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Prakash A, Fenner F, Shit B, Salminen TS, Monteith KM, Khan I, Vale PF. IMD-mediated innate immune priming increases Drosophila survival and reduces pathogen transmission. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012308. [PMID: 38857285 PMCID: PMC11192365 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Invertebrates lack the immune machinery underlying vertebrate-like acquired immunity. However, in many insects past infection by the same pathogen can 'prime' the immune response, resulting in improved survival upon reinfection. Here, we investigated the mechanistic basis and epidemiological consequences of innate immune priming in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster when infected with the gram-negative bacterial pathogen Providencia rettgeri. We find that priming in response to P. rettgeri infection is a long-lasting and sexually dimorphic response. We further explore the epidemiological consequences of immune priming and find it has the potential to curtail pathogen transmission by reducing pathogen shedding and spread. The enhanced survival of individuals previously exposed to a non-lethal bacterial inoculum coincided with a transient decrease in bacterial loads, and we provide strong evidence that the effect of priming requires the IMD-responsive antimicrobial-peptide Diptericin-B in the fat body. Further, we show that while Diptericin B is the main effector of bacterial clearance, it is not sufficient for immune priming, which requires regulation of IMD by peptidoglycan recognition proteins. This work underscores the plasticity and complexity of invertebrate responses to infection, providing novel experimental evidence for the effects of innate immune priming on population-level epidemiological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Prakash
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Florence Fenner
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | - Tiina S. Salminen
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Katy M. Monteith
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | - Pedro F. Vale
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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2
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Cox N, De Swaef E, Corteel M, Van Den Broeck W, Bossier P, Nauwynck HJ, Dantas-Lima JJ. Experimental Infection Models and Their Usefulness for White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) Research in Shrimp. Viruses 2024; 16:813. [PMID: 38793694 PMCID: PMC11125927 DOI: 10.3390/v16050813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is marked as one of the most economically devastating pathogens in shrimp aquaculture worldwide. Infection of cultured shrimp can lead to mass mortality (up to 100%). Although progress has been made, our understanding of WSSV's infection process and the virus-host-environment interaction is far from complete. This in turn hinders the development of effective mitigation strategies against WSSV. Infection models occupy a crucial first step in the research flow that tries to elucidate the infectious disease process to develop new antiviral treatments. Moreover, since the establishment of continuous shrimp cell lines is a work in progress, the development and use of standardized in vivo infection models that reflect the host-pathogen interaction in shrimp is a necessity. This review critically examines key aspects of in vivo WSSV infection model development that are often overlooked, such as standardization, (post)larval quality, inoculum type and choice of inoculation procedure, housing conditions, and shrimp welfare considerations. Furthermore, the usefulness of experimental infection models for different lines of WSSV research will be discussed with the aim to aid researchers when choosing a suitable model for their research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasja Cox
- IMAQUA, 9080 Lochristi, Belgium; (E.D.S.); (M.C.); (J.J.D.-L.)
- Laboratory of Virology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium;
| | | | - Mathias Corteel
- IMAQUA, 9080 Lochristi, Belgium; (E.D.S.); (M.C.); (J.J.D.-L.)
| | - Wim Van Den Broeck
- Department of Morphology, Medical Imaging, Orthopedics, Physiotherapy and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium;
| | - Peter Bossier
- Laboratory of Aquaculture & Artemia Reference Center, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Hans J. Nauwynck
- Laboratory of Virology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium;
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López-Collazo E, del Fresno C. Endotoxin tolerance and trained immunity: breaking down immunological memory barriers. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1393283. [PMID: 38742111 PMCID: PMC11089161 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1393283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
For decades, innate immune cells were considered unsophisticated first responders, lacking the adaptive memory of their T and B cell counterparts. However, mounting evidence demonstrates the surprising complexity of innate immunity. Beyond quickly deploying specialized cells and initiating inflammation, two fascinating phenomena - endotoxin tolerance (ET) and trained immunity (TI) - have emerged. ET, characterized by reduced inflammatory response upon repeated exposure, protects against excessive inflammation. Conversely, TI leads to an enhanced response after initial priming, allowing the innate system to mount stronger defences against subsequent challenges. Although seemingly distinct, these phenomena may share underlying mechanisms and functional implications, blurring the lines between them. This review will delve into ET and TI, dissecting their similarities, differences, and the remaining questions that warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López-Collazo
- The Innate Immune Response Group, Hospital la Paz Institute for Health Research (IdiPAZ), La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
- Tumour Immunology Laboratory, IdiPAZ, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER), Respiratory Diseases (CIBRES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos del Fresno
- The Innate Immune Response Group, Hospital la Paz Institute for Health Research (IdiPAZ), La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
- Immunomodulation Laboratory, IdiPAZ, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
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4
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Lanz-Mendoza H, Gálvez D, Contreras-Garduño J. The plasticity of immune memory in invertebrates. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246158. [PMID: 38449328 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Whether specific immune protection after initial pathogen exposure (immune memory) occurs in invertebrates has long been uncertain. The absence of antibodies, B-cells and T-cells, and the short lifespans of invertebrates led to the hypothesis that immune memory does not occur in these organisms. However, research in the past two decades has supported the existence of immune memory in several invertebrate groups, including Ctenophora, Cnidaria, Nematoda, Mollusca and Arthropoda. Interestingly, some studies have demonstrated immune memory that is specific to the parasite strain. Nonetheless, other work does not provide support for immune memory in invertebrates or offers only partial support. Moreover, the expected biphasic immune response, a characteristic of adaptive immune memory in vertebrates, varies within and between invertebrate species. This variation may be attributed to the influence of biotic or abiotic factors, particularly parasites, on the outcome of immune memory. Despite its critical importance for survival, the role of phenotypic plasticity in immune memory has not been systematically examined in the past two decades. Additionally, the features of immune responses occurring in diverse environments have yet to be fully characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- Centro de Investigaciones sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, INSP, 62100 Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Dumas Gálvez
- Coiba Scientific Station, City of Knowledge, Calle Gustavo Lara, Boulevard 145B, Clayton 0843-01853, Panama
- Programa Centroamericano de Maestría en Entomología, Universidad de Panamá, Estafeta universitaria, Avenida Simón Bolívar, 0824, Panama
- Sistema Nacional de Investigación, Edificio 205, Ciudad del Saber, 0816-02852, Panama
| | - Jorge Contreras-Garduño
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Morelia, UNAM, 58190 Morelia, Mexico
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Goerlinger A, Develay C, Balourdet A, Rigaud T, Moret Y. Infection risk by oral contamination does not induce immune priming in the mealworm beetle ( Tenebrio molitor) but triggers behavioral and physiological responses. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1354046. [PMID: 38404577 PMCID: PMC10885348 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1354046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
In invertebrates, immune priming is the ability of individuals to enhance their immune response based on prior immunological experiences. This adaptive-like immunity likely evolved due to the risk of repeated infections by parasites in the host's natural habitat. The expression of immune priming varies across host and pathogen species, as well as infection routes (oral or wounds), reflecting finely tuned evolutionary adjustments. Evidence from the mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor) suggests that Gram-positive bacterial pathogens play a significant role in immune priming after systemic infection. Despite the likelihood of oral infections by natural bacterial pathogens in T. molitor, it remains debated whether ingestion of contaminated food leads to systemic infection, and whether oral immune priming is possible is currently unknown. We first attempted to induce immune priming in both T. molitor larvae and adults by exposing them to food contaminated with living or dead Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. We found that oral ingestion of living bacteria did not kill them, but septic wounds caused rapid mortality. Intriguingly, the consumption of either dead or living bacteria did not protect against reinfection, contrasting with injury-induced priming. We further examined the effects of infecting food with various living bacterial pathogens on variables such as food consumption, mass gain, and feces production in larvae. We found that larvae exposed to Gram-positive bacteria in their food ingested less food, gained less mass and/or produced more feces than larvae exposed to contaminated food with Gram-negative bacteria or control food. This suggests that oral contamination with Gram-positive bacteria induced both behavioral responses and peristalsis defense mechanisms, even though no immune priming was observed here. Considering that the oral route of infection neither caused the death of the insects nor induced priming, we propose that immune priming in T. molitor may have primarily evolved as a response to the infection risk associated with wounds rather than oral ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yannick Moret
- CNRS UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
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Kloc M, Kubiak JZ. The Role of Human and Animal Monocytes and Macrophages in Homeostasis and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16397. [PMID: 38003587 PMCID: PMC10671400 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages are the innate immune cells that are the first-line responders to invading pathogens or foreign objects[...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Kloc
- The Houston Methodist Research Institute, Transplant Immunology, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- The Houston Methodist Hospital, Department of Surgery, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Genetics, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jacek Z. Kubiak
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Innovative Therapies, Military Institute of Medicine—National Research Institute (WIM-PIB), Szaserow 128, 04-141 Warsaw, Poland
- Dynamics and Mechanics of Epithelia Group, Institute of Genetics and Development of Rennes, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rennes, CNRS, UMR 6290, 35043 Rennes, France
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Fusco-Almeida AM, de Matos Silva S, dos Santos KS, de Lima Gualque MW, Vaso CO, Carvalho AR, Medina-Alarcón KP, Pires ACMDS, Belizario JA, de Souza Fernandes L, Moroz A, Martinez LR, Ruiz OH, González Á, Mendes-Giannini MJS. Alternative Non-Mammalian Animal and Cellular Methods for the Study of Host-Fungal Interactions. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:943. [PMID: 37755051 PMCID: PMC10533014 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In the study of fungal pathogenesis, alternative methods have gained prominence due to recent global legislation restricting the use of mammalian animals in research. The principle of the 3 Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) is integrated into regulations and guidelines governing animal experimentation in nearly all countries. This principle advocates substituting vertebrate animals with other invertebrate organisms, embryos, microorganisms, or cell cultures. This review addresses host-fungus interactions by employing three-dimensional (3D) cultures, which offer more faithful replication of the in vivo environment, and by utilizing alternative animal models to replace traditional mammals. Among these alternative models, species like Caenorhabditis elegans and Danio rerio share approximately 75% of their genes with humans. Furthermore, models such as Galleria mellonella and Tenebrio molitor demonstrate similarities in their innate immune systems as well as anatomical and physiological barriers, resembling those found in mammalian organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Marisa Fusco-Almeida
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Samanta de Matos Silva
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
- Basic and Applied Microbiology Group (MICROBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin 050010, Colombia; (O.H.R.); (Á.G.)
