Band structure, phonon scattering, and the performance limit of single-walled carbon nanotube transistors

Understanding how junction resistances impact the conduction mechanism in nano-networks

Networks of nanowires, nanotubes, and nanosheets are important for many applications in printed electronics. However, the network conductivity and mobility are usually limited by the resistance between the particles, often referred to as the junction resistance. Minimising the junction resistance has proven to be challenging, partly because it is difficult to measure. Here, we develop a simple model for electrical conduction in networks of 1D or 2D nanomaterials that allows us to extract junction and nanoparticle resistances from particle-size-dependent DC network resistivity data. We find junction resistances in porous networks to scale with nanoparticle resistivity and vary from 5 Ω for silver nanosheets to 24 GΩ for WS2 nanosheets. Moreover, our model allows junction and nanoparticle resistances to be obtained simultaneously from AC impedance spectra of semiconducting nanosheet networks. Through our model, we use the impedance data to directly link the high mobility of aligned networks of electrochemically exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets (≈ 7 cm2 V-1 s-1) to low junction resistances of ∼2.3 MΩ. Temperature-dependent impedance measurements also allow us to comprehensively investigate transport mechanisms within the network and quantitatively differentiate intra-nanosheet phonon-limited bandlike transport from inter-nanosheet hopping.

Solution-processable low-voltage carbon nanotube field-effect transistors with high-krelaxor ferroelectric polymer gate insulator

Achieving energy-efficient and high-performance field-effect transistors (FETs) is one of the most important goals for future electronic devices. This paper reports semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube FETs (s-SWNT-FETs) with an optimized high-krelaxor ferroelectric insulator P(VDF-TrFE-CFE) thickness for low-voltage operation. The s-SWNT-FETs with an optimized thickness (∼800 nm) of the high-kinsulator exhibited the highest average mobility of 14.4 cm2V-1s-1at the drain voltage (ID) of 1 V, with a high current on/off ratio (Ion/off>105). The optimized device performance resulted from the suppressed gate leakage current (IG) and a sufficiently large capacitance (>50 nF cm-2) of the insulating layer. Despite the extremely high capacitance (>100 nF cm-2) of the insulating layer, an insufficient thickness (<450 nm) induces a highIG, leading to reducedIDand mobility of s-SWNT-FETs. Conversely, an overly thick insulator (>1200 nm) cannot introduce sufficient capacitance, resulting in limited device performance. The large capacitance and sufficient breakdown voltage of the insulating layer with an appropriate thickness significantly improved p-type performance. However, a reduced n-type performance was observed owing to the increased electron trap density caused by fluorine proportional to the insulator thickness. Hence, precise control of the insulator thickness is crucial for achieving low-voltage operation with enhanced s-SWNT-FET performance.

Band gap opening of metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes via noncovalent symmetry breaking

Covalent bonding interactions determine the energy-momentum (E-k) dispersion (band structure) of solid-state materials. Here, we show that noncovalent interactions can modulate the E-k dispersion near the Fermi level of a low-dimensional nanoscale conductor. We demonstrate that low energy band gaps may be opened in metallic carbon nanotubes through polymer wrapping of the nanotube surface at fixed helical periodicity. Electronic spectral, chiro-optic, potentiometric, electronic device, and work function data corroborate that the magnitude of band gap opening depends on the nature of the polymer electronic structure. Polymer dewrapping reverses the conducting-to-semiconducting phase transition, restoring the native metallic carbon nanotube electronic structure. These results address a long-standing challenge to develop carbon nanotube electronic structures that are not realized through disruption of π conjugation, and establish a roadmap for designing and tuning specