection, cytological and histological features, and aneuploidy. In contrast, irrespective of the severity of the lesion, patients exhibiting the mutant PDCD1 -606A allele at single or double doses exhibited increased protein and gene expression when compared to the PDCD1 -606GG wild type genotype. Besides, the presence of HPV was associated with the decrease in PDCD1 expression and PD-1 levels in carriers of the -606 A allele presenting severe lesions, suggesting that other mediators induced during the HPV infection progression may play an additional role. This study showed that increased PD-1 levels are influenced by the -606G>A nucleotide variation, particularly in low-grade lesions, in which the A allele favors increased PDCD1 expression, contributing to HPV immune system evasion, and in the high-grade lesion, by decreasing tissue PD-1 levels.

In situ immunopathological events in human cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer: Review

Neoplasia of the cervix represents one of the most common cancers in women. Clinical and molecular research has identified immunological impairment in squamous intraepithelial cervical lesions and cervical cancer patients. The in-situ expression of several cytokines by uterine epithelial cells and by infiltrating leukocytes occurs during the cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer. Some of these cytokines can prevent and others can induce the progression of the neoplasm. The infiltrating leukocytes also produce cytokines and growth factors relate to angiogenesis, chemotaxis, and apoptosis capable of modulating the dysplasia progression. In this review we analyzed several interleukins with an inductive effect or blocking effect on the neoplastic progression. We also analyze the genetic polymorphism of some cytokines and their relationship with the risk of developing cervical neoplasia. In addition, we describe the leukocyte cells that infiltrate the cervical uterine tissue during the neoplasia and their effects on neoplasia progression.

The role of Th17 cells in viral infections

The present review provides an overview of recent advances regarding the function of Th17 cells and their produced cytokines in the progression of viral diseases. Viral infections alone do not lead to virus-induced malignancies, as both genetic and host safety factors are also involved in the occurrence of malignancies. Acquired immune responses, through the differentiation of Th17 cells, form the novel components of the Th17 cell pathway when reacting with viral infections all the way from the beginning to its final stages. As a result, instead of inducing the right immune responses, these events lead to the suppression of the immune system. In fact, the responses from Th17 cells during persistent viral infections causes chronic inflammation through the production of IL-17 and other cytokines which provide a favorable environment for tumor growth and its development. Additionally, during the past decade, these cells have been understood to be involved in tumor progression and metastasis. However, further research is required to understand Th17 cells' immune mechanisms in the vast variety of viral diseases. This review aims to determine the roles and effects of the immune system, especially Th17 cells, in the progression of viral diseases; which can be highly beneficial for the diagnosis and treatment of these infections.

Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype Determines Survival and Therapeutic Response in Cervical Cancer

Simple Summary

Cervical cancer is the most common gynecological cancer caused by persistent infections with human papilloma viruses. Over time, this infection leads to secretion of inflammatory proteins in the cervix, which exacerbates the neoplastic and senescent changes to the cervical epithelial lining. We measured nineteen serum proteins in retrospectively collected samples from cervical cancer patients. We show here that 10 out of 19 proteins are associated with senescence phenotype in cervical cancer patients. This senescence associated protein signature influences how cervical cancer patients responds to therapy.

Abstract

Molecular biomarkers that can predict survival and therapeutic outcome are still lacking for cervical cancer. Here we measured a panel of 19 serum proteins in sera from 565 patients with stage II or III cervical cancer and identified 10 proteins that have an impact on disease specific survival (DSS) (Hazzard’s ratio; HR = 1.51–2.1). Surprisingly, all ten proteins are implicated in senescence-associated secreted phenotype (SASP), a hallmark of cellular senescence. Machine learning using Ridge regression of these SASP proteins can robustly stratify patients with high SASP, which is associated with poor survival, and patients with low SASP associated with good survival (HR = 3.09–4.52). Furthermore, brachytherapy, an effective therapy for cervical cancer, greatly improves survival in SASP-high patients (HR = 3.3, p < 5 × 10⁻⁵) but has little impact on survival of SASP-low patients (HR = 1.5, p = 0.31). These results demonstrate that cellular senescence is a major determining factor for survival and therapeutic response in cervical cancer and suggest that senescence reduction therapy may be an efficacious strategy to improve the therapeutic outcome of cervical cancer.

The assessment of a possible link between HPV-mediated inflammation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis in Prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the presence of HPV in patients with Prostate cancer (PCa) and its possible association with cancer progression.

METHODS

In this case-control study, fresh prostate tissues and blood samples were collected from 90 individuals, including 58 cases samples with PCa and 32 non-malignant prostate tissue samples as a control group. The expression level of viral genes (E2, E6, and E7) and cellular factors including tumor suppressor proteins (Rb and p53), anti-apoptotic mediators (Bcl-2 and survivin), and some mediators involved in inflammation and angiogenesis was evaluated.

RESULTS

The presence of the HPV genome was identified in 19 out of the 58 cases (32.7%) and five out of the 32 controls (15.6%). However, there was not any statistically significant relationship between the presence of the HPV genome and PCa (OR = 2.63, 95% C.I = 0.89-7.91, P-value = 0.078). Moreover, the HPV high-risk genotypes 16 and 18 were detected in 47.4% and 31.6% of HPV-infected PCa tissues, respectively. The expression level of the tumor suppressor proteins (Rb and p53) significantly decreased in the HPV-infected samples compared to the HPV negative specimens (P-value = 0.01, P-value = 0.01, respectively). However, the expression level of the anti-apoptotic mediators and those involved in angiogenesis and inflammation significantly increased in the HPV-infected PCa group compared to the HPV-negative PCa and control groups (P-value < 0.05, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that although it is not definitely known whether HPV causes PCa, this virus probably modulates PCa cell behavior by affecting inflammation, angiogenesis, and apoptosis mechanisms, which, in turn, promotes tumorigenesis.

Can network pharmacology identify the anti-virus and anti- inflammatory activities of Shuanghuanglian oral liquid used in Chinese medicine for respiratory tract infection?

Introduction

Shuanghuanglian (SHL) oral liquid is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine preparation administered for respiratory tract infections in China. However, the underlying pharmacological mechanisms remain unclear. The present study aims to determine the potential pharmacological mechanisms of SHL oral liquid based on network pharmacology.

Methods

A network pharmacology-based strategy including collection and analysis of putative compounds and target genes, network construction, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment, identification of key compounds and target genes, and molecule docking was performed in this study.

Results

A total of 82 bioactive compounds and 226 putative target genes of SHL oral liquid were collected. Of note, 28 hub target genes including 4 major hub target genes: estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1), nuclear receptor coactivator 2 (NCOA2), nuclear receptor coactivator 1 (NCOA1), androgen receptor (AR) and 5 key compounds (quercetin, luteolin, baicalein, kaempferol and wogonin) were identified based on network analysis. The hub target genes mainly enriched in pathways including PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, human cytomegalovirus infection, and human papillomavirus infection, which could be the underlying pharmacological mechanisms of SHL oral liquid for treating diseases. Moreover, the key compounds had great molecule docking binding affinity with the major hub target genes.

Conclusion

Using network pharmacology analysis, SHL oral liquid was found to contain anti-virus, anti-inflammatory, and “multi-compounds and multi-targets” with therapeutic actions. These findings may provide a valuable direction for further clinical application and research.

Role of microRNAs in epidermal growth factor receptor signaling pathway in cervical cancer

Cervical cancer is one of the most common disorders in females all around the world. Similar to other types of cancer, several signaling pathways are demonstrated to be involved in the progression of this cancer including ERK/MAPK, PI3K/AKT, apoptotic signaling pathways, Wnt, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Various microRNAs (miRNAs) and their target genes involved in cervical cancer have been extracted from the kinds of literature of Scopus, Pubmed and Google scholar databases. Regarding the targets, some of them were found to belong in EGFR signaling pathways. The regulation patterns of these miRNA are different in cervical cancer; however, their main aim is to trigger EGFR signaling to proceed with cancer. Moreover, several predicted miRNAs were found to have some interactions with the differentially expressed genes of cervical cancer which are the members of the EGFR signaling pathway by using miRWalk 3.0 (https://mirwalk.umm.uni-heidelberg.de/) and TargetScan 7.1 (https://www.targetscan.org/vert_71/). Also, the microarray data were obtained from the NCBI-Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets of cervical cancer. In the present review, we highlight the miRNAs involved in cervical cancer and the role of their targets in the EGFR signaling pathway. Furthermore, some predicted miRNAs were the candidate to target EGFR signaling pathway members differentially expressed in cervical cancer samples compared to normal samples.

Current Approaches for Combination Therapy of Cancer: The Role of Immunogenic Cell Death

Cell death resistance is a key feature of tumor cells. One of the main anticancer therapies is increasing the susceptibility of cells to death. Cancer cells have developed a capability of tumor immune escape. Hence, restoring the immunogenicity of cancer cells can be suggested as an effective approach against cancer. Accumulating evidence proposes that several anticancer agents provoke the release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are determinants of immunogenicity and stimulate immunogenic cell death (ICD). It has been suggested that ICD inducers are two different types according to their various activities. Here, we review the well-characterized DAMPs and focus on the different types of ICD inducers and recent combination therapies that can augment the immunogenicity of cancer cells.