| | - Kelvin Sousa dos Santos
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Marcos William de Lima Gualque
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Carolina Orlando Vaso
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Angélica Romão Carvalho
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Kaila Petrolina Medina-Alarcón
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Ana Carolina Moreira da Silva Pires
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Jenyffie Araújo Belizario
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Lígia de Souza Fernandes
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Andrei Moroz
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
| | - Luis R. Martinez
- Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA;
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Center for Immunology and Transplantation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Orville Hernandez Ruiz
- Basic and Applied Microbiology Group (MICROBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin 050010, Colombia; (O.H.R.); (Á.G.)
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Group University of Antioquia, Corporation for Biological Research, Medellin 050010, Colombia
| | - Ángel González
- Basic and Applied Microbiology Group (MICROBA), School of Microbiology, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin 050010, Colombia; (O.H.R.); (Á.G.)
| | - Maria José Soares Mendes-Giannini
- Department of Clinical Analysis, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Araraquara 14800-903, SP, Brazil; (A.M.F.-A.); (S.d.M.S.); (K.S.d.S.); (M.W.d.L.G.); (C.O.V.); (A.R.C.); (K.P.M.-A.); (A.C.M.d.S.P.); (J.A.B.); (L.d.S.F.); (A.M.)
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Zhou L, Wang S. The bright side of ecological stressors. Trends Ecol Evol 2023; 38:568-578. [PMID: 36906435 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2023.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Ecological stressors are considered to negatively affect biological systems; however, corresponding responses to stressors can be complex, depending on the ecological functions and the number and duration of the stressors. Mounting evidence indicates potential benefits of stressors. Here, we develop an integrative framework to understand stressor-induced benefits by clarifying three categories of mechanisms: seesaw effects, cross-tolerance, and memory effects. These mechanisms operate across various organizational levels (e.g., individual, population, community) and can be extended to an evolutionary context. One remaining challenge is to develop scaling approaches for linking stressor-induced benefits across organizational levels. Our framework provides a novel platform for predicting the consequences of global environmental changes and informing management strategies in conservation and restoration practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libin Zhou
- Institute of Ecology, Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Shaopeng Wang
- Institute of Ecology, Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China.
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Candian V, Tedeschi R. Impact of the Diet on the Mortality and on Gene Expression of the Antimicrobial Peptide Tenecin 3 in Tenebrio molitor Larvae Infected by Beauveria bassiana. INSECTS 2023; 14:359. [PMID: 37103174 PMCID: PMC10146776 DOI: 10.3390/insects14040359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Large-scale insect rearing can be subjected to microbial infections, leading to serious economic losses. When possible, the use of antibiotics is to be avoided for insects intended as feed or food and new strategies to preserve the health of the farmed insects are required. The effectiveness of insect immune system depends on several factors, including the nutritional composition of the diet. The possibility to modulate immune responses through the diet is currently a topic of great interest from an application point of view. We evaluated the effect of two different diets on the survival rate and gene expression of the antimicrobial peptide Tenecin 3 in uninfected and Beauveria bassiana-infected Tenebrio molitor L. larvae. A wheat bran diet, mixed 50% with brewers' spent grains, could positively influence the expression of Tenecin 3 gene when uninfected T. molitor is allowed to develop on such a substrate from early larval stages. Even if, in our trial, the diet with added brewers' spent grains could not reduce the mortality of the larvae infected with B. bassiana, higher transcriptional levels of the antifungal peptide were observed in insects fed this diet, depending on the timing of diet administration.
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Arayamethakorn S, Uengwetwanit T, Karoonuthaisiri N, Methacanon P, Rungrassamee W. Comparative effects of different bacterial lipopolysaccharides on modulation of immune levels to improve survival of the black tiger shrimp. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 197:107872. [PMID: 36566013 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To prevent loss from disease, immunostimulants have been used as dietary supplements to improve immunity and survival of shrimps. Among the various types of immunostimulants, there is increasing evidence that a diet enriched with bacterial lipopolysaccharide can reduce the mortality rate of shrimp under exposure to pathogens. Here, the immunostimulatory effects of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from various bacterial sources were explored. Bacterial LPS was extracted from a shrimp pathogen, Vibrio harveyi and its effects were compared with the commercially available LPS from the non-shrimp pathogen, Escherichia coli. Our results revealed that the LPS from V. harveyi was different in molecular size but contained similar functional groups to that from E. coli. To understand their molecular mechanisms, bacterial LPS from the two sources were applied as a supplementary diet and fed to juvenile shrimp for 4-week feeding period before tissue samples were collected for transcriptomic analysis by next generation sequencing. Gene expression profiling revealed that major immune-related genes such as pattern recognition proteins (PRPs), proteinases and proteinase inhibitors, prophenoloxidase systems (proPO system), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), signaling transduction pathways, heat shock proteins (HSPs), oxidative stress responses, and other immune-related molecules such as mucins and peritrophins were modulated in the groups of shrimp fed with bacterial LPS from both sources, but at different levels. The results suggest that bacterial LPS could modulate shrimp immune system, and different LPS sources led to different activation of immune pathways. Additionally, metabolic-related genes were affected by LPS, suggesting that energy was required for immune stimulation. In the V. harveyi pathogen challenge trial, all shrimp groups fed with diets containing LPS from both bacterial sources showed better survival than the control group without LPS. When comparing groups fed with LPS supplemented diets, the higher concentration of LPS (8 μg/body weight) from E. coli resulted in a better survival rate than a lower concentration (4 μg/body weight). Conversely, shrimp fed with a diet containing LPS from V. harveyi showed a lower survival rate when a higher dose of LPS (8 μg/body weight) was administered than the group fed with a lower concentration of LPS (4 μg/body weight). This could be due to overstimulation of shrimp immune responses, especially by LPS derived from shrimp pathogens, resulting in a reverse effect. These results confirm that immunity in shrimp upon administration of bacterial LPS depends on the origin and dose of the LPS administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sopacha Arayamethakorn
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Tanaporn Uengwetwanit
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Nitsara Karoonuthaisiri
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Biological Sciences Building, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, United Kingdom
| | - Pawadee Methacanon
- National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), 114 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Wanilada Rungrassamee
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Khlong Neung, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand.
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12
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Senescence of the immune defences and reproductive trade-offs in females of the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor. Sci Rep 2022; 12:19747. [PMID: 36396809 PMCID: PMC9671880 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24334-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the theory of ageing, it has been assumed that ageing is associated with a decline in somatic defences, including the immune system, as a consequence of a trade-off with reproduction. While overall immunity suffers from age-related deterioration (immune senescence), the different components of the immune response appear to age differently. It is also likely that investment among the many arms of the immune system and reproduction with age is finely adjusted to the organisms' reproductive strategy. We investigated this possibility in females of Tenebrio molitor, a species of long-lived insect with reproductive strategies similar to those of long-lived mammals. We specifically tested the effects of immunological challenges imposed early or late in adult life on immune pathway activation as well as fertility early and late in life. We found complex patterns of changes in immune defences with age and age-specific immune challenges with contrasted relationships with female reproduction. While cellular and enzymatic defences showed signs of ageing, they did not trade-off with reproduction. By contrast, the induced antibacterial immune response was found to be unaffected by age and to be highly connected to female fecundity. These findings suggest that these immunological pathways have different functions with regard to female ageing in this insect species.
