How to do (or not to do)… gender analysis in health systems research

Planning with a gender lens: A gender analysis of pandemic preparedness plans from eight countries in Africa

Background

Health planning and priority setting with a gender lens can help to anticipate and mitigate vulnerabilities that women and girls may experience in health systems, which is especially relevant during health emergencies. This study examined how gender considerations were accounted for in COVID-19 pandemic response planning in a subset of countries in Africa.

Methods

Multi-country document review of national pandemic response plans (published before July 2020 and as of March 2022) from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, and Zambia, supplemented with secondary data on gender representation on planning committees. A gender analysis framework informed the study design and the Morgan et al. matrix guided data extraction and analysis.

Results

All plans reflected implicit and explicit considerations of the impacts of the pandemic responses on women and girls. Through a gender lens, the implicit considerations focused on ensuring safety and protections (e.g., training, access to personal protective equipment) for community and facility-based health care workers and broad engagement of the community in risk communication. The explicit gender considerations, reflected in a minority of plans, focused on addressing gender-based violence and providing access to essential services (e.g., sexual and reproductive health care, psychosocial supports), products (e.g., menstrual hygiene products) and social protection measures. Women were underrepresented on the COVID-19 planning committees in all countries.

Conclusions

The plans reflected varying national efforts to develop pandemic responses that anticipated and reflected unique vulnerabilities faced by women, though subsequent plans reflected further consideration of gender-relevant impacts compared to initial plans. Embedding a gender lens in emergency preparedness planning furthers equity and could support anticipation and timely mitigation of negative outcomes for women and girls who are often further marginalized during health emergencies.

Nurses Navigating Mental Health During Uncharted Times: Self, Others, Systems (S.O.S)!

STUDY BACKGROUND

The nursing profession is facing a multiplicity of stressors that have both predated and been exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic. The emotional and physical demands entailed in nursing predispose nurses to suboptimal mental health and burnout.

PURPOSE

This paper draws upon the narrative interviews of 53 Canadian nurses as part of a larger pan-Canadian, cross disciplinary study that examined the gendered experiences of mental health, leaves of absence, and return to work of 7 professions.

METHODS

Thorne's interpretive descriptive guided Iterative and thematic analysis which identified three predominant themes within the nursing dataset, this paper focuses on the substantive theme of 'Navigating it Alone,'.

RESULTS

Nurses expressed a profound sense of isolation at 3 particular levels: at home, at work, and in systems - while simultaneously balancing uniquely gendered familial responsibilities and workplace demands.

CONCLUSIONS

These results illuminate instrumental pathways for stakeholders to attenuate the personal and professional pressures that continue to be disproportionately carried by nurses as they navigate these particularly challenging times.

Being a Husband and Caregiver: The Adjustment of Roles When Caring for a Wife Who Has Dementia

As demographics and gender norms shift, more older men will be providing care for their wives living with dementia than ever before. Research on husbands as caregivers is limited and offers an incomplete picture of their role development and how they experience caregiving. This study examined husbands whose wives have dementia and how they provide care and construct their sense of self. Semi-structured interviews with 11 men aged 61-88 were conducted in Ontario, Canada. Data were analyzed using constant comparison analysis and a constructivist grounded theory (CGT) approach. Two categories were developed: Adapting to the Role of Caregiver and Staying a Husband. Caregiving as a husband for a wife living with dementia required revision of the role of husband to include that of caregiver by reimaging intimacy, being a protector in new ways, and finding new meanings to being a provider and the value of wealth.

How do gender norms contribute to stunting in Ntchisi District, Malawi? a qualitative study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Despite adequate food production and nutrition intervention coverage, stunting remains an enduring problem in Ntchisi, Malawi. Globally, gender and social norms are known to influence nutritional outcomes in children. This study explores how gender norms contribute to child stunting, in Ntchisi district, Central Malawi.

RESEARCH METHODS

Informed by the UNICEF Framework for Malnutrition, nine focus group discussions were conducted with a target population of mothers (n = 24), fathers (n = 23) purposively targeted through growth monitoring sessions, and members of policy and health treatment committees (n = 21), spanning three different areas of Ntchisi district. Data were analysed through inductive thematic analysis, guided by the framework for Research in Gender and Ethics (RinGs).

RESULTS

Three primary themes were identified: 1) gender unequal decision making on the consumption, sale and distribution of food; 2) enshrined community norms influence feeding practices underpinned by gender-based violence; and 3) policy disconnections and gaps that reinforce gender norms regarding nutrition. Themes encompassed practices across household, health treatment, and policy level.

CONCLUSION

Gender norms that underpin inequalities in decision making for production and consumption of food undermine children's nourishment and contributes towards sustained child malnutrition in Ntchisi. Existing policy documents should revise their guidelines to incorporate gender norms as key determinants of malnutrition.

Gender-responsive monitoring and evaluation for health systems

Gender-responsive monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for health and health systems interventions and programs is vital to improve health, health systems, and gender equality outcomes. It can be used to identify and address gender disparities in program participation, outcomes and benefits, as well as ensure that programs are designed and implemented in a way that is inclusive and accessible for all. While gender-responsive M&E is most effective when interventions and programs intentionally integrate a gender lens, it is relevant for all health systems programs and interventions. Within the literature, gender-responsive M&E is defined in different and diverse ways, making it difficult to operationalize. This is compounded by the complexity and multi-faceted nature of gender. Within this methodological musing, we present our evolving approach to gender-responsive M&E which we are operationalizing within the Monitoring for Gender and Equity project. We define gender-responsive M&E as intentionally integrating the needs, rights, preferences of, and power relations among, women and girls, men and boys, and gender minority individuals, as well as across social, political, economic, and health systems in M&E processes. This is done through the integration of different types of gender data and indicators, including: sex- or gender-specific, sex- or gender-disaggregated, sex- or gender-specific/disaggregated which incorporate needs, rights and preferences, and gender power relations and systems indicators. Examples of each of these are included within the paper. Active approaches can also enhance the gender-responsiveness of any M&E activities, including incorporating an intersectional lens and tailoring the types of data and indicators included and processes used to the specific context. Incorporating gender into the programmatic cycle, including M&E, can lead to more fit-for-purpose, effective and equitable programs and interventions. The framework presented in this paper provides an outline of how to do this, enabling the uptake of gender-responsive M&E.

Prediction of Social Engagement in Long-Term Care Homes by Sex: A Population-Based Analysis Using Machine Learning

The objective of this study was to use population-based clinical assessment data to build and evaluate machine-learning models for predicting social engagement among female and male residents of long-term care (LTC) homes. Routine clinical assessments from 203,970 unique residents in 647 LTC homes in Ontario, Canada, collected between April 1, 2010, and March 31, 2020, were used to build predictive models for the Index of Social Engagement (ISE) using a data-driven machine-learning approach. General and sex-specific models were built to predict the ISE. The models showed a moderate prediction ability, with random forest emerging as the optimal model. Mean absolute errors were 0.71 and 0.73 in females and males, respectively, using general models and 0.69 and 0.73 using sex-specific models. Variables most highly correlated with the ISE, including activity pursuits, cognition, and physical health and functioning, differed little by sex. Factors associated with social engagement were similar in female and male residents.

Systemic Factors Contributing to Gender Differences in Living Kidney Donation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Synthesis Using the Social-Ecological Model Lens

INTRODUCTION

The field of living kidney donation is profoundly gendered contributing to a predominance of women, mothers, and wives as living kidney donors (LKDs). Individual factors have traditionally been emphasized, and there is a limited appreciation of relational, community, and sociocultural influences in decision-making. We aimed to comprehensively capture existing evidence to examine the relative importance of these factors.

METHODS

This was a systematic review of existing literature that has explored the motivation of different genders to become LKDs. Of the 3,188 records screened, 16 studies from 13 counties were included. Data were synthesized thematically using the Social-Ecological Model lens.

RESULTS

At the individual level, themes related to intrinsic motivation; thoughtful deliberation; and attitudes, fears, and beliefs; however, evidence demonstrating differences between men and women was minimal. Greater variation between genders emerged along the relational (coercion from family/network, relationship with the intended recipient, self-sacrifice within the family unit, and stability/acceptance within family); community (economic value and geographic proximity to recipient); and sociocultural (gendered societal roles, social norms and beliefs, social privilege, and legislation and policy) dimensions. The relative importance of each factor varied by context; cultural components were inferred in each study, and economic considerations seemed to transcend the gender divide.

CONCLUSIONS

A complex interplay of factors at relational, community, and sociocultural levels influences gender roles, relations, and norms and manifests as gender disparities in living kidney donation. Our findings suggest that to address gender disparities in living donation, dismantling of deep-rooted systemic contributors to gender inequities is needed.

Marginalised or privileged? Analysing nursing education for male students in the UK and Taiwan with fragmented frameworks of gender

This comparative analysis explores interactions and relationships influenced by gender in nursing education for male students in the United Kingdom (UK) and Taiwan, using Unterhalter's (2007) fragmented frameworks of gender to understand historical backgrounds, policies, and clinical curricula. While the UK demonstrates a gradual increase in male nurses over time, emphasising specialisation and comprehensive clinical exposure, Taiwan faces challenges influenced by cultural factors, particularly resistance to male nurses in certain fields. Disparities in the percentage of male nurses on registers and challenges during clinical placements are examined, highlighting the multifaceted nature of gender as a noun, adjective, and verb. Both countries grapple with the imperative of gender inclusivity, with recommendations for targeted recruitment campaigns to challenge existing gender norms and eliminate barriers, fostering equitable environments in nursing education.