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13
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Immune defense mechanisms against a systemic bacterial infection in the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). J Invertebr Pathol 2022; 195:107850. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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14
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Arch M, Vidal M, Koiffman R, Melkie ST, Cardona PJ. Drosophila melanogaster as a model to study innate immune memory. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:991678. [PMID: 36338030 PMCID: PMC9630750 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.991678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last decades, research regarding innate immune responses has gained increasing importance. A growing body of evidence supports the notion that the innate arm of the immune system could show memory traits. Such traits are thought to be conserved throughout evolution and provide a survival advantage. Several models are available to study these mechanisms. Among them, we find the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. This non-mammalian model has been widely used for innate immune research since it naturally lacks an adaptive response. Here, we aim to review the latest advances in the study of the memory mechanisms of the innate immune response using this animal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Arch
- Tuberculosis Research Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Maria Vidal
- Tuberculosis Research Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Comparative Medicine and Bioimage Centre of Catalonia (CMCiB), Germans Trias I Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Laboratori Clínic Metropolitana Nord, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain
| | - Romina Koiffman
- Tuberculosis Research Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- UCBL, UnivLyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Villeurbanne, France
| | - Solomon Tibebu Melkie
- Tuberculosis Research Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- UCBL, UnivLyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Villeurbanne, France
| | - Pere-Joan Cardona
- Tuberculosis Research Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
- Comparative Medicine and Bioimage Centre of Catalonia (CMCiB), Germans Trias I Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Microbiology Department, Laboratori Clínic Metropolitana Nord, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Badalona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
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Petronio Petronio G, Pietrangelo L, Cutuli MA, Magnifico I, Venditti N, Guarnieri A, Abate GA, Yewhalaw D, Davinelli S, Di Marco R. Emerging Evidence on Tenebrio molitor Immunity: A Focus on Gene Expression Involved in Microbial Infection for Host-Pathogen Interaction Studies. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1983. [PMID: 36296259 PMCID: PMC9611967 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the scientific community's interest in T. molitor as an insect model to investigate immunity and host-pathogen interactions has considerably increased. The reasons for this growing interest could be explained by the peculiar features of this beetle, which offers various advantages compared to other invertebrates models commonly used in laboratory studies. Thus, this review aimed at providing a broad view of the T. molitor immune system in light of the new scientific evidence on the developmental/tissue-specific gene expression studies related to microbial infection. In addition to the well-known cellular component and humoral response process, several studies investigating the factors associated with T. molitor immune response or deepening of those already known have been reported. However, various aspects remain still less understood, namely the possible crosstalk between the immune deficiency protein and Toll pathways and the role exerted by T. molitor apolipoprotein III in the expression of the antimicrobial peptides. Therefore, further research is required for T. molitor to be recommended as an alternative insect model for pathogen-host interaction and immunity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Petronio Petronio
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Laura Pietrangelo
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Marco Alfio Cutuli
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Irene Magnifico
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Noemi Venditti
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Antonio Guarnieri
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Getnet Atinafu Abate
- Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos P.O. Box 269, Ethiopia
| | - Delenasaw Yewhalaw
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 307, Ethiopia
- Tropical and Infectious Diseases Research Center, Jimma University, Jimma P.O. Box 378, Ethiopia
| | - Sergio Davinelli
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Roberto Di Marco
- Department of Medicine and Health Science “V. Tiberio”, Università degli Studi del Molise, 8600 Campobasso, Italy
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16
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Deng J, Xu W, Lv G, Yuan H, Zhang QH, Wickham JD, Xu L, Zhang L. Associated bacteria of a pine sawyer beetle confer resistance to entomopathogenic fungi via fungal growth inhibition. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOME 2022; 17:47. [PMID: 36085246 PMCID: PMC9463743 DOI: 10.1186/s40793-022-00443-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana is a popular fungus used to control the Japanese pine sawyer, Monochamus alternatus Hope, the key vector of pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) that is the causal agent of pine wilt disease, resulting in devastating losses of pines in China and Portugal. However, recent studies have demonstrated that some insect-associated bacteria might decrease fungal toxicity and further undermine its biological control efficacy against M. alternatus. Thus, it is of great significance to uncover whether and how associated bacteria of M. alternatus become involved in the infection process of B. bassiana. RESULTS Here, we show that axenic M. alternatus larvae died significantly faster than non-axenic larvae infected by four increasing concentrations of B. bassiana spores (Log-rank test, P < 0.001). The infection of B. bassiana significantly changed the richness and structure of the beetle-associated bacterial community both on the cuticle and in the guts of M. alternatus; meanwhile, the abundance of Pseudomonas and Serratia bacteria were significantly enriched as shown by qPCR. Furthermore, these two bacteria genera showed a strong inhibitory activity against B. bassiana (One-way ANOVA, P < 0.001) by reducing the fungal conidial germination and growth rather than regulating host immunity. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the role of insect-associated bacteria in the interaction between pest insects and entomopathogenic fungi, which should be taken into consideration when developing microbial-based pest control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jundan Deng
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Weikang Xu
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Guochang Lv
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Hang Yuan
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Qing-He Zhang
- Sterling International, Inc., Spokane, WA, 99216, USA
| | - Jacob D Wickham
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, 33 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow, Russia, 119071
| | - Letian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China.
| | - Longwa Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Control, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China.
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17
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González-Acosta S, Baca-González V, Asensio-Calavia P, Otazo-Pérez A, López MR, Morales-delaNuez A, Pérez de la Lastra JM. Efficient Oral Priming of Tenebrio molitor Larvae Using Heat-Inactivated Microorganisms. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10081296. [PMID: 36016184 PMCID: PMC9415734 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10081296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial resistance is a global health problem that will increase over time. Advances in insect antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) offer a powerful new approach to combat antimicrobial resistance. Invertebrates represent a rich group of animals for the discovery of new antimicrobial agents due to their high diversity and the presence of adaptive immunity or “immune priming”. Here, we report a priming approach for Tenebrio molitor that simulates natural infection via the oral route. This oral administration has the advantage of minimizing the stress caused by conventional priming techniques and could be a viable method for mealworm immunity studies. When using inactivated microorganisms for oral priming, our results showed an increased survival of T. molitor larvae after exposure to various pathogens. This finding was consistent with the induction of antimicrobial activity in the hemolymph of primed larvae. Interestingly, the hemolymph of larvae orally primed with Escherichia coli showed constitutive activity against Staphylococcus aureus and heterologous activity for other Gram-negative bacteria, such as Salmonella enterica. The priming of T. molitor is generally performed via injection of the microorganism. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the oral administration of heat-inactivated microorganisms for priming mealworms. This technique has the advantage of reducing the stress that occurs with the conventional methods for priming vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio González-Acosta
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Victoria Baca-González
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - Patricia Asensio-Calavia
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Andrea Otazo-Pérez
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado y Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de La Laguna Avda, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez, SN. Edificio Calabaza-Apdo, 456, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Manuel R. López
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - Antonio Morales-delaNuez
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
| | - José Manuel Pérez de la Lastra
- Biotechnology of Macromolecules Research Group, Instituto de Productos Naturales y Agrobiología, (IPNA-CSIC), 38206 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-922-474334
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18
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Darroch H, Astin JW, Hall CJ. Towards a new model of trained immunity: Exposure to bacteria and β-glucan protects larval zebrafish against subsequent infections. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 132:104400. [PMID: 35367515 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2022.104400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Once thought to be a feature exclusive to lymphocyte-driven adaptive immunity, immune memory has also been shown to operate as part of the innate immune system following infection to provide an elevated host response to subsequent pathogenic challenge. This evolutionarily conserved process, termed 'trained immunity', enables cells of the innate immune system to 'remember' previous pathogen encounters and mount stronger responses to the same, or different, pathogens after returning to a non-activated state. Here we show that challenging larval zebrafish, that exclusively rely on innate immunity, with live or heat-killed Salmonella typhimurium provides protection to subsequent infection with either Salmonella typhimurium or Streptococcus iniae, that lasts for at least 12 days. We also show that larvae injected with β-glucan, the well-known trigger of trained immunity, demonstrate enhanced survival to similar live bacterial infections, a phenotype supported by increased cxcl8 expression and neutrophil recruitment to the infection site. These results support the conservation of a trained immunity-like phenotype in larval zebrafish and provide a foundation to exploit the experimental attributes of larval zebrafish to further understand this form of immunological memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Darroch
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Jonathan W Astin
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Christopher J Hall
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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19
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Taks EJM, Moorlag SJCFM, Netea MG, van der Meer JWM. Shifting the Immune Memory Paradigm: Trained Immunity in Viral Infections. Annu Rev Virol 2022; 9:469-489. [PMID: 35676081 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-091919-072546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Trained immunity is defined as the de facto memory characteristics induced in innate immune cells after exposure to microbial stimuli after infections or certain types of vaccines. Through epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming of innate immune cells after exposure to these stimuli, trained immunity induces an enhanced nonspecific protection by improving the inflammatory response upon restimulation with the same or different pathogens. Recent studies have increasingly shown that trained immunity can, on the one hand, be induced by exposure to viruses; on the other hand, when induced, it can also provide protection against heterologous viral infections. In this review we explore current knowledge on trained immunity and its relevance for viral infections, as well as its possible future uses. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 9 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther J M Taks
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands;
| | - Simone J C F M Moorlag
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands;
| | - Mihai G Netea
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands; .,Department of Immunology and Metabolism, Life and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jos W M van der Meer
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, Netherlands;
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20
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Zhang H, Tan AR, Li PJ, Lu SP, Jia QC, Huang SN, Bai J, Hou YM. A specific primed immune response in red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, is mediated by hemocyte differentiation and phagocytosis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 131:104380. [PMID: 35245605 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2022.104380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, is an invasive and destructive pest that causes serious damages to palm trees. Like other invertebrates, red palm weevil relies solely on its innate immune response to fight invading microbes; by definition, innate immunity lacks adaptive characteristics. However, we show here that priming the red palm weevil larvae with heat-killed Bacillus thuringiensis specifically increased survival of the larvae during a secondary lethal infection with live bacteria, and B. thuringiensis primed larvae also showed a higher clearance efficiency for this bacterium, which indicated that the red palm weevil larvae possessed a strong immune priming response. The degree of enhanced immune protection was positively correlated with hemocyte proliferation and the level of phagocytic ability of hemocytes. Moreover, the red palm weevil larvae primed by B. thuringiensis induced the continuous synthesis of serotonin in the hemolymph, which in turn enhanced the phagocytic ability and pathogen clearance ability of the host, representing an important mechanism for the red palm weevil to achieve priming protection. Our findings reveal a specific immune priming of the red palm weevil larvae mediated by the continuous secretion of serotonin, and provide new insights into the mechanisms of invertebrates immune priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Department of Biology, Xinzhou Teachers University, Xinzhou, Shanxi, 034000, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - An-Ran Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - Peng-Ju Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - Sheng-Ping Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - Qing-Chen Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - Shu-Ning Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - Juan Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China
| | - You-Ming Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350002, PR China.
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21
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Harish E, Osherov N. Fungal Priming: Prepare or Perish. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8050448. [PMID: 35628704 PMCID: PMC9145559 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Priming (also referred to as acclimation, acquired stress resistance, adaptive response, or cross-protection) is defined as an exposure of an organism to mild stress that leads to the development of a subsequent stronger and more protective response. This memory of a previously encountered stress likely provides a strong survival advantage in a rapidly shifting environment. Priming has been identified in animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Examples include innate immune priming and transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in animals and biotic and abiotic stress priming in plants, fungi, and bacteria. Priming mechanisms are diverse and include alterations in the levels of specific mRNAs, proteins, metabolites, and epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation of target genes.
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22
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Weiss K, Schneider JM. Female sex pheromone emission is affected by body condition, but not immune system function, in the orb‐web spider
Argiope bruennichi. Ethology 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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Liu QX, Su ZP, Liu HH, Lu SP, Zhao Y, Ma B, Hou YM, Shi ZH. Current understanding and perspectives on the potential mechanisms of immune priming in beetles. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 127:104305. [PMID: 34718077 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Beetles are the most diverse group of insects in Insecta which can be found in almost every habitat and environment on Earth. The possessing of the rapid and effective immune defenses is one of the important factors for their success. It is generally recognized that beetles only rely on the non-specific innate immune defense, without immunological memory, to fight against pathogens. However, there was cumulative evidence for the innate immune memory in invertebrates, including beetles, over the last decades, implying that insect innate immunity is more complex and has more features than previously thought. In beetles, it has been well documented that the specific or nonspecific enhanced immunocompetence can persist throughout development within generations and can even be transferred to the descendents in the next generation. Although insect immune priming might be shaped by epigenetic modifications and transferring effectors, mRNA and microbial signals, the solid experimental evidence to support the causal relationship between any of them and immune priming is still scarce. The combined usage of 'omics' approaches and CRISPR/Cas9 in the appropriate insect models with well-known genetic background, Tribolium castaneum and Tenebrio molitor, will help us to decipher the molecular mechanisms by which immune priming occurs in beetles in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian-Xia Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Zhi-Ping Su
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Hui-Hui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Sheng-Ping Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Bing Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - You-Ming Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China
| | - Zhang-Hong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fuzhou, 350002, China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350002, China.
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Abd El Halim HM, Ali A. Long noncoding RNAs: Emerging players regulating innate immune memory in the red flour beetle. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 127:104304. [PMID: 34756931 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A variety of strategies have been evolved to eradicate invading microbes. Phagocytes have developed in vertebrates and invertebrates to confer a non-specific immune response to pathogens. Besides, vertebrates have evolved lymphocytes to develop memory cells that can quickly respond upon the next exposure to the same pathogen. Although lymphocytes are absent in invertebrates, historical evidence, dating back to the 1920s, indicated the presence of immune memory in invertebrates. However, the concept of long-lasting non-specific defense predominated until recent evidence has been introduced in the first decade of the 21st century. Although more evidence has been introduced later, the molecular mechanism underlying the innate immune memory is largely undefined in invertebrates. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have demonstrated a role in regulating various biological processes, including immune response. In this review, we will explore the potential role of lncRNAs in developing innate immune memory in the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ali Ali
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742-231, USA; Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt.
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Ali Mohammadie Kojour M, Baliarsingh S, Jang HA, Yun K, Park KB, Lee JE, Han YS, Patnaik BB, Jo YH. Current knowledge of immune priming in invertebrates, emphasizing studies on Tenebrio molitor. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 127:104284. [PMID: 34619174 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrates rely on the most sophisticated adaptive immunity to defend themselves against various pathogens. This includes immunologic memory cells, which mount a stronger and more effective immune response against an antigen after its first encounter. Unlike vertebrates, invertebrates' defense completely depends on the innate immunity mechanisms including humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Furthermore, the invertebrate equivalent of the memory cells was discovered only recently. Since the discovery of transgenerational immune priming (TGIP) in crustaceans, numerous findings have proven the IP in invertebrate classes such as insects. TGIP can be induced through maternal priming pathways such as transcriptional regulation of antimicrobial peptides, and also paternal IP including the induction of proPO system activity. We appraise the diversity and specificity of IP agents to provide sustained immunologic memory in insects, particularly T. molitor in the review. An understanding of IP (more so TGIP) response in T. molitor will deepen our knowledge of invertebrate immunity, and boost the mass-rearing industry by reducing pathogen infection rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Ali Mohammadie Kojour
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Snigdha Baliarsingh
- PG Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Fakir Mohan University, Balasore, Odisha, 756089, India
| | - Ho Am Jang
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Keunho Yun
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Ki Beom Park
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Jong Eun Lee
- Department of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Andong National University, Andong, 36729, South Korea
| | - Yeon Soo Han
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea
| | - Bharat Bhusan Patnaik
- PG Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Fakir Mohan University, Balasore, Odisha, 756089, India.
| | - Yong Hun Jo
- Department of Applied Biology, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture (IEFA), College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, South Korea.
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Prigot-Maurice C, Beltran-Bech S, Braquart-Varnier C. Why and how do protective symbionts impact immune priming with pathogens in invertebrates? DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 126:104245. [PMID: 34453995 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Growing evidence demonstrates that invertebrates display adaptive-like immune abilities, commonly known as "immune priming". Immune priming is a process by which a host improves its immune defences following an initial pathogenic exposure, leading to better protection after a subsequent infection with the same - or different - pathogens. Nevertheless, beneficial symbionts can enhance similar immune priming processes in hosts, such as when they face repeated infections with pathogens. This "symbiotic immune priming" protects the host against pathogenic viruses, bacteria, fungi, or eukaryotic parasites. In this review, we explore the extent to which protective symbionts interfere and impact immune priming against pathogens from both a mechanical (proximal) and an evolutionary (ultimate) point of view. We highlight that the immune priming of invertebrates is the cornerstone of the tripartite interaction of hosts/symbionts/pathogens. The main shared mechanism of immune priming (induced by symbionts or pathogens) is the sustained immune response at the beginning of host-microbial interactions. However, the evolutionary outcome of immune priming leads to a specific discrimination, which provides enhanced tolerance or resistance depending on the type of microbe. Based on several studies testing immune priming against pathogens in the presence or absence of protective symbionts, we observed that both types of immune priming could overlap and affect each other inside the same hosts. As protective symbionts could be an evolutionary force that influences immune priming, they may help us to better understand the heterogeneity of pathogenic immune priming across invertebrate populations and species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cybèle Prigot-Maurice
- Université de Poitiers - UFR Sciences Fondamentales et Appliquées, Laboratoire Écologie et Biologie des Interactions - UMR CNRS 7267, Bâtiment B8-B35, 5 rue Albert Turpin, TSA 51106, F, 86073, POITIERS Cedex 9, France.
| | - Sophie Beltran-Bech
- Université de Poitiers - UFR Sciences Fondamentales et Appliquées, Laboratoire Écologie et Biologie des Interactions - UMR CNRS 7267, Bâtiment B8-B35, 5 rue Albert Turpin, TSA 51106, F, 86073, POITIERS Cedex 9, France
| | - Christine Braquart-Varnier
- Université de Poitiers - UFR Sciences Fondamentales et Appliquées, Laboratoire Écologie et Biologie des Interactions - UMR CNRS 7267, Bâtiment B8-B35, 5 rue Albert Turpin, TSA 51106, F, 86073, POITIERS Cedex 9, France
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Jehan C, Sabarly C, Rigaud T, Moret Y. Age-specific fecundity under pathogenic threat in an insect: Terminal investment versus reproductive restraint. J Anim Ecol 2021; 91:101-111. [PMID: 34626485 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The terminal investment hypothesis predicts that as an organism's prospects for survival decrease, through age or when exposed to a pathogenic infection, it will invest more in reproduction, which should trade-off against somatic maintenance (including immunity) and therefore future survival. Attempts to test this hypothesis have produced mixed results, which, in addition, mainly rely on the assessment of changes in reproductive effort and often overlooking its impact on somatic defences and survival. Alternatively, animals may restrain current reproduction to sustain somatic protection, increasing the chance of surviving for additional reproductive opportunities. We tested both of these hypotheses in females of the yellow mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor, an iteroparous insect with reproductive tactics similar to that of long-lived organisms. To achieve this, we mimicked pathogenic bacterial infections early or late in the life of breeding females by injecting them with a suspension of inactivated Bacillus cereus, a known natural pathogen of T. molitor, and measured female age-specific fecundity, survival, body mass and immunity. Inconsistent with a terminal investment, females given either an early or late-life immune challenge did not exhibit reduced survival or enhance their reproductive output. Female fecundity declined with age and was reduced by the early but not the late immune challenge. Both early and late-life fecundity correlated positively with life expectancy. Finally, young and old females exhibited similar antibacterial immune responses, suggesting that they both restrained reproduction to sustain immunity. Our results clearly demonstrate that age-specific reproduction of T. molitor females under pathogenic threat is inconsistent with a terminal investment. In contrast, our results instead suggest that females used a reproductive restraint strategy to sustain immunity and therefore subsequent reproductive opportunities. However, as infections were mimicked only, the fitness benefit of this reproductive restraint could not be shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charly Jehan
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Camille Sabarly
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Thierry Rigaud
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Yannick Moret
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
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The Role of PPAR Alpha in the Modulation of Innate Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910545. [PMID: 34638886 PMCID: PMC8508635 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α is a potent regulator of systemic and cellular metabolism and energy homeostasis, but it also suppresses various inflammatory reactions. In this review, we focus on its role in the regulation of innate immunity; in particular, we discuss the PPARα interplay with inflammatory transcription factor signaling, pattern-recognition receptor signaling, and the endocannabinoid system. We also present examples of the PPARα-specific immunomodulatory functions during parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections, as well as approach several issues associated with innate immunity processes, such as the production of reactive nitrogen and oxygen species, phagocytosis, and the effector functions of macrophages, innate lymphoid cells, and mast cells. The described phenomena encourage the application of endogenous and pharmacological PPARα agonists to alleviate the disorders of immunological background and the development of new solutions that engage PPARα activation or suppression.
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Magadán S, Mikelez-Alonso I, Borrego F, González-Fernández Á. Nanoparticles and trained immunity: Glimpse into the future. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 175:113821. [PMID: 34087325 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidences show that innate immune cells can display changes in their functional programs after infection or vaccination, which lead to immunomodulation (increased or reduced responsiveness) upon secondary activation to the same stimuli or even to a different one. Innate cells acquire features of immunological memory, nowadays using the new term of "trained immunity" or "innate immune memory", which is different from the specific memory immune response elicited by B and T lymphocytes. The review focused on the concept of trained immunity, mostly on myeloid cells. Special attention is dedicated to the pathogen recognition along the evolution (bacteria, plants, invertebrate and vertebrate animals), and to techniques used to study epigenetic reprogramming and metabolic rewiring. Nanomaterials can be recognized by immune cells offering a very promising way to learn about trained immunity. Nanomaterials could be modified in order to immunomodulate the responses ad hoc. Many therapeutic possibilities are opened, and they should be explored.
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Variation in Immune-Related Gene Expression Provides Evidence of Local Adaptation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816) between Inshore and Offshore Meta-Populations Inhabiting the Lower Florida Reef Tract, USA. WATER 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/w13152107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Coral communities of the Florida Reef Tract (FRT) have changed dramatically over the past 30 years. Coral cover throughout the FRT is disproportionately distributed; >70% of total coral cover is found within the inshore patch reef zone (<2 km from shore) compared to 30% found within the offshore bank reef zone (>5 km from shore). Coral mortality from disease has been differentially observed between inshore and offshore reefs along the FRT. Therefore, differences between the response of inshore and offshore coral populations to bacterial challenge may contribute to differences in coral cover. We examined immune system activation in Porites astreoides (Lamarck, 1816), a species common in both inshore and offshore reef environments in the FRT. Colonies from a representative inshore and offshore site were reciprocally transplanted and the expression of three genes monitored biannually for two years (two summer and two winter periods). Variation in the expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit H (eIF3H), an indicator of cellular stress in Porites astreoides, did not follow annual patterns of seawater temperatures (SWT) indicating the contribution of other stressors (e.g., irradiance). Greater expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor associated factor 3 (TRAF3), a signaling protein of the inflammatory response, was observed among corals transplanted to, or located within the offshore environment indicating that an increased immune response is associated with offshore coral more so than the inshore coral (p < 0.001). Corals collected from the offshore site also upregulated the expression of adenylyl cyclase associated protein 2 (ACAP2), increases which are associated with decreasing innate immune system inflammatory responses, indicating a counteractive response to increased stimulation of the innate immune system. Activation of the innate immune system is a metabolically costly survival strategy. Among the two reefs studied, the offshore population had a smaller mean colony size and decreased colony abundance compared to the inshore site. This correlation suggests that tradeoffs may exist between the activation of the innate immune system and survival and growth. Consequently, immune system activation may contribute to coral community dynamics and declines along the FRT.
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Yao T, Lu J, Bai C, Xie Z, Ye L. The Enhanced Immune Protection in Small Abalone Haliotis diversicolor Against a Secondary Infection With Vibrio harveyi. Front Immunol 2021; 12:685896. [PMID: 34295333 PMCID: PMC8290317 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.685896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, more and more studies have shown that early pathogenic bacterial infection in invertebrates can enhance immunity and significantly reduce mortality when reinfected with the same pathogen. There are mechanisms to explain this phenomenon, but they are relatively few. In addition, dose-dependent primary infection is also associated with increased immunity. In the present study, the initial infection dose and mortality of abalone Haliotis diversicolor after reinfection with Vibrio harveyi were recorded, and the mechanism of immune enhancement was investigated by the transcriptomic response of abalone after two successive stimuli with V. harveyi. Priming with different concentrations of pathogen can enhance immunity; however, higher concentration is not always better. Compared with the first exposure, more genes were up-regulated after the second exposure. Among the commonly expressed genes, the immune related genes were significantly or persistently highly expressed after two infections and included pattern recognition receptors as well as immune effectors, such as toll-like receptors, perlucin 4, scavenger receptor class B-like protein, cytochrome P450 1B1-like, glutathione S-transferase 6, lysozyme and so on; in addition, these immune-related genes were mainly distributed in the pathways related to phagocytosis and calcium signaling. Among the specifically expressed genes, compared with the first infection, more genes were involved in the immune, metabolic and digestive pathways after the second infection, which would be more conducive to preventing the invasion of pathogens. This study outlined the mechanism of immune enhancement in abalone after secondary infection at the global molecular level, which is helpful for a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of immune priming in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuo Yao
- Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie Lu
- Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Changming Bai
- Key Laboratory of Maricultural Organism Disease Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Qingdao Key Laboratory of Mariculture Epidemiology and Biosecurity, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhilv Xie
- Key Laboratory of South China Sea Fishery Resources Exploitation & Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lingtong Ye
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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Kirk D, Greischar M, Mideo N, Krkošek M. Environmental variability affects optimal trade‐offs in ecological immunology. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Devin Kirk
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Megan Greischar
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Nicole Mideo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Martin Krkošek
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
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Tobias ZJC, Fowler AE, Blakeslee AMH, Darling JA, Torchin ME, Miller AW, Ruiz GM, Tepolt CK. Invasion history shapes host transcriptomic response to a body-snatching parasite. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:4321-4337. [PMID: 34162013 PMCID: PMC10128110 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
By shuffling biogeographical distributions, biological invasions can both disrupt long-standing associations between hosts and parasites and establish new ones. This creates natural experiments with which to study the ecology and evolution of host-parasite interactions. In estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico, the white-fingered mud crab (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) is infected by a native parasitic barnacle, Loxothylacus panopaei (Rhizocephala), which manipulates host physiology and behaviour. In the 1960s, L. panopaei was introduced to the Chesapeake Bay and has since expanded along the southeastern Atlantic coast, while host populations in the northeast have so far been spared. We use this system to test the host's transcriptomic response to parasitic infection and investigate how this response varies with the parasite's invasion history, comparing populations representing (i) long-term sympatry between host and parasite, (ii) new associations where the parasite has invaded during the last 60 years and (iii) naïve hosts without prior exposure. A comparison of parasitized and control crabs revealed a core response, with widespread downregulation of transcripts involved in immunity and moulting. The transcriptional response differed between hosts from the parasite's native range and where it is absent, consistent with previous observations of increased susceptibility in populations lacking exposure to the parasite. Crabs from the parasite's introduced range, where prevalence is highest, displayed the most dissimilar response, possibly reflecting immune priming. These results provide molecular evidence for parasitic manipulation of host phenotype and the role of gene regulation in mediating host-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary J C Tobias