Is MIStreatment of women during facility-based childbirth an independent risk factor for POstpartum Depression in Ethiopia and Guinea? A mixed methods prospective study protocol-MISPOD study

BACKGROUND

Worldwide, 10% of postpartum women experience postpartum depression, which can lead to diverse sequalae at individual, family, and societal levels. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is estimated that 17% of women experience depression in the postpartum period, which could be an underestimate as 48% of women in the region do not receive postnatal care (81% in Ethiopia and 51% in Guinea) and a large share of postpartum depression remains undiagnosed and untreated as a result. Globally, despite a critical evidence gap, there are growing reports of postpartum depression among women mistreated (disrespected and abused) during childbirth in health facilities, making a strong case to examine the association between mistreatment and postpartum depression. This study in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) and Conakry (Guinea) uses a mixed methods design to 1) examine the link between mistreatment and postpartum depression, 2) explore the health system capacity to provide respectful maternity care and maternal mental health services, and 3) explore the experiences of women in accessing care and support for postpartum depression.

METHODS

We will conduct a prospective longitudinal survey of women (434 in Addis Ababa and 408 in Conakry) from the third trimester of pregnancy to eight weeks postpartum and carry out in-depth interviews with key health system informants (20-25 in each city) and women who recovered from a clinically confirmed episode of postpartum depression (15-25 in each city). Quantitative data from the women's survey will be analysed using a multilevel mixed-effects model; qualitative data from key-informants will be analysed by using a hybrid thematic analysis approach, whereas data from women's in-depth interviews will be analysed using the phenomenological approach. The inclusion of two different settings in our study (Addis Ababa and Conakry) will enable us to apply a comparative health systems lens to explore the dynamics of respectful maternity care and maternal mental health services within the broader health systems of the two countries (Ethiopia and Guinea).

DISCUSSION

The findings from this study will inform actions aimed at mitigating the mistreatment of women in maternity settings and improving promotive, preventive, and treatment interventions for postpartum depression in Ethiopia and Guinea. The findings can also be extrapolated to other low-resource settings.

Pursuit of Equity: Women on a Low Income Navigating Access to Health and Social Services in Canada

BACKGROUND

Existing research highlights the role of social determinants of health, such as education and housing, in predicting health outcomes and the challenges that arise from deficiencies in these areas, often linked to societal inequities. Gender and income are recognized as social determinants of health, yet the complexities of their interplay, particularly for women with low income seeking health and social services in Canada, need more exploration.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates how gender and income intersect to affect access to health and social services for Canadian women with low income.

METHODS

Employing a participatory action approach with arts-based and interpretive methodologies, the study partnered with a non-profit organization to engage five women through photovoice, interviews, and a focus group, aiming to capture their experiences in accessing services.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed three primary themes: the labyrinth-like complexity of navigating health and social service systems, the importance of mental health sanctuaries, and the value of supportive networks. Participants reported difficulties and frustrations in system navigation, often feeling ignored by service providers. Contrarily, community agencies provided essential non-judgmental support, including daily necessities and emotional care, with the companionship of pets also being a notable source of comfort.

CONCLUSION

The findings advocate for a shift towards more person-centred care in health and social service systems to better serve women in vulnerable positions, emphasizing the need to simplify the process of accessing services and ensuring that service providers recognize and address the unique challenges faced by equity-deserving groups.

Promoting gender equity in a home visits programme: a qualitative study in Northern Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Gender inequities remain critical determinants influencing maternal health. Harmful gender norms and gender-based violence adversely affect maternal health. Gendered division of labour, lack of access to and control of resources, and limited women's decision-making autonomy impede women's access to maternal healthcare services. We undertook a cluster randomized controlled trial of universal home visits to pregnant women and their spouses in one local government area in Bauchi State, North-Eastern Nigeria. The trial demonstrated a significant improvement in maternal and child health outcomes and male knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. This paper qualitatively evaluates gender equity in the home visits programme.

METHODS

The research team explored participants' views about gender equity in the home visits programme. We conducted nine key informant interviews with policymakers and 14 gender and age-stratified focus group discussions with men and women from visited households, with women and men home visitors and supervisors, and with men and women community leaders. Analysis used an adapted conceptual framework exploring gender equity in mainstream health. A deductive thematic analysis of interviews and focus group reports looked for patterns and meanings.

RESULTS

All respondents considered the home visits programme to have a positive impact on gender equity, as they perceived gender equity. Visited women and men and home visitors reported increased male support for household chores, with men doing heavy work traditionally pre-assigned to women. Men increased their support for women's maternal health by paying for healthcare and providing nutritious food. Households and community members confirmed that women no longer needed their spouses' permission to use health services for their own healthcare. Households and home visitors reported an improvement in spousal communication. They perceived a significant reduction in domestic violence, which they attributed to the changing attitudes of both women and men due to the home visits. All stakeholder groups stressed the importance of engaging male spouses in the home visits programme.

CONCLUSION

The home visits programme, as implemented, contributed to gender equity.

Climate change and women's mental health in two vulnerable communities of Bangladesh: An ethnographic study

Climate change is one of the most significant challenges humanity faces in the 21st century, with its health impacts being profoundly felt in the most vulnerable countries. However, the mental health impacts of climate change, particularly concerning social inequality and gender dynamics, are less documented in the Global South. This paper focuses on the impact of climate change on women's mental health in two vulnerable communities in Bangladesh. This study employed qualitative methods, including, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions (FGDs). The communities were selected based on their vulnerability to climate change. A total of 80 participants were selected using snowball sampling, and 55 interviews and 6 FGDs were conducted. Women are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts on mental health due to their gender roles and responsibilities. Responsible for taking care of their families, they have to face additional challenges due to climate change impacts, such as increased workload, food insecurity, and social insecurity when their husband migrates to the cities for jobs. Women also face social and cultural barriers, which exacerbate their vulnerability to climate change impacts on mental health. Socioeconomic and environmental determinants appear to be embedded and lead to psychological suffering in relation to social roles and gender norms. Interventions should be designed to address the specific needs and challenges faced by women in these communities. Policymakers should take a gender-sensitive approach to address the mental health impacts of climate change in these communities. This study contributes to the growing body of research on the gendered impacts of climate change with a trajectory approach and provides insights for future research in this area.

Factors associated with transition to a nursing home in older adults living in naturally occurring retirement communities

BACKGROUND

Naturally occurring retirement communities (NORCs) are geographic areas (generally high-rise buildings or neighborhoods) that have a high concentration of individuals 65 years and older. Supportive service programs in NORCs can address resident needs and delay nursing home (NH) admission but understanding what factors are associated with NORC residents requiring NH admission is needed to tailor such programs. Our aim was to examine individual- and neighborhood-level factors associated with NH wait-list status in NORC residents in Ontario.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based, cross-sectional study of Ontario adults 65 years of age or older living in a NORC building as of January 1, 2020, by linking a provincial registry of NORC high-rise buildings with health administrative data. Older adults were classified as being on the NH wait-list if they had an open application for a NH on the index date. We conducted a multilevel logistic regression analysis using generalized estimating equations to determine individual- and neighborhood-level factors associated with NH wait-list status, including sociodemographic, clinical, healthcare use, and building factors. We explored the role of sex and age through stratification by sex (male, female) and age (65-80 and 80+ years).

RESULTS

Among 220,864 NORC residents, 4710 individuals (2.1%) were on the NH wait-list. Female sex, older age, immigrant status, dementia diagnosis, receiving homecare, multimorbidity, and polypharmacy (five or more unique drug names) were associated with an increased odds of wait-list status. Several neighborhood-level variables were associated with a significantly increased likelihood of wait-list status, including low income, high dependency, high ethnic diversity, and living in a building with supports.

CONCLUSION

NORC supportive service programs can be tailored to account for the factors associated with NH wait-list status, allowing NORC residents who are living in the community to age in their desired place and achieve optimal health outcomes.

Intrahousehold food allocation social norms and food taboos in rural Ethiopia: The case of adolescent girls

Background

In low-income countries, social norms play a significant role in intrahousehold food allocation practices. These norms can sometimes lead to discrimination against specific groups, posing a public health concern. This study focuses on the social norm surrounding food allocation within households and food taboos affecting adolescent girls in rural Ethiopia.

Method

A qualitative study was conducted using vignettes as prompts for 20 focus group discussions and 32 in-depth interviews. The vignettes were tailored to the local context. Participants were chosen purposefully, and data were collected in a comfortable setting. All sessions were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis was done using Open Code qualitative analysis software with a thematic framework approach.

Findings

In the community, adolescent girls were expected to eat after serving the male family members. Those who did not follow this expectation faced sanctions such as being labeled as disrespectful and could even be insulted or beaten by their spouses and siblings. However, there were some exceptions to this rule, such as when girls were giving birth, breastfeeding, sick, or when male family members were traveling. Certain foods were also prohibited for adolescent girls, including spicy foods like chili, animal products such as meat and milk, and nuts. These foods were believed to increase girls' sexual desire, potentially leading them to engage in premarital or extramarital sex. Additionally, eating outside of the house was not considered appropriate behavior for adolescent girls in this community.

Conclusion

In many households, social norms dictate that adolescent girls are not given enough food or are denied essential nutrients for their health. It is important to challenge these norms to ensure fair food distribution within households and support the healthy development of adolescent girls.

Illness experiences and mental health challenges associated with female genital schistosomiasis in Cameroon: a gender analysis

BACKGROUND

This paper highlights the role of cultural and structural gaps that shape illness experiences of women with manifestations of female genital schistosomiasis (FGS) and their impacts upon mental well-being.

METHODS

Using ethnography, case study narrative accounts of women manifesting symptoms of FGS, as well as interviews with health workers within FGS-endemic rural fishing communities in Cameroon, we present experiences of women affected by FGS, alongside information on FGS health service provision.

RESULTS

Our results show how gendered power dynamics in decision making, gendered experiences around menstrual health and structural gaps in service provision, combine and lead to poor mental well-being. Subfertility brings a heavy psychosocial toll from external blame and rejection, exacerbated by internalised stigma and the challenge of not being able to fulfil cultural and gendered social norms.

CONCLUSIONS

Gender analysis is key to developing context-embedded understanding and addressing FGS-related challenges. With context-specific experiences demonstrating FGS comorbidity with mental ill health, there is a need to prioritise mental health integration at policy level through a person-centred approach. Furthermore, to address stigma and discrimination, campaigns to raise awareness in Cameroon, and beyond, are needed.

CONTEXTE

Cet article met en évidence le rôle des lacunes culturelles et structurelles qui façonnent les expériences des femmes atteintes de schistosomiase génitale féminine (SGF) et leur impact sur le bien-être mental.

LA MÉTHODE

À l'aide de l'ethnographie, de récits d'études de cas de femmes présentant des symptômes de schistosomiase génitale féminine, et d'entretiens avec des agents de santé au sein de communautés de pêcheurs ruraux endémiques de la schistosomiase génitale féminine au Cameroun, nous présentons les expériences des femmes touchées par le SGF, ainsi que des informations sur les services de santé liés au SGF.

RÉSULTATS

Nos résultats montrent comment la dynamique du pouvoir dans la prise de décision, les expériences de la santé menstruelle et les lacunes structurelles dans la fourniture de services, interagissent et conduisent à un manque de bien-être psychologique. La sous-fécondité entraîne un lourd fardeau psychosocial du fait du blâme et de rejet externes auxquelles sont assujetties les personnes souffrant de la maladie, ce qui est exacerbé par la stigmatisation intériorisée et le défi que représente leur incapacité à respecter les normes sociales culturelles et sexospécifiques.

CONCLUSION

L'analyse de genre est essentielle pour développer une compréhension intégrée au contexte et pour relever les défis liés aux SGF. les défis liés à l'ESF. Avec des expériences spécifiques au contexte démontrant la comorbidité de la FGS avec la mauvaise santé mentale, il est nécessaire de donner la priorité à l'intégration de la santé mentale au niveau politique par le biais d'une approche centrée sur la personne. l'intégration de la santé mentale au niveau politique par une approche centrée sur la personne. En outre, pour lutter contre la stigmatisation et la stigmatisation et la discrimination, des campagnes de sensibilisation sont nécessaires au Cameroun et au-delà.

ANTECEDENTES

En este documento se pone de relieve el papel de las brechas culturales y estructurales que dan forma a las experiencias de enfermedad de las mujeres con manifestaciones de Esquistosomiasis Genital Femenina (EGF), y sus impactos en el bienestar mental.

MÉTODO

Utilizando la etnografía, estudios de caso mediante relatos narrativos de mujeres que manifiestan síntomas de EGF y entrevistas con trabajadores sanitarios de comunidades pesqueras rurales endémicas en Camerún, presentamos las experiencias de las mujeres afectadas por la EGF, junto con información sobre la prestación de servicios sanitarios para la EGF.

RESULTADOS

Nuestros resultados muestran cómo la dinámica de poder de género en la toma de decisiones, las experiencias de género en torno a la salud menstrual y las deficiencias estructurales en la prestación de servicios se combinan y conducen a un bienestar mental deficiente. La subfertilidad conlleva un alto coste psicosocial debido a la culpa y el rechazo externos, exacerbados por el estigma interiorizado y el reto de no poder cumplir las normas culturales y de género.

CONCLUSIÓN

El análisis de género es clave para desarrollar una comprensión integrada en el contexto y abordarlos retos relacionados con la EGF. Dado que las experiencias específicas de cada contexto demuestran la comorbilidad de las EGF con la enfermedad mental, es necesario priorizar la integración de la salud mental en las políticas a través de un enfoque centrado en la persona. Además, para hacer frente al estigma y la discriminación, son necesarias campañas de sensibilización en Camerún y en otros lugares.

Advancing Gender Equality in Healthcare Leadership: Protocol to Co-Design and Evaluate a Leadership and Mentoring Intervention in Tanzania

Background

Women constitute almost two thirds of the health and social workforce. Yet, the proportion of women in decision-making positions remains significantly low leading to gender inequities in access to and appropriateness of healthcare. Several barriers which limit women's advancement to leadership positions have been documented and they generally constitute of gender stereotypes, discrimination and inhibiting systems; these hinderances are compounded by intersection with other social identities. Amelioration of the barriers has the potential to enhance women's participation in leadership and strengthen the existing health systems.

Objective

This protocol describes a proposed study aimed at addressing the organisational and individual barriers to the advancement of women to leadership positions in the Tanzanian health sector, and to evaluate the influence on leadership competencies and career advancement actions of the female health workforce.

Method

The study utilises a gender transformative approach, co-design and implementation science in the development and integration of a leadership and mentorship intervention for women in the Tanzanian health context. The key steps in this research include quantifying the gender ratio in healthcare leadership; identifying the individual and organisational barriers to women's leadership; reviewing existing leadership, mentorship and career advancement interventions for women; recruiting programme participants for a leadership and mentorship programme; running a co-design workshop with programme participants and stakeholders; implementing a leadership and mentorship programme; and conducting a collaborative evaluation and lessons learnt.

Conclusions

This research underscores the notion that progression towards gender equality in healthcare leadership is attained by fashioning a system that supports the advancement of women. We also argue that one of the pivotal indicators of progress towards the gender equality sustainable development goal is the number of women in senior and middle management positions, which we hope to further through this research.

Gender Disparities in Complications, Costs, and Mortality After Emergency Gastrointestinal Surgery in Kenya

INTRODUCTION

Little is known about the impact of gender on emergency surgery within Kenya. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the association of gender on outcomes of postoperative complications, health care costs, and mortality.

METHODS

We evaluated an established cohort of patients undergoing emergency gastrointestinal surgery in rural Kenya between January 1st, 2016 and June 30th, 2019. Utilizing logistic regression, we examined the association between self-reported patient gender and the outcomes of postoperative complications and mortality. A generalized linear model was created for total hospital costs, inflation-adjusted in international dollars purchasing power parity, to examine the impact of gender. Confounding factors were controlled by Africa Surgical Outcomes Study Surgical Risk Score.

RESULTS

Among 484 patients reviewed, 149 (30.8%) were women. 165 (34.1%) patients developed complications, with women experiencing more than men (40.9% versus 31.0%; P = 0.03) and longer hospital stays (median 6 days (4-9) versus 5 (4-7); P = 0.02). After controlling for Africa Surgical Outcomes Study Surgical Risk Score, odds of developing complications for women were 1.67 (95% confidence interval: 1.09-2.55; P = 0.019) times higher than men, and the odds of death were 2.38 (95% confidence interval: 1.12-5.09; P = 0.025) times greater for women than men, despite similar failure-to-rescue rates and intensive care unit utilization. Total hospital costs were increased for women by 531 international dollars purchasing power parity (117-946; P = 0.012) when compared to men, attributed to longer lengths of stay.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that a discrepancy exists between men and women undergoing emergency gastrointestinal surgery in our setting. Further exploration of the underlying causes of this inequity is necessary for quality improvement for women in rural Kenya.

Addressing the global obesity burden: a gender-responsive approach to changing food environments is needed

Obesity is a leading cause of death and disability globally. There is a higher proportion of women living with obesity than men, with differences in prevalence rates between women and men particularly staggering in low- and middle-income countries. The food environments that most people live in have been defined as 'obesogenic', characterised by easy access to energy dense, highly palatable foods with poor nutritional value. There is an established need to intervene to change food environments to prevent obesity. However, minimal successes are evident with no country set to meet the WHO goal of reducing obesity prevalence to 2010 numbers by 2025. In this review, we provide a narrative around the sex (biological)- and gender (sociocultural)-related considerations for the relationship between nutrition, interactions with the food environment and obesity risk. We provide an argument that there are gendered responses to food environments that place women at a higher risk of obesity particularly in relation to food industry influences, due to gendered roles and responsibilities in relation to paid and unpaid labour, and due to specific food security threats. This review concludes with hypotheses for addressing the obesity burden in a gender-responsive manner, with a call for gender equity to be a key component of the development, implementation and monitoring of obesity prevention focused policies going forward.

Barriers and facilitators for breast cancer early diagnosis in an indigenous community in Mexico: voices of otomí women

BACKGROUND

Literature on barriers and facilitators for early detection of Breast Cancer (BC) among indigenous women is very scarce. This study aimed to identify barriers and facilitators for BC early diagnosis as perceived by women of the otomí ethnic group in Mexico.

METHODS

We performed an exploratory qualitative study. Data was collected in 2021 through three focus group interviews with 19 otomí women. The interview transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparison method and guided by a conceptual framework that integrates the Social Ecological Model (SEM), the Health Belief Model and the Institute of Medicine's Healthcare Quality Framework.

RESULTS

Barriers and facilitators were identified at several levels of the SEM. Among the main barriers reported by the study participants were: beliefs about illness, cancer stigma, cultural gender norms, access barriers to medical care, and mistreatment and discrimination by health care personnel. Our participants perceived as facilitators: information provided by doctors, social support, perceived severity of the disease and perceived benefits of seeking care for breast symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Healthcare policies need to be responsive to the particular barriers faced by indigenous women in order to improve their participation in early detection and early help-seeking of care for breast symptoms. Measures to prevent and eradicate all forms of discrimination in healthcare are required to improve the quality of healthcare provided and the trust of the indigenous population in healthcare practitioners.

Towards a better tomorrow: addressing intersectional gender power relations to eradicate inequities in maternal health

An equity lens to maternal health has typically focused on assessing the differences in coverage and use of healthcare services and critical interventions. While this approach is important, we argue that healthcare experiences, dignity, rights, justice, and well-being are fundamental components of high quality and person-centred maternal healthcare that must also be considered. Looking at differences across one dimension alone does not reflect how fundamental drivers of maternal health inequities-including racism, ethnic or caste-based discrimination, and gendered power relations-operate. In this paper, we describe how using an intersectionality approach to maternal health can illuminate how power and privilege (and conversely oppression and exclusion) intersect and drive inequities. We present an intersectionality-informed analysis on antenatal care quality to illustrate the advantages of this approach, and what is lost in its absence. We reviewed and mapped equity-informed interventions in maternal health to existing literature to identify opportunities for improvement and areas for innovation. The gaps and opportunities identified were then synthesised to propose recommendations on how to apply an intersectionality lens to maternal health research, programmes, and policies.

Women on the frontline: exploring the gendered experience for Pacific healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background

Women comprise 90% of patient-facing global healthcare workers (HCWs), yet remain underpaid, undervalued, and under-represented in leadership and decision-making positions, particularly across the Pacific region. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these health workplace inequalities. We sought to understand Pacific women HCWs experience from the COVID-19 frontline to contribute to policies aimed at addressing gendered gaps in regional health systems.

Methods

Our interpretative phenomenological study used critical feminist and social theory, and a gendered health systems analytical framework. Data were collected using online focus groups and in-depth interviews with 36 Pacific regional participants between March 2020 and July 2021. Gender-specific content and women's voices were privileged for inductive analysis by Pacific and Australian women researchers with COVID-19 frontline lived experience.

Findings

Pacific women HCWs have authority and responsibility resulting from their familial, biological, and cultural status, but are often subordinate to men. They were emancipatory leaders during COVID-19, and as HCWs demonstrated compassion, situational awareness, and concern for staff welfare. Pacific women HCWs also faced ethical challenges to prioritise family or work responsibilities, safely negotiate childbearing, and maintain economic security.

Interpretation

Despite enhanced gendered power differentials during COVID-19, Pacific women HCWs used their symbolic capital to positively influence health system performance. Gender-transformative policies are urgently required to address disproportionate clinical and community care burdens and to protect and support the Pacific female health workforce.

Funding

Epidemic Ethics/World Health Organization (WHO), Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office/Wellcome Grant 214711/Z/18/Z. Co-funding: Australasian College for Emergency Medicine Foundation, International Development Fund Grant.

Are Differences in Living Kidney Donation Rates a Sex or a Gender Disparity?

Sex-disaggregated data reveal significant disparities in living kidney donation, with more female than male living kidney donors in most countries and proportions over 60% in some countries. We summarize the present state of knowledge with respect to the potential drivers of this disparity and argue that it is primarily driven by gender-related factors. First, we present the differences between sex and gender and then proceed to summarize the potential medical reasons that have been proposed to explain why males are less likely to be living kidney donors than females, such as the higher prevalence of kidney failure in males. We then present counterarguments as to why biological sex differences are not enough to explain lower living kidney donation among males, such as a higher prevalence of chronic kidney disease among females, which could affect donation rates. We argue that gender differences likely provide a better explanation as to why there are more women than men living kidney donors and explore the role of economic and social factors, as well as gender roles and expectations, in affecting living kidney donation among both men and women. We conclude with the need for a gender analysis to explain this complex psychosocial phenomenon in living kidney donation.

Gender transformative approaches in mHealth for maternal healthcare in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

Background

This review focuses on studies about digital health interventions in sub-Saharan Africa. Digital health interventions in sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly adopting gender-transformative approaches to address factors that derail women's access to maternal healthcare services. However, there remains a paucity of synthesized evidence on gender-transformative digital health programs for maternal healthcare and the corresponding research, program and policy implications. Therefore, this systematic review aims to synthesize evidence of approaches to transformative gender integration in digital health programs (specifically mHealth) for maternal health in sub-Saharan Africa.

Method

The following key terms "mobile health", "gender", "maternal health", "sub-Saharan Africa" were used to conduct electronic searches in the following databases: PsycInfo, EMBASE, Medline (OVID), CINAHL, and Global Health databases. The method and results are reported as consistent with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). Data synthesis followed a convergent approach for mixed-method systematic review recommended by the JBI (Joanna Briggs Institute).

Results

Of the 394 studies retrieved from the databases, 11 were included in the review. Out of these, six studies were qualitative in nature, three were randomized control trials, and two were mixed-method studies. Findings show that gender transformative programs addressed one or more of the following categories: (1) gender norms/roles/relations, (2) women's specific needs, (3) causes of gender-based health inequities, (4) ways to transform harmful gender norms, (5) promoting gender equality, (6) progressive changes in power relationships between women and men. The most common mHealth delivery system was text messages via short message service on mobile phones. The majority of mHealth programs for maternal healthcare were focused on reducing unintended pregnancies through the promotion of contraceptive use. The most employed gender transformative approach was a focus on women's specific needs.

Conclusion

Findings from gender transformative mHealth programs indicate positive results overall. Those reporting negative results indicated the need for a more explicit focus on gender in mHealth programs. Highlighting gender transformative approaches adds to discussions on how best to promote mHealth for maternal health through a gender transformative lens and provides evidence relevant to policy and research.

Systematic review registration

PROSPERO CRD42023346631.

Women healthcare professionals' experiences and needs regarding the COVID-19 pandemic from a gender perspective

BACKGROUND

Accounting for 70% of healthcare workers worldwide, and 56% in Turkey, women continue to be the frontline fighters in the battle against the COVID-19 pandemic. Their needs may be overlooked as a result of their growing responsibilities both in their professional and private lives. This descriptive study aimed at identifying the gendered needs and experiences of women healthcare workers in Turkey throughout the pandemic.

METHOD

This study consists of 1082 healthcare professionals' responses of various positions across several provinces and facilities, collected through a web-based survey of 50 questions.

RESULTS

Almost all participants (94%) expressed feeling anxious over the pandemic regardless of their working units. Four out of ten (38%) respondents noted working for 41 h or more on average weekly, and most of the participants who worked for long hours were assigned in COVID-19 units. Non-clinical personnel reported less difficulty in work/life balance. 64% of the respondents reported not having gone through any training on COVID-19, and eight out of ten (81%) said they had information needs. Research findings suggest that 92% of participants' needs remained unmet. While 74% of the respondents pointed out not having an income that is worthwhile, 72% referred to the need for psychosocial support, 58% need for support in domestic work and 37% support for child care as their primary needs.

CONCLUSION

Results of the research highlighted the gendered needs of women healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic, and disseminate protective and preventive health policies and practices through a gender responsive approach.

Perspectives of women on availing antenatal services in urban poor areas of Rishikesh, Uttarakhand

Background Antenatal care (ANC) is the essential regular care of women that prevents potential health problems during pregnancy. In India, the proportion of women who received four or more antenatal visits was only 51% (National Family Health Survey, 2015-2016). An even worse situation prevails in urban areas where women from poor communities face greater health risks. We assessed various barriers women residing in these areas come across in availing ANC services. Methods This study is a part of a mixed-methods, community-based study, and we report its qualitative component. We conducted the study at the residence of the study participants in September-October 2019. The study participants were women who had less than four antenatal visits throughout the pregnancy. Twelve in-depth interviews were conducted based on data saturation. Data were transcribed and themes were drawn concerning the gender analysis framework. Results Through this study, we found how gender relations affect the utilization of antenatal services concerning access to resources, division of labour, social norms including the belief of husband and other family members towards pregnancy and decision-making power of women. Conclusion Our findings underline the importance of making the urban health system gender-sensitive and responsive to the needs of women during pregnancy. There is a need to educate men regarding maternal health so as to allay such social norms that label pregnancy as a woman's responsibility and encouraging them to accompany their wives during pregnancy visits, thus making men a part of antenatal services.

Gender inequities in women's access to maternal health care utilisation in Zambia: a qualitative analysis

BACKGROUND

The role of gender inequities in women's ability to access maternal health care has mainly been analysed from either women's or men's perspective only. In this article, we explore the role of gender inequities in maternal health care utilisation from both men's and women's perspectives.

METHODS

Thirty-six interviews were conducted with reproductive age women (n = 24), and men whose wives/partners gave birth within the last three years prior to our study in Zambia (n = 12). Our study sought to improve understanding of the normative environment in which women and men make decisions on maternal health care utilisation in Zambia.

RESULTS

We found that men and women had different expectations regarding their gender roles in maternal health care utilisation, which created inequities reinforced by societal norms and traditions. Men make most household decisions including those related to reproductive health and they often have the major say in access to maternal health services despite not having holistic maternal health information which creates challenges in maternal health care utilisation.

CONCLUSION

The study highlights the need for maternal health care utilisation decisions to be made by both men and women and that men should be fully involved in maternal health care from pregnancy until after child birth. Further, there is urgent need for concerted and sustained efforts to change traditional norms that reinforce these inequities and affect maternal health care utilisation if Zambia is to meet Sustainable Development Goal-3.1.

Using intersectionality to study gender and antimicrobial resistance in low- and middle-income countries

Different sexes and genders experience differentiated risks of acquiring infections, including drug-resistant infections, and of becoming ill. Different genders also have different health-seeking behaviours that shape their likelihood of having access to and appropriately using and administering antimicrobials. Consequently, they are distinctly affected by antimicrobial resistance (AMR). As such, it is crucial to incorporate perspectives on sex and gender in the study of both AMR and antimicrobial use in order to present a full picture of AMR's drivers and impact. An intersectional approach to understanding gender and AMR can display how gender and other components 'intersect' to shape the experiences of individuals and groups affected by AMR. However, there are insufficient data on the burden of AMR disaggregated by gender and other socio-economic characteristics, and where available, it is fragmented. For example, to date, the best estimate of the global burden of bacterial AMR published in The Lancet does not consider gender or other social stratifiers in its analysis. To address this evidence gap, we undertook a scoping review to examine how sex and gender compounded by other axes of marginalization influence one's vulnerability and exposure to AMR as well as one's access to and use of antimicrobials. We undertook a gendered analysis of AMR, using intersectionality as a concept to help us understand the multiple and overlapping ways in which different people experience exposure vulnerability to AMR. This approach is crucial in informing a more nuanced view of the burden and drivers of AMR. The intersectional gender lens should be taken into account in AMR surveillance, antimicrobial stewardship, infection prevention and control and public and professional awareness efforts, both donor and government funded, as well as national and international policies and programmes tackling AMR such as through national action plans.

Insights Into the Cardiomodulatory Effects of Sex Hormones: Implications in Transgender Care

Transgender individuals that undergo gender-affirming hormone therapy may experience discrimination in the health care setting with a lack of access to medical personnel competent in transgender medicine. Recent evidence suggests that gender-affirming hormone therapy is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and cardiovascular risk factors. A recent statement from the American Heart Association reinforces the importance of cardiovascular-focused clinical management and the necessity for more research into the impact of gender-affirming hormone therapy. With this in mind, this review will highlight the known cardiovascular risk factors associated with gender-affirming hormone therapy and identify potential molecular mechanisms determined from the limited animal studies that explore the role of cross-sex steroids on cardiovascular risk. The lack of data in this understudied population requires future clinical and basic research studies to inform and educate clinicians and their transgender patient population to promote precision medicine for their care to improve their quality of life.

The intersection of biological sex and gender in adverse events following seasonal influenza vaccination in older adults

BACKGROUND

Women/females report more adverse events (AE) following immunization than men/males for many vaccines, including the influenza and COVID-19 vaccines. This discrepancy is often dismissed as a reporting bias, yet the relative contributions of biological sex and gender are poorly understood. We investigated the roles of sex and gender in the rate of AE following administration of the high-dose seasonal influenza vaccine to older adults (≥ 75 years) using an AE questionnaire administered 5-8 days post-vaccination. Participant sex (male or female) was determined by self-report and a gender score questionnaire was used to assign participants to one of four gender categories (feminine, masculine, androgynous, or undifferentiated). Sex steroid hormones and inflammatory cytokines were measured in plasma samples collected prior to vaccination to generate hypotheses as to the biological mechanism underpinning the AE reported.

RESULTS

A total of 423 vaccines were administered to 173 participants over four influenza seasons (2019-22) and gender data were available for 339 of these vaccinations (2020-22). At least one AE was reported following 105 vaccinations (25%), by 23 males and 82 females. The majority of AE occurred at the site of injection, were mild, and transient. The odds of experiencing an AE were 3-fold greater in females than males and decreased with age to a greater extent in females than males. The effects of gender, however, were not statistically significant, supporting a central role of biological sex in the occurrence of AE. In males, estradiol was significantly associated with IL-6 and with the probability of experiencing an AE. Both associations were absent in females, suggesting a sex-specific effect of estradiol on the occurrence of AE that supports the finding of a biological sex difference.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support a larger role for biological sex than for gender in the occurrence of AE following influenza vaccination in older adults and provide an initial investigation of hormonal mechanisms that may mediate this sex difference. This study highlights the complexities of measuring gender and the importance of assessing AE separately for males and females to better understand how vaccination strategies can be tailored to different subsets of the population.

Understanding gender and its intersection with social stratifiers on prevention and care seeking behavior of lymphatic filariasis in Nepal

BACKGROUND

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a debilitating and painful neglected tropical disease and is one of the leading causes of permanent disability. In many countries, the intersection of gender with various social stratifiers has influenced exposure to LF and ultimately impacting the disease burden and its elimination. This study aimed to explore the influence of gender and its intersection with other social stratifiers for the prevention and care seeking behavior of LF in Nepal.

METHODS

This study employed qualitative research methods: in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) for data collection in Bardiya, Nepal. A total of 22 IDIs (11 male, 11 female) and 2 FGDs (1 male and 1 female) were conducted with the community people between January and March 2020. The participants were purposively selected to represent different social stratifiers including age, sex, ethnicity, occupation. The data collected were analyzed using a thematic framework approach with use of intersectional gender analysis matrix.

RESULTS

The study findings revealed that men spend more time outside their household compared to women while fulfilling their roles and responsibilities, largely determined by societal expectations and gender norms. This resulted in limited access to preventive health services for men, as they often missed annual mass drug administration programme in their community and limited access to preventive methods. Further traditional occupation, specific to particular ethnicity, influenced the vulnerability to LF for certain ethnic groups. The ability to prevent exposure varied among individuals. Although women made decisions regarding the use of protective methods, it was influenced by patriarchal and gender norms. They often felt a responsibility to take care and priorities males and other family members when resources are limited. The intersectionality of gender with other social stratifiers such as marital status, ethnicity, and geographical areas influenced individual's ability to access information related to LF and care seeking.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the findings emphasized how access to resources, division of work, norms and values and decision-making power alone and its interaction with various social stratifiers shaped peoples' vulnerability to disease, ability to prevent exposure and response to illness.

Review of current 2SLGBTQIA+ inequities in the Canadian health care system

Gender identity and sexual orientation are determinants of health that can contribute to health inequities. In the 2SLGBTQIA+ community, belonging to a sexual and/or gender minority group leads to a higher risk of negative health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and cancer, as well as maladaptive behaviors leading to poorer health outcomes such as substance abuse and risky sexual behavior. Empirical evidence suggests that inequities in terms of accessibility to health care, quality of care, inclusivity, and satisfaction of care, are pervasive and entrenched in the health care system. A better understanding of the current Canadian health care context for individuals of the 2SLGBTQIA+ community is imperative to inform public policy and develop sensitive public health interventions to make meaningful headway in reducing inequity. Our search strategy was Canadian-centric and aimed at highlighting the current state of 2SLGBTQIA+ health inequities in Canada. Discrimination, patient care and access to care, education and training of health care professionals, and crucial changes at the systemic and infrastructure levels have been identified as main themes in the literature. Furthermore, we describe health care-related disparities in the 2SLGBTQIA+ community, and present available resources and guidelines that can guide healthcare providers in narrowing the gap in inequities. Herein, the lack of training for both clinical and non-clinical staff has been identified as the most critical issue influencing health care systems. Researchers, educators, and practitioners should invest in health care professional training and future research should evaluate the effectiveness of interventions on staff attitudinal changes toward the 2SLGBTQIA+ community and the impact on patient outcomes.

Exploring system drivers of gender inequity in development assistance for health and opportunities for action

Background : Deep-rooted and widespread gender-based bias and discrimination threaten achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. Despite evidence that addressing gender inequities contributes to better health and development outcomes, the resources for, and effectiveness of, such efforts in development assistance for health (DAH) have been insufficient. This paper explores systemic challenges in DAH that perpetuate or contribute to gender inequities, with a particular focus on the role of external donors and funders. Methods: We applied a co-creation system design process to map and analyze interactions between donors and recipient countries, and articulate drivers of gender inequities within the landscape of DAH. We conducted qualitative primary data collection and analysis in 2021 via virtual facilitated discussions and visual mapping exercises among a diverse set of 41 stakeholders, including representatives from donor institutions, country governments, academia, and civil society. Results: Six systemic challenges emerged as perpetuating or contributing to gender inequities in DAH: 1) insufficient input and leadership from groups affected by gender bias and discrimination; 2) decision-maker blind spots inhibit capacity to address gender inequities; 3) imbalanced power dynamics contribute to insufficient resources and attention to gender priorities; 4) donor funding structures limit efforts to effectively address gender inequities; 5) fragmented programming impedes coordinated attention to the root causes of gender inequities; and 6) data bias contributes to insufficient understanding of and attention to gender inequities. Conclusions : Many of the drivers impeding progress on gender equity in DAH are embedded in power dynamics that distance and disempower people affected by gender inequities. Overcoming these dynamics will require more than technical solutions. Groups affected by gender inequities must be centered in leadership and decision-making at micro and macro levels, with practices and structures that enable co-creation and mutual accountability in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health programs.

Strengthening health systems and peacebuilding through women's leadership: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Active and protracted conflict settings demonstrate the need to prioritise the peace through health agenda. This can be achieved by reorienting attention toward gender diverse leadership and more effective governance within health systems. This approach may enable women to have a greater voice in the decision-making of health and social interventions, thereby enabling the community led and context specific knowledge required to address the root causes of persistent inequalities and inequities in systems and societies.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative study, which included semi-structured interviews with 25 key informants, two focus group discussions and one workshop with humanitarian workers in local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), United Nations (UN) agencies, health practitioners, and academics, from Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and Latin America. Findings were then applied to the peacebuilding pyramid designed by John Paul Lederach which provides a practical framework for mediation and conflict resolution in several conflict-affected settings. The purpose of the framework was to propose an adapted conceptualisation of leadership to include women's leadership in the health system and be more applicable in protracted conflict settings.

RESULTS

Five interrelated themes emerged. First, perceptions of terms such as gender equality, equity, mainstreaming, and leadership varied across participants and contexts. Second, armed conflict is both a barrier and an enabler for advancing women's leadership in health systems. Third, health systems themselves are critical in advancing the nexus between women's leadership, health systems and peacebuilding. Fourth, across all contexts we found strong evidence of an instrumental relationship between women's leadership in health systems in conflict-affected settings and peacebuilding. Lastly, the role of donors emerged as a critical obstacle to advance women's leadership.

CONCLUSION

Continuing to empower women against social, cultural, and institutional barriers is crucial, as the emerging correlation between women's leadership, health systems, and peacebuilding is essential for long-term stability, the right to health, and health system responsiveness.

"Honestly, this problem has affected me a lot": a qualitative exploration of the lived experiences of people with chronic respiratory disease in Sudan and Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Over 500 million people live with chronic respiratory diseases globally and approximately 4 million of these, mostly from the low- and middle-income countries including sub-Saharan Africa, die prematurely every year. Despite high CRD morbidity and mortality, only very few studies describe CRDs and little is known about the economic, social and psychological dimensions of living with CRDs in sub-Saharan Africa. We aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of the social, livelihood and psychological dimensions of living with CRD to inform management of CRDs in Sudan and Tanzania.

METHOD

We conducted 12 in-depth interviews in 2019 with people with known or suspected CRD and 14 focus group discussions with community members in Gezira state, Sudan and Dodoma region, Tanzania, to share their understanding and experience with CRD. The data was analysed using thematic framework analysis.

RESULTS

People with CRD in both contexts reported experiences under two broad themes: impact on economic wellbeing and impact on social and psychological wellbeing. Capacity to do hard physical work was significantly diminished, resulting in direct and indirect economic impacts for them and their families. Direct costs were incurred while seeking healthcare, including expenditures on transportation to health facility and procurement of diagnostic tests and treatments, whilst loss of working hours and jobs resulted in substantial indirect costs. Enacted and internalised stigma leading to withdrawal and social exclusion was described by participants and resulted partly from association of chronic cough with tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. In Sudan, asthma was described as having negative impact on marital prospects for young women and non-disclosure related to stigma was a particular issue for young people. Impaired community participation and restrictions on social activity led to psychological stress for both people with CRD and their families.

CONCLUSION

Chronic respiratory diseases have substantial social and economic impacts among people with CRD and their families in Sudan and Tanzania. Stigma is particularly strong and appears to be driven partly by association of chronic cough with infectiousness. Context-appropriate measures to address economic impacts and chronic cough stigma are urgently needed as part of interventions for chronic respiratory diseases in these sub-Saharan African contexts.

The intersection of biological sex and gender in adverse events following seasonal influenza vaccination in older adults

Background Women/females report more adverse events (AE) following immunization than men/males for many vaccines, including the influenza and COVID-19 vaccines. This discrepancy is often dismissed as a reporting bias, yet the relative contributions of biological sex and gender are poorly understood. We investigated the roles of sex and gender in the rate of AE following administration of the high-dose seasonal influenza vaccine to older adults (≥ 75 years) using an AE questionnaire administered 5-8 days post-vaccination. Participant sex (male or female) was determined by self-report and a gender score questionnaire was used to assign participants to one of four gender categories (feminine, masculine, androgynous, or undifferentiated). Sex steroid hormones and inflammatory cytokines were measured in plasma samples collected prior to vaccination to elucidate a possible biological mechanism for the AE reported. Results A total of 423 vaccines were administered to 173 participants over four influenza seasons (2019-22) and gender data were available for 339 of these vaccinations (2020-22). At least one AE was reported following 105 vaccinations (25%), by 23 males and 82 females. The majority of AE occurred at the site of injection, were mild, and transient. The odds of experiencing an AE were 3-fold greater in females than males and decreased with age to a greater extent in females than males. The effects of gender, however, were not statistically significant, supporting a central role of biological sex in the occurrence of AE. In males, estradiol was significantly associated with IL-6 and with the probability of experiencing an AE. Both associations were absent in females, suggesting a sex-specific effect of estradiol on the occurrence of AE that supports the finding of a biological sex difference. Conclusions These data support a larger role for biological sex than for gender in the occurrence of AE following influenza vaccination in older adults and provide an initial investigation of hormonal mechanisms that may mediate this sex difference. This study highlights the complexities of measuring gender and the importance of assessing AE separately for males and females to better understand how vaccination strategies can be tailored to different subsets of the population.

Gender and urban-rural influences on antibiotic purchasing and prescription use in retail drug shops: a one health study

INTRODUCTION

Few studies have reported antibiotic purchases from retail drug shops in relation to gender in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). Using a One Health approach, we aimed to examine gender dimensions of antibiotic purchases for humans and animals and use of prescriptions in retail drug shops in Bangladesh.

METHODS

We conducted customer observations in 20 drug shops in one rural and one urban area. Customer gender, antibiotic purchases, and prescription use were recorded during a four-hour observation (2 sessions of 2 hours) in each shop. We included drug shops selling human medicine (n = 15); animal medicine (n = 3), and shops selling both human and animal medicine (n = 2).

RESULTS

Of 582 observations, 31.6% of drug shop customers were women. Women comprised almost half of customers (47.1%) in urban drug shops but only 17.2% of customers in rural drug shops (p < 0.001). Antibiotic purchases were more common in urban than rural shops (21.6% versus 12.2% of all transactions, p = 0.003). Only a quarter (26.0%) of customers who purchased antibiotics used a prescription. Prescription use for antibiotics was more likely among women than men (odds ratio (OR) = 4.04, 95% CI 1.55, 10.55) and more likely among urban compared to rural customers (OR = 4.31 95% CI 1.34, 13.84). After adjusting for urban-rural locality, women remained more likely to use a prescription than men (adjusted OR = 3.38, 95% CI 1.26, 9.09) but this was in part due to antibiotics bought by men for animals without prescription. Customers in drug shops selling animal medicine had the lowest use of prescriptions for antibiotics (4.8% of antibiotic purchases).

CONCLUSION

This study found that nearly three-quarters of all antibiotics sold were without prescription, including antibiotics on the list of critically important antimicrobials for human medicine. Men attending drug shops were more likely to purchase antibiotics without a prescription compared to women, while women customers were underrepresented in rural drug shops. Antibiotic stewardship initiatives in the community need to consider gender and urban-rural dimensions of drug shop uptake and prescription use for antibiotics in both human and animal medicine. Such initiatives could strengthen National Action Plans.

Double distress: women healthcare providers and moral distress during COVID-19

Background: COVID-19 pandemic has led to heightened moral distress among healthcare providers. Despite evidence of gendered differences in experiences, there is limited feminist analysis of moral distress.Objectives: To identify types of moral distress among women healthcare providers during the COVID-19 pandemic; to explore how feminist political economy might be integrated into the study of moral distress.Research Design: This research draws on interviews and focus groups, the transcripts of which were analyzed using framework analysis.Research Participants and Context: 88 healthcare providers, based in British Columbia Canada, participated virtually.Ethical Considerations: The study received ethical approval from Simon Fraser University.Findings: Healthcare providers experienced moral dilemmas related to ability to provide quality and compassionate care while maintaining COVID-19 protocols. Moral constraints were exacerbated by staffing shortages and lack of access to PPE. Moral conflicts emerged when women tried to engage decision-makers to improve care, and moral uncertainty resulted from lack of clear and consistent information. At home, women experienced moral constraints related to inability to support children's education and wellbeing. Moral conflicts related to lack of flexible work environments and moral dilemmas developed between unpaid care responsibilities and COVID-19 risks. Women healthcare providers resisted moral residue and structural constraints by organizing for better working conditions, childcare, and access to PPE, engaging mental health support and drawing on professional pride.Discussion: COVID-19 has led to new and heightened experiences of moral distress among HCP in response to both paid and unpaid care work. While many of the experiences of moral distress at work were not explicitly gendered, implicit gender norms structured moral events. Women HCP had to take it upon themselves to organize, seek out resources, and resist moral residue.Conclusion: A feminist political economy lens illuminates how women healthcare providers faced and resisted a double layering of moral distress during the pandemic.

Lack of sex-related analysis and reporting in Cochrane Reviews: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Sex-specific analysis and reporting may allow a better understanding of intervention effects and can support the decision-making process. Well-conducted systematic reviews (SRs), like those carried out by the Cochrane Collaboration, provide clinical responses transparently and stress gaps of knowledge. This study aimed to describe the extent to which sex is analysed and reported in a cross-section of Cochrane SRs of interventions, and assess the association with the gender of main authorships.

METHODS

We searched SRs published during 2018 within the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. An investigator appraised the sex-related analysis and reporting across sections of SRs and collected data on gender and country of affiliation of the review first and last authors, and a second checked for accuracy. We conducted descriptive statistics and bivariate logistic regression to explore the association between the gender of the authors and sex-related analysis and reporting.

RESULTS

Six hundred and ten Cochrane SRs were identified. After removing those that met no eligibility criteria, 516 reviews of interventions were included. Fifty-six reviews included sex-related reporting in the abstract, 90 considered sex in their design, 380 provided sex-disaggregated descriptive data, 142 reported main outcomes or performed subgroup analyses by sex, and 76 discussed the potential impact of sex or the lack of such on the interpretations of findings. Women represented 53.1 and 42.2% of first and last authorships, respectively. Women authors (in first and last position) had a higher possibility to report sex in at least one of the review sections (OR 2.05; CI 95% 1.12-3.75, P=0.020) than having none.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex consideration amongst Cochrane SRs was frequently missing. Structured guidance to sex-related analysis and reporting is needed to enhance the external validity of findings. Likewise, including gender diversity within the research workforce and relevant authorship positions may foster equity in the evidence generated.

Scoping 'sex' and 'gender' in rehabilitation: (mis)representations and effects

BACKGROUND

Researchers have highlighted a large-scale global unmet need for rehabilitation. While sex and gender have been shown to interact with each other and with other social and structural factors to influence health and wellbeing, less is known about how sex and gender shape rehabilitation participation and outcomes within health systems.

METHODS

Using an intersectional approach, we examine literature that explores the relationship between sex and/or gender and rehabilitation access, use, adherence, outcomes, and caregiving. Following a comprehensive search, 65 documents met the inclusion criteria for this scoping review of published literature. Articles were coded for rehabilitation-related themes and categorized by type of rehabilitation, setting, and age of participants, to explore how existing literature aligned with documented global rehabilitation needs. Responding to a common conflation of sex and gender in the existing literature and a frequent misrepresentation of sex and gender as binary, the researchers also developed a schema to determine whether existing literature accurately represented sex and gender.

RESULTS

The literature generally described worse rehabilitation access, use, adherence, and outcomes and a higher caregiving burden for conditions with rehabilitation needs among women than men. It also highlighted the interacting effects of social and structural factors like socioeconomic status, racial or ethnic identity, lack of referral, and inadequate insurance on rehabilitation participation and outcomes. However, existing literature on gender and rehabilitation has focused disproportionately on a few types of rehabilitation among adults in high-income country contexts and does not correspond with global geographic or condition-based rehabilitation needs. Furthermore, no articles were determined to have provided an apt depiction of sex and gender.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights a gap in global knowledge about the relationship between sex and/or gender and rehabilitation participation and outcomes within health systems. Future research should rely on social science and intersectional approaches to elucidate how gender and other social norms, roles, and structures influence a gender disparity in rehabilitation participation and outcomes. Health systems should prioritize person-centered, gender-responsive care, which involves delivering services that are responsive to the complex social norms, roles, and structures that intersect to shape gender inequitable rehabilitation participation and outcomes in diverse contexts.

Enablers and barriers to the acceptability of mHealth for maternal healthcare in rural Edo, Nigeria

Objective

Acceptability has become a key consideration in designing, implementing and evaluating digital health interventions. Current evidence points to acceptability as a crucial factor in sustaining mobile health programs for maternal health across sub-Saharan Africa particularly in Nigeria where the burden of maternal mortality is high. This paper describes the enablers and barriers to the acceptance of Text4Life, a mobile phone-based health intervention that extends maternal healthcare services to rural areas of Edo State Nigeria.

Method

This is a cross-sectional qualitative study of women who used Text4Life, their spouses who were all men and Ward Development Committee chairpersons who oversaw the implementation of Text4Life. This study was set in Etsako East and Esan Central Local Government Areas of Edo State, Nigeria. Between September 2021 and January 2022, eight focus groups were conducted with 64 participants: 39 women and 25 men. Two in-depth interviews were conducted with Ward Development Committee chairpersons. Data collection was conducted in English and Pidgin English. Discussions and interviews were digitally recorded and translated to English from Pidgin English where necessary. Data analysis followed a mainly deductive approach to thematic analysis, however, emergent information from the data was also considered and reported.

Results

The results show that participants' positive attitudes towards the intervention, the involvement of the community, participants' understanding of the intervention, and perceived effectiveness of the Text4Life program were enablers to women's acceptance of Text4Life and enablers to Ward Development Committee chairpersons' assistance with the program. On the other hand, limited resources and a clash with the community's value system presented barriers to the acceptability of the Text4Life program.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrate the importance of alleviating the burdens associated with participating in mobile health interventions while noting that the risk of obstructing the gains from mobile health interventions is high if plans for sustaining it are not incorporated early enough in the design phase.

Reconceptualizing successful pandemic preparedness and response: A feminist perspective

Pandemic preparedness and COVID-19 response indicators focus on public health outcomes (such as infections, case fatalities, and vaccination rates), health system capacity, and/or the effects of the pandemic on the economy, yet this avoids more political questions regarding how responses were mobilized. Pandemic preparedness country rankings have been called into question due to their inability to predict COVID-19 response and outcomes, and COVID-19 response indicators have ignored one of the most well documented secondary effects of the pandemic - its disproportionate effects on women. This paper analyzes pandemic preparedness and response indicators from a feminist perspective to understand how indicators might consider the secondary effects of the pandemic on women and other equity deserving groups. Following a discussion of the tensions that exist between feminist methodologies and the reliance on indicators by policymakers in preparing and responding to health emergencies, we assess the strengths and weakness of current pandemic preparedness and COVID-19 response indicators. The risk with existing pandemic preparedness and response indicators is that they give only limited attention to secondary effects of pandemics and inequities in terms of who is disproportionately affected. There is an urgent need to reconceptualize what 'successful' pandemic preparedness and response entails, moving beyond epidemiological and economic measurements. We suggest how efforts to design COVID response indicators on gender inclusion could inform pandemic preparedness and associated indicators.

Improving health system readiness to address violence against women and girls: a conceptual framework

BACKGROUND

There is an increasing focus on readiness of health systems to respond to survivors of violence against women (VAW), a global human rights violation damaging women's health. Health system readiness focuses on how prepared healthcare systems and institutions, including providers and potential users, are to adopt changes brought about by the integration of VAW care into services. In VAW research, such assessment is often limited to individual provider readiness or facility-level factors that need to be strengthened, with less attention to health system dimensions. The paper presents a framework for health system readiness assessment to improve quality of care for intimate partner violence (IPV), which was tested in Brazil and Palestinian territories (oPT).

METHODS

Data synthesis of primary data from 43 qualitative interviews with healthcare providers and health managers in Brazil and oPT to explore readiness in health systems.

RESULTS

The application of the framework showed that it had significant added value in capturing system capabilities - beyond the availability of material and technical capacity - to encompass stakeholder values, confidence, motivation and connection with clients and communities. Our analysis highlighted two missing elements within the initial framework: client and community engagement and gender equality issues. Subsequently, the framework was finalised and organised around three levels of analysis: macro, meso and micro. The micro level highlighted the need to also consider how the system can sustainably involve and interact with clients (women) and communities to ensure and promote readiness for integrating (and participating in) change. Addressing cultural and gender norms around IPV and enhancing support and commitment from health managers was also shown to be necessary for a health system environment that enables the integration of IPV care.

CONCLUSION

The proposed framework helps identify a) system capabilities and pre-conditions for system readiness; b) system changes required for delivering quality care for IPV; and c) connections between and across system levels and capabilities.

Just and inclusive end-of-life decision-making for long-term care home residents with dementia: a qualitative study protocol

BACKGROUND

Many people living with dementia eventually require care services and spend the remainder of their lives in long-term care (LTC) homes. Yet, many residents with dementia do not receive coordinated, quality palliative care. The stigma associated with dementia leads to an assumption that people living in the advanced stages of dementia are unable to express their end-of-life needs. As a result, people with dementia have fewer choices and limited access to palliative care. The purpose of this paper is to describe the protocol for a qualitative study that explores end-of-life decision-making processes for LTC home residents with dementia.

METHODS/DESIGN

This study is informed by two theoretical concepts. First, it draws on a relational model of citizenship. The model recognizes the pre-reflective dimensions of agency as fundamental to being human (irrespective of cognitive impairment) and thereby necessitates that we cultivate an environment that supports these dimensions. This study also draws from Smith's critical feminist lens to foreground the influence of gender relations in decision-making processes towards palliative care goals for people with dementia and reveal the discursive mediums of power that legitimize and sanction social relations. This study employs a critical ethnographic methodology. Through data collection strategies of interview, observation, and document review, this study examines decision-making for LTC home residents with dementia and their paid (LTC home workers) and unpaid (family members) care partners.

DISCUSSION

This research will expose the embedded structures and organizational factors that shape relationships and interactions in decision-making. This study may reveal new ways to promote equitable decision-making towards palliative care goals for LTC home residents with dementia and their care partners and help to improve their access to palliative care.

Physical activity and substance use among Canadian adolescents: Examining the moderating role of school connectedness

Physical activity may play a role in promoting or preventing substance use among youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between different types of physical activity [i.e., non-competitive school sport, competitive school sport, outside of school sport and minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day] and substance use (i.e., current smoking, e-cigarette, cannabis, binge drinking) among Canadian youth. Interaction effects between physical activity and school connectedness were also examined. Using data from the COMPASS study (2018-19; n = 73,672), four multi-level logistic regression models were developed to investigate whether physical activity lessened or worsened the odds of (1) smoking; (2) e-cigarette use; (3) cannabis use; and (4) binge drinking. Models were stratified by gender to reflect the inherent differences between genders. Models were adjusted for demographic factors and other covariates. Sport participation was consistently associated with substance use, whereas less evidence was found for meeting MVPA guidelines. Non-competitive school sport lessened the odds of cannabis use for males and females. However, non-competitive school sport only lessened the odds of e-cigarette use for females but increased the odds of binge drinking for males. Participation in competitive school sport lessened the odds of cigarette smoking but increased the odds of e-cigarette use and binge drinking for males and females. Outside of school sport lessened the odds of cigarette smoking and cannabis use but increased the odds of e-cigarette use and binge drinking for males and females. A significant moderation effect was found for males participating in sport outside of school and meeting MVPA guidelines who were at a lower risk of e-cigarette use in the presence of high levels of school connectedness. Our study provides evidence for further consideration and provision of extracurricular activities, specifically non-competitive sport, in protecting against substance use. Caution is required in claiming that sport participation or physical activity, in general, is negatively associated with substance use among youth.