- MIT-WHOI Joint Program in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science and Engineering, Cambridge and Woods Hole, MA, USA.,Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA.,Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Amy E Fowler
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | | | - John A Darling
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Mark E Torchin
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Republic of Panama
| | | | - Gregory M Ruiz
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
| | - Carolyn K Tepolt
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA.,Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
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Bekkering S, Domínguez-Andrés J, Joosten LAB, Riksen NP, Netea MG. Trained Immunity: Reprogramming Innate Immunity in Health and Disease. Annu Rev Immunol 2021; 39:667-693. [PMID: 33637018 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-102119-073855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, the innate and adaptive immune systems are differentiated by their specificity and memory capacity. In recent years, however, this paradigm has shifted: Cells of the innate immune system appear to be able to gain memory characteristics after transient stimulation, resulting in an enhanced response upon secondary challenge. This phenomenon has been called trained immunity. Trained immunity is characterized by nonspecific increased responsiveness, mediated via extensive metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming. Trained immunity explains the heterologous effects of vaccines, which result in increased protection against secondary infections. However, in chronic inflammatory conditions, trained immunity can induce maladaptive effects and contribute to hyperinflammation and progression of cardiovascular disease, autoinflammatory syndromes, and neuroinflammation. In this review we summarize the current state of the field of trained immunity, its mechanisms, and its roles in both health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siroon Bekkering
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands; , ,
| | - Jorge Domínguez-Andrés
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands; , ,
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands; , , .,Department of Medical Genetics, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Niels P Riksen
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands; , ,
| | - Mihai G Netea
- Department of Internal Medicine and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, Netherlands; , , .,Department of Genomics and Immunoregulation, Life and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany;
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35
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Municio C, Criado G. Therapies Targeting Trained Immune Cells in Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases. Front Immunol 2021; 11:631743. [PMID: 33569065 PMCID: PMC7868395 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.631743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of trained immunity has recently emerged as a mechanism contributing to several immune mediated inflammatory conditions. Trained immunity is defined by the immunological memory developed in innate immune cells after a primary non-specific stimulus that, in turn, promotes a heightened inflammatory response upon a secondary challenge. The most characteristic changes associated to this process involve the rewiring of cell metabolism and epigenetic reprogramming. Under physiological conditions, the role of trained immune cells ensures a prompt response. This action is limited by effective resolution of inflammation and tissue repair in order to restore homeostasis. However, unrestrained activation of innate immune cells contributes to the development of chronic inflammation and tissue destruction through the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, proteases and growth factors. Therefore, interventions aimed at reversing the changes induced by trained immunity provide potential therapeutic approaches to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We review cellular approaches that target metabolism and the epigenetic reprogramming of dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, and other trained cells in the context of autoimmune inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Municio
- Grupo de Enfermedades Inflamatorias y Autoinmunes, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gabriel Criado
- Grupo de Enfermedades Inflamatorias y Autoinmunes, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Madrid, Spain
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36
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Jehan C, Sabarly C, Rigaud T, Moret Y. Late-life reproduction in an insect: Terminal investment, reproductive restraint or senescence. J Anim Ecol 2020; 90:282-297. [PMID: 33051872 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The terminal investment, reproductive restraint or senescence theories may explain individual late-life patterns of reproduction. The terminal investment hypothesis predicts that individuals increase reproductive allocation late in life as prospects for future survival decrease. The other two hypotheses predict reduced reproduction late in life, but for different reasons. Under the Reproductive Restraint hypothesis, individuals restrain their reproductive effort to sustain future survival and gain more time for reproducing, whereas under the Senescence process, reproduction is constrained because of somatic deterioration. While these hypotheses imply that reproduction is costly, they should have contrasted implications in terms of survival after late reproduction and somatic maintenance. Testing these hypotheses requires proper consideration of the effects of age-dependent reproductive effort on post-reproduction survival and age-related somatic functions. We experimentally tested these three hypotheses in females of the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor, an iteroparous and income breeder insect. We manipulated their age-specific allocation into reproduction and observed the effects of this manipulation on their late-life fecundity, post-reproduction survival and immunocompetence as a measurement of somatic protection. We found that females exhibit age-related decline in fecundity and that this reproductive senescence is accelerated by a cost of early reproduction. The cost of reproduction had no significant effect on female longevity and their ability to survive a bacterial infection, despite that some immune cells were depleted by reproduction. We found that female post-infection survival deteriorated with age, which could be partly explained by a decline in some immune parameters. Importantly, females did not increase their reproductive effort late in life at the expense of their late-life post-reproduction survival. Late-life reproduction in T. molitor females is senescing and not consistent with a terminal investment strategy. Rather, our results suggest that females allocate resources according to a priority scheme favouring longevity at the expense of reproduction, which is in line with the reproductive restraint hypothesis. Such a priority scheme also shows that a relatively short-lived insect can evolve life-history strategies hitherto known only in long-lived animals. This puts in perspective the role of longevity in the evolution of life-history strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charly Jehan
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Camille Sabarly
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Thierry Rigaud
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Yannick Moret
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
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Kolodny O, Berger M, Feldman MW, Ram Y. A new perspective for mitigation of SARS-CoV-2 infection: priming the innate immune system for viral attack. Open Biol 2020; 10:200138. [PMID: 36416599 PMCID: PMC7574546 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The course of infection by SARS-CoV-2 frequently includes a long asymptomatic period, followed in some individuals by an immune dysregulation period that may lead to complications and immunopathology-induced death. This course of disease suggests that the virus often evades detection by the innate immune system. We suggest a novel therapeutic approach to mitigate the infection's severity, probability of complications and duration. We propose that priming an individual's innate immune system for viral attack shortly before it is expected to occur may allow pre-activation of the preferable trajectory of immune response, leading to early detection of the virus. Priming can be carried out, for example, by administering a standard vaccine or another reagent that elicits a broad anti-viral innate immune response. By the time that the expected SARS-CoV-2 infection occurs, activation cascades will have been put in motion and levels of immune factors needed to combat the infection will have been elevated. The infection would thus be cleared faster and with less complication than otherwise, alleviating adverse clinical outcomes at the individual level. Moreover, priming may also mitigate population-level risk by reducing need for hospitalizations and decreasing the infectious period of individuals, thus slowing the spread and reducing the impact of the epidemic. In view of the latter consideration, our proposal may have a significant epidemiological impact even if applied primarily to low-risk individuals, such as young adults, who often show mild symptoms or none, by shortening the period during which they unknowingly infect others. The proposed view is, at this time, an unproven hypothesis. Although supported by robust bio-medical reasoning and multiple lines of evidence, carefully designed clinical trials are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Kolodny
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401 Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Michael Berger
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology and Cancer Research, Institute of Medical Research Israel-Canada, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem–Hadassah Medical School, Israel
| | | | - Yoav Ram
- School of Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel
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Kelly CD, Adam-Granger É. Mating with sexually attractive males provides female Gryllus firmus field crickets with direct but not indirect fitness benefits. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02859-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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39
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Powers JC, Turangan R, Joosse BA, Hillyer JF. Adult Mosquitoes Infected with Bacteria Early in Life Have Stronger Antimicrobial Responses and More Hemocytes after Reinfection Later in Life. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11060331. [PMID: 32481519 PMCID: PMC7349202 DOI: 10.3390/insects11060331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The immunological strategies employed by insects to overcome infection vary with the type of infection and may change with experience. We investigated how a bacterial infection in the hemocoel of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, prepares the immune system to face a subsequent bacterial infection. For this, adult female mosquitoes were separated into three groups—unmanipulated, injured, or infected with Escherichia coli—and five days later all the mosquitoes were infected with a different strain of E. coli. We found that an injury or a bacterial infection early in life enhances the ability of mosquitoes to kill bacteria later in life. This protection results in higher mosquito survival and is associated with an increased hemocyte density, altered phagocytic activity by individual hemocytes, and the increased expression of nitric oxide synthase and perhaps prophenoloxidase 6. Protection from a second infection likely occurs because of heightened immune awareness due to an already existing infection instead of memory arising from an earlier, cured infection. This study highlights the dynamic nature of the mosquito immune response and how one infection prepares mosquitoes to survive a subsequent infection.
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Vargas V, Cime-Castillo J, Lanz-Mendoza H. Immune priming with inactive dengue virus during the larval stage of Aedes aegypti protects against the infection in adult mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6723. [PMID: 32317699 PMCID: PMC7174395 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-63402-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies have observed that the immune response in insects can be conserved, a phenomenon known as immune priming, which has been mostly tested in adult stages. However, it is unknown if induction of immune priming in larval stages protects against dengue virus (DENV) infections in adult mosquitoes. In this work, we primed larval instar 3rd of Aedes aegypti with inactive dengue virus, producing adult mosquitoes with i) an enhanced antiviral-immune response; ii) a reduction in the load and replication of RNA of dengue virus (DENV); iii) a decline in viral infective particles production. Adult mosquitoes previously primed during larval stages over-expressed RNA interference (RNAi) markers Argonaute-2 (AGO-2) and Dicer-2 (DCR-2). We also observed inter-individual variations of DENV infection in adult mosquitoes, indicating a heterogeneous response to DENV infection in the same mosquito strain. However, mosquitoes primed during larval stages appear to control the infection, reducing the viral load. The over-expression of interferon-like factors (VAGO) and AGO-2 in the pupa stage suggests a fast activation of antiviral mechanisms after immune priming in larvae, creating a condition in which adult mosquitoes are resistant to the pathogen in the posterior exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Vargas
- National Institute of Public Health, Center for Research on Infectious Diseases, Santa María Ahuacatitlán, Cuernavaca, 62100, Morelos, Mexico.,Postgraduate in Biological Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Av. Ciudad Universitaria 3000, Coyoacán, C.P. 04510, Mexico
| | - Jorge Cime-Castillo
- National Institute of Public Health, Center for Research on Infectious Diseases, Santa María Ahuacatitlán, Cuernavaca, 62100, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Humberto Lanz-Mendoza
- National Institute of Public Health, Center for Research on Infectious Diseases, Santa María Ahuacatitlán, Cuernavaca, 62100, Morelos, Mexico.
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41
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A Sustained Immune Response Supports Long-Term Antiviral Immune Priming in the Pacific Oyster, Crassostrea gigas. mBio 2020; 11:mBio.02777-19. [PMID: 32156821 PMCID: PMC7064767 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02777-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, innate immune priming has been evidenced in many invertebrate phyla. If mechanistic models have been proposed, molecular studies aiming to substantiate these models have remained scarce. We reveal here the transcriptional signature associated with immune priming in the oyster Crassostrea gigas Oysters were fully protected against Ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1), a major oyster pathogen, after priming with poly(I·C), which mimics viral double-stranded RNA. Global analysis through RNA sequencing of oyster and viral genes after immune priming and viral infection revealed that poly(I·C) induces a strong antiviral response that impairs OsHV-1 replication. Protection is based on a sustained upregulation of immune genes, notably genes involved in the interferon pathway and apoptosis, which control subsequent viral infection. This persistent antiviral alert state remains active over 4 months and supports antiviral protection in the long term. This acquired resistance mechanism reinforces the molecular foundations of the sustained response model of immune priming. It further opens the way to applications (pseudovaccination) to cope with a recurrent disease that causes dramatic economic losses in the shellfish farming industry worldwide.IMPORTANCE In the last decade, important discoveries have shown that resistance to reinfection can be achieved without a functional adaptive immune system, introducing the concept of innate immune memory in invertebrates. However, this field has been constrained by the limited number of molecular mechanisms evidenced to support these phenomena. Taking advantage of an invertebrate species, the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), in which we evidenced one of the longest and most effective periods of protection against viral infection observed in an invertebrate, we provide the first comprehensive transcriptomic analysis of antiviral innate immune priming. We show that priming with poly(I·C) induced a massive upregulation of immune-related genes, which control subsequent viral infection, and it was maintained for over 4 months after priming. This acquired resistant mechanism reinforces the molecular foundations of the sustained response model of immune priming. It opens the way to pseudovaccination to prevent the recurrent diseases that currently afflict economically or ecologically important invertebrates.
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42
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Sharrock J, Sun JC. Innate immunological memory: from plants to animals. Curr Opin Immunol 2020; 62:69-78. [PMID: 31931432 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Immunological memory is defined by the ability of the host to recognise and mount a robust secondary response against a previously encountered pathogen. Classic immune memory is an evolutionary adaptation of the vertebrate immune system that has been attributed to adaptive lymphocytes, including T and B cells. In contrast, the innate immune system was known for its conserved, non-specific roles in rapid host defence, but historically was considered to be unable to generate memory. Recent studies have challenged our understanding of innate immunity and now provides a growing body of evidence for innate immune memory. However, in many species and in various cell types the underlying mechanisms of immune 'memory' formation remain poorly understood. The purpose of this review is to explore and summarise the emerging evidence for immunological 'memory' in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Sharrock
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, United States
| | - Joseph C Sun
- Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, United States; Department of Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, United States.
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Bordoni A, Tatini I, Puente Romero C, Perito B, Turillazzi S, Dapporto L. No evidence of queen immunisation despite transgenerational immunisation in Crematogaster scutellaris ants. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 120:103998. [PMID: 31843493 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Like vertebrates, invertebrates evolved acquired immunity based on memory-like mechanisms, known as immunisation. Immunisation and its transmission among individuals are phylogenetically ancestral and conserved characters that have been reported in different insect orders. Physiological mechanisms are still largely unknown, and the high variability in responses in different host-parasite systems led to different conclusions. In social insect species, the complex organisation of colonies further complicates the interpretation of the immune responses. In ants, it has been shown that the expression of immunisation depends on species, caste and physiological status of individuals. In this study, we investigate the occurrence of immunisation in queens of Crematogaster scutellaris ants using the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae as elicitor. Foundation in C. scutellaris is claustral and monogynic, allowing us to test the existence of the phenomenon in two distinct physiological conditions, corresponding to the claustral and colonial phases of queens. Queens and foundresses challenged with heavy doses of the pathogen showed higher mortality if previously exposed to light doses, indicating the absence of immunisation in our experimental settings. On the other hand, evidence of the trans-generational immunisation in the same host-parasite system has been recently found, where workers produced by queens exposed to light doses of M. anisopliae survived longer than those belonging to the control group. These results indicate that foundresses exposed to M. anisopliae can elicit an increased resistance in the offspring without providing themselves with a similar increased immune response and that immunisation and trans-generational immunisation are uncoupled phenomena in this host-parasite system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele Bordoni
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Irene Tatini
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Cristina Puente Romero
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Brunella Perito
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Stefano Turillazzi
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Leonardo Dapporto
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via madonna del piano 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.
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44
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Strauss AT, Hite JL, Civitello DJ, Shocket MS, Cáceres CE, Hall SR. Genotypic variation in parasite avoidance behaviour and other mechanistic, nonlinear components of transmission. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20192164. [PMID: 31744438 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Traditional epidemiological models assume that transmission increases proportionally to the density of parasites. However, empirical data frequently contradict this assumption. General yet mechanistic models can explain why transmission depends nonlinearly on parasite density and thereby identify potential defensive strategies of hosts. For example, hosts could decrease their exposure rates at higher parasite densities (via behavioural avoidance) or decrease their per-parasite susceptibility when encountering more parasites (e.g. via stronger immune responses). To illustrate, we fitted mechanistic transmission models to 19 genotypes of Daphnia dentifera hosts over gradients of the trophically acquired parasite, Metschnikowia bicuspidata. Exposure rate (foraging, F) frequently decreased with parasite density (Z), and per-parasite susceptibility (U) frequently decreased with parasite encounters (F × Z). Consequently, infection rates (F × U × Z) often peaked at intermediate parasite densities. Moreover, host genotypes varied substantially in these responses. Exposure rates remained constant for some genotypes but decreased sensitively with parasite density for others (up to 78%). Furthermore, genotypes with more sensitive foraging/exposure also foraged faster in the absence of parasites (suggesting 'fast and sensitive' versus 'slow and steady' strategies). These relationships suggest that high densities of parasites can inhibit transmission by decreasing exposure rates and/or per-parasite susceptibility, and identify several intriguing axes for the evolution of host defence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica L Hite
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401, USA
| | | | - Marta S Shocket
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401, USA
| | - Carla E Cáceres
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Spencer R Hall
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401, USA
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45
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Ferro K, Peuß R, Yang W, Rosenstiel P, Schulenburg H, Kurtz J. Experimental evolution of immunological specificity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:20598-20604. [PMID: 31548373 PMCID: PMC6789748 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1904828116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory and specificity are hallmarks of the adaptive immune system. Contrary to prior belief, innate immune systems can also provide forms of immune memory, such as immune priming in invertebrates and trained immunity in vertebrates. Immune priming can even be specific but differs remarkably in cellular and molecular functionality from the well-studied adaptive immune system of vertebrates. To date, it is unknown whether and how the level of specificity in immune priming can adapt during evolution in response to natural selection. We tested the evolution of priming specificity in an invertebrate model, the beetle Tribolium castaneum Using controlled evolution experiments, we selected beetles for either specific or unspecific immune priming toward the bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens, Lactococcus lactis, and 4 strains of the entomopathogen Bacillus thuringiensis After 14 generations of host selection, specificity of priming was not universally higher in the lines selected for specificity, but rather depended on the bacterium used for priming and challenge. The insect pathogen B. thuringiensis induced the strongest priming effect. Differences between the evolved populations were mirrored in the transcriptomic response, revealing involvement of immune, metabolic, and transcription-modifying genes. Finally, we demonstrate that the induction strength of a set of differentially expressed immune genes predicts the survival probability of the evolved lines upon infection. We conclude that high specificity of immune priming can evolve rapidly for certain bacteria, most likely due to changes in the regulation of immune genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Ferro