COVID-19, nutrition, and gender: An evidence-informed approach to gender-responsive policies and programs

In addition to the direct health impacts of COVID-19, government and household mitigation measures have triggered negative indirect economic, educational, and food and health system impacts, hitting low-and middle-income countries the hardest and disproportionately affecting women and girls. We conducted a gender focused analysis on five critical and interwoven crises that have emerged because of the COVID-19 crisis and exacerbated malnutrition and food insecurity. These include restricted mobility and isolation; reduced income; food insecurity; reduced access to essential health and nutrition services; and school closures. Our approach included a theoretical gender analysis, targeted review of the literature, and a visual mapping of evidence-informed impact pathways. As data was identified to support the visualization of pathways, additions were made to codify the complex interrelations between the COVID-19 related crises and underlying gender relations. Our analysis and resultant evidence map illustrate how underlying inequitable norms such as gendered unprotected jobs, reduced access to economic resources, decreased decision-making power, and unequal gendered division of labor, were exacerbated by the pandemic's secondary containment efforts. Health and nutrition policies and interventions targeted to women and children fail to recognize and account for understanding and documentation of underlying gender norms, roles, and relations which may deter successful outcomes. Analyzing the indirect effects of COVID-19 on women and girls offers a useful illustration of how underlying gender inequities can exacerbate health and nutrition outcomes in a crisis. This evidence-informed approach can be used to identify and advocate for more comprehensive upstream policies and programs that address underlying gender inequities.

Prioritizing gender equity and intersectionality in Canadian global health institutions and partnerships

Despite governmental efforts to close the gender gap and global calls including Sustainable Development Goal 5 to promote gender equality, the sobering reality is that gender inequities continue to persist in Canadian global health institutions. Moreover, from health to the economy, security to social protection, COVID-19 has exposed and heightened pre-existing inequities, with women, especially marginalized women, being disproportionately impacted. Women, particularly women who face bias along multiple identity dimensions, continue to be at risk of being excluded or delegitimized as participants in the global health workforce and continue to face barriers in career advancement to leadership, management and governance positions in Canada. These inequities have downstream effects on the policies and programmes, including global health efforts intended to support equitable partnerships with colleagues in low- and middle- income countries. We review current institutional gender inequities in Canadian global health research, policy and practice and by extension, our global partnerships. Informed by this review, we offer four priority actions for institutional leaders and managers to gender-transform Canadian global health institutions to accompany both the immediate response and longer-term recovery efforts of COVID-19. In particular, we call for the need for tracking indicators of gender parity within and across our institutions and in global health research (e.g., representation and participation, pay, promotions, training opportunities, unpaid care work), accountability and progressive action.

Understanding gender dynamics in mHealth interventions can enhance the sustainability of benefits of digital technology for maternal healthcare in rural Nigeria

Introduction

Nigeria faces enormous challenges to meet the growing demands for maternal healthcare. This has necessitated the need for digital technologies such as mobile health, to supplement existing maternal healthcare services. However, mobile health programs are tempered with gender blind spots that continue to push women and girls to the margins of society. Failure to address underlying gender inequalities and unintended consequences of mobile health programs limits its benefits and ultimately its sustainability. The importance of understanding existing gender dynamics in mobile health interventions for maternal health cannot be overstated.

Objective

This study explores the gender dimensions of Text4Life, a mobile health intervention for maternal healthcare in Edo State, Nigeria by capturing the unique perspectives of women who are the primary beneficiaries, their spouses who are all men, and community leaders who oversaw the implementation and delivery of the intervention.

Method

This qualitative study used criterion-based purposive sampling to recruit a total of 66 participants: 39 women, 25 men, and two ward development committee chairpersons. Data collection involved 8 age and sex desegregated focus group discussions with women and men and in-depth interviews with ward development committee chairpersons in English or Pidgin English. Translated and transcribed data were exported to NVivo 1.6 and data analysis followed a conventional approach to thematic analysis.

Results

Women had some of the necessary resources to participate in the Text4Life program, but they were generally insufficient thereby derailing their participation. The program enhanced women's status and decision-making capacity but with men positioned as heads of households and major decision-makers in maternal healthcare, there remained the possibility of deprioritizing maternal healthcare. Finally, while Text4Life prioritized women's safety in various contexts, it entrenched systems of power that allow men's control over women's reproductive lives.

Conclusion

As communities across sub-Saharan Africa continue to leverage the use of mHealth for maternal health, this study provides insights into the gender implications of women's use of mHealth technologies. While mHealth programs are helpful to women in many ways, they are not enough on their own to undo entrenched systems of power through which men control women's access to resources and their reproductive and social lives.

Bargaining and gendered authority: a framework to understand household decision-making about childhood vaccines in the Philippines

Introduction

Targeted vaccination promotion efforts aimed at building vaccine confidence require an in-depth understanding of how and by whom decisions about vaccinating children are made. While several studies have highlighted how parents interact with other stakeholders when discussing childhood vaccination, less is known about the way in which vaccination uptake is negotiated within households.

Methods

We conducted 44 in-depth interviews with caregivers of children under five in the Philippines who had delayed or refused vaccination. Interviews were conducted between August 2020 and March 2021 and were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and translated into English. Notions of intra-household vaccination bargaining emerged early during systematic debriefings and were probed more pointedly throughout data collection.

Results

Parents as well as paternal and maternal families proved to be dominant stakeholders in intra-household bargaining for childhood vaccination. Although bargaining among these stakeholders was based on engrained, gender-based power imbalances, disadvantaged stakeholders could draw on a range of interrelated sources of bargaining power to nevertheless shape decision-making. Sources of bargaining power included, in descending order of their relevance for vaccination, (1) physical presence at the household (at the time of vaccination decision-making), (2) interest in the topic of vaccination and conviction of one’s own position, (3) previous vaccination and caregiving experience, and (4) access to household resources (including finances). The degree to which each household member could draw on these sources of bargaining power varied considerably over time and across households.

Conclusion

Our findings highlight how bargaining due to intra-household disagreement coins decisions regarding childhood vaccination. Considering the risks for public health associated with vaccine hesitancy globally, we advocate for acknowledging intra-household dynamics in research and practice, such as by purposefully targeting household members with decision-making capacity in vaccination promotion efforts, aligning promotion efforts with available bargaining capacity or further empowering those convinced of vaccination.

Exploring system drivers of gender inequity in development assistance for health and opportunities for action

Background: Deep-rooted and widespread gender-based bias and discrimination threaten achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. Despite evidence that addressing gender inequities contributes to better health and development outcomes, the resources for, and effectiveness of, such efforts in development assistance for health (DAH) have been insufficient. This paper explores systemic challenges in DAH that perpetuate or contribute to gender inequities, with a particular focus on the role of external donors and funders. Methods: We applied a co-creation system design process to map and analyze interactions between donors and recipient countries, and articulate drivers of gender inequities within the landscape of DAH. We conducted qualitative primary data collection and analysis in 2021 via virtual facilitated discussions and visual mapping exercises among a diverse set of 41 stakeholders, including representatives from donor institutions, country governments, academia, and civil society. Results: Six systemic challenges emerged as perpetuating or contributing to gender inequities in DAH: 1) insufficient input and leadership from groups affected by gender bias and discrimination; 2) decision-maker blind spots inhibit capacity to address gender inequities; 3) imbalanced power dynamics contribute to insufficient resources and attention to gender priorities; 4) donor funding structures limit efforts to effectively address gender inequities; 5) fragmented programming impedes coordinated attention to the root causes of gender inequities; and 6) data bias contributes to insufficient understanding of and attention to gender inequities. Conclusions: Many of the drivers impeding progress on gender equity in DAH are embedded in power dynamics that distance and disempower people affected by gender inequities. Overcoming these dynamics will require more than technical solutions. Groups affected by gender inequities must be centered in leadership and decision-making at micro and macro levels, with practices and structures that enable co-creation and mutual accountability in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health programs.

Development of a gender score in a representative German population sample and its association with diverse social positions

Background

Gender as a relational concept is rarely considered in epidemiology. However, an in-depth reflection on gender conceptualisation and operationalisation can advance gender analysis in quantitative health research, allowing for more valid evidence to support public health interventions. We constructed a context-specific gender score to assess how its discriminatory power differed in sub-groups defined by social positions relevant to intersectional analyses, i.e., sex/gender, race, class, age and sexual attraction.

Methods

We created a gender score with the help of multivariable logistic regression models and conditional probabilities based on gendered social practices and expressed on a masculinity-femininity continuum, using data of the German Socioeconomic Panel. With density plots, we exploratively compared distributions of gendered social practices and their variation across social groups.

Results

We included 13 gender-related variables to define a gender score in our sample (n = 20,767). Variables on family and household structures presented with the highest weight for the gender score. When comparing social groups, we saw that young individuals, those without children, not living with a partner or currently living in a same-sex/gender partnership, showed more overlap between feminine/masculine social practices among females and males.

Conclusions

The distribution of gendered social practices differs among social groups, which empirically backs up the theoretical notion of gender being a context-specific construct. Economic participation and household structures remain essential drivers of heterogeneity in practices among women and men in most social positions. The gender score can be used in epidemiology to support concerted efforts to overcome these gender (in)equalities-which are important determinants of health inequalities.