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85704
| | - Robert Peuß
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110
| | - Wentao Yang
- Zoological Institute, Kiel University, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Philip Rosenstiel
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Kiel University, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Hinrich Schulenburg
- Zoological Institute, Kiel University, 24118 Kiel, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Joachim Kurtz
- Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany;
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46
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Wang J, Yang B, Wang W, Song X, Jiang Q, Qiu L, Wang L, Song L. The Enhanced Immune Protection in Chinese Mitten Crab Eriocheir sinensis Against the Second Exposure to Bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2041. [PMID: 31555272 PMCID: PMC6722218 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidences suggest that the enhanced immune responses and increased protection against bacteria-induced mortality can be initiated after the primary exposure to various microbial communities and their components in various organisms including commercially valuable crustaceans. In the present study, the survival rate and immune responses of Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis were determined after an immune priming (IP) with formalin-killed Aeromonas hydrophila and an immune challenge (ICH) with the same but live pathogen (Ah group). A group in which the animals received a salt injection prior to challenge was maintained as control (Ns group). In the present study, it was shown that an IP with killed A. hydrophila can significantly protect the crabs against the ICH with a lethal dose of the live pathogen. The increased survival was associated with elevated rate and duration of phagocytosis. The antibacterial activity of the serum was significantly increased in Ah group compared to that in Ns group. Significant changes of phenoloxidase (PO) activities were also found between Ah and Ns group but not in Ah group between IP and ICH. No significant changes of lysozyme were found in Ah and NS group during the whole experiment except 3 h after IP. In addition, the levels of transcripts and protein of Dscam were increased in hemocytes of the crabs from Ah group. All the results suggested that a primary immune priming with a particular killed pathogen could induce an enhanced immunity in crabs when they were encountered secondly with the same live pathogen. The evidences of elevated immune protections in crabs would contribute to better understand the mechanism of immune priming in invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Wang
- Marine Science and Engineering College, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China.,Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Weilin Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China
| | - Xiaorui Song
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China
| | - Qiufen Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Limei Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China.,Dalian Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China
| | - Linsheng Song
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China.,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Marine Animal Immunology and Disease Control, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China
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47
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Vertyporokh L, Kordaczuk J, Mak P, Hułas-Stasiak M, Wojda I. Host-pathogen interactions upon the first and subsequent infection of Galleria mellonella with Candida albicans. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 117:103903. [PMID: 31233768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Insects are able to develop enhanced resistance in response to repeated infection. This phenomenon is called immune priming. In this work, so-called "primed" Galleria mellonella larvae were re-infected with a lethal dose of Candida albicans 48 h after injection of a non-lethal dose, while "non-primed" larvae were infected only with a lethal dose. The increased resistance of the primed larvae correlated with a slower rate of body colonisation by the fungus. Changes in the protein profiles were detected in the whole hemolymph of the primed insects. The analysis of low-molecular weight proteins and peptides obtained with the use of three different organic solvents and comparative quantitative HPLC analysis thereof showed that the primed larvae did not have higher amounts of any infection-inducible polypeptides than the non-primed larvae. Moreover, electrophoresis of low-molecular weight polypeptides revealed an even lower level of immune-induced peptides in the primed larvae than in the non-primed ones. Furthermore, the defence activity of larval hemolymph, i.e. the antifungal, antibacterial, and lysozyme-type activity, was up-regulated in the primed larvae at the time of re-infection and, consequently, at the early time points after the infection with the lethal dose. Twenty four hours after the infection, these parameters were equally high in the non-primed and primed larvae. Accordingly, at the time of the injection of the lethal dose, certain immune-inducible genes were up-regulated. However, 24 h after the infection with the lethal dose, their expression in both groups was incomparably higher than at the time of the infection and, in most cases, it was as high in the primed larvae as in the non-primed ones. We found that only anti yeast-like activity was enhanced 24 h after the re-infection. This correlated with results obtained by testing the priming effect in heterologous systems: the primed animals did not exhibit higher resistance to the other pathogens tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidiia Vertyporokh
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Kordaczuk
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Paweł Mak
- Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Hułas-Stasiak
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Comparative Anatomy and Anthropology, Lublin, Poland
| | - Iwona Wojda
- Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Immunobiology, Lublin, Poland.
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48
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Yi Y, Xu H, Li M, Wu G. RNA-seq profiles of putative genes involved in specific immune priming in Bombyx mori haemocytes. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 74:103921. [PMID: 31207402 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.103921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The immune system of many invertebrates, including insects, has been shown to comprise memory, or specific immune priming. However, knowledge of the molecular mechanisms especially the candidate immune-related genes mediated the specificity of the immune priming are still very scarce and fragmentary. We therefore used two closely related Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria (Photorhabdus luminescens TT01 and P. luminescens H06) as the priming agents and employed Illumina/Solexa platform to investigate the transcriptional changes of the haemocytes of Bombyx mori larvae after priming. RESULTS In total, 23.0 Gbp of sequence data and 153,331,564 reads were generated, representing 10,496 genes. Approximately 89% of the genes or sequenced reads could be aligned to the silkworm reference genome. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of PBS-vs-TT01 (up-regulated expression of TT01 relative to PBS), PBS-vs-H06 (up-regulated expression of H06 relative to PBS) and TT01-vs-H06 (up-regulated expression of H06 relative to TT01) were 707, 159 and 461 respectively. In addition, expression patterns of 25 selected DEGs derived from quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) were consistent with their transcript abundance changes obtained by transcriptomic analyses. The DEGs are mainly related to pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), signaling molecular, effector molecules, phagosome and spliceosome, indicating that they have participated in the regulation of the specific immune priming in the B. mori larvae. CONCLUSIONS The transcriptome profiling data sets from this study will provide valuable resources to better understand the molecular and biological mechanisms regulating the specificity of invertebrates' immune priming. All these will shed light on controlling insect pests or preventing epidemic of infectious diseases in economic invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhong Yi
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Zhongshan 528458, China
| | - Hui Xu
- Jingzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jingzhou 434000, China
| | - Mei Li
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Zhongshan Institute, Zhongshan 528402, China.
| | - Gongqing Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Zhongshan 528458, China.
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49
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Quinn SM, Cunningham K, Raverdeau M, Walsh RJ, Curham L, Malara A, Mills KHG. Anti-inflammatory Trained Immunity Mediated by Helminth Products Attenuates the Induction of T Cell-Mediated Autoimmune Disease. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1109. [PMID: 31178861 PMCID: PMC6537856 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have suggested that the innate immune system can display characteristics of immunological memory and this has been called “innate immune memory” or “trained immunity.” Certain fungal products have been shown to induce epigenetic imprinting on monocytes/macrophages that results in heightened inflammatory responses to subsequent stimuli. Here we report that innate immune cells can be trained to be more anti-inflammatory following exposure to products of a helminth pathogen. Macrophages trained in vitro with Fasciola hepatica total extract (FHTE) had enhanced IL-10 and IL-1RA, but reduced TNF production upon re-stimulation with FHTE or TLR ligands and this was reversed by inhibitors of DNA methylation. In contrast, macrophages trained with β-glucan or Bacillus Calmette–Guérin had enhanced TNF production upon re-stimulation with Pam3cys or LPS. Furthermore, FHTE-trained macrophages had enhanced expression of markers of alternative activated macrophages (AAM). Macrophages from mice treated with FHTE expressed markers of AAM and had heightened IL-10 and IL-1RA production in response to FHTE or TLR ligands and had suppressed TNF and IL-12p40 production. Macrophages from mice treated with FHTE had reduced APC function and inhibited IL-17 production and the encephalitogenic activity of T cells in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. In addition, mice pre-treated with FHTE were resistant to induction of EAE and this was associated with a significant reduction in IL-17-producing γδ and CD4 T cells infiltrating the CNS. Our findings reveal that cells of the innate immune system can be trained in vitro or in vivo to be more anti-inflammatory by exposure to helminth products and this protects mice against the induction of a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna M Quinn
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kyle Cunningham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Mathilde Raverdeau
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Robert J Walsh
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lucy Curham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Anna Malara
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kingston H G Mills
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Vigneron A, Jehan C, Rigaud T, Moret Y. Immune Defenses of a Beneficial Pest: The Mealworm Beetle, Tenebrio molitor. Front Physiol 2019; 10:138. [PMID: 30914960 PMCID: PMC6422893 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor, is currently considered as a pest when infesting stored grains or grain products. However, mealworms are now being promoted as a beneficial insect because their high nutrient content makes them a viable food source and because they are capable of degrading polystyrene and plastic waste. These attributes make T. molitor attractive for mass rearing, which may promote disease transmission within the insect colonies. Disease resistance is of paramount importance for both the control and the culture of mealworms, and several biotic and abiotic environmental factors affect the success of their anti-parasitic defenses, both positively and negatively. After providing a detailed description of T. molitor's anti-parasitic defenses, we review the main biotic and abiotic environmental factors that alter their presentation, and we discuss their implications for the purpose of controlling the development and health of this insect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Vigneron
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Charly Jehan
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Thierry Rigaud
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Yannick Moret
- UMR CNRS 6282 BioGéoSciences, Équipe Écologie Évolutive, Université Bourgogne-Franche Comté, Dijon, France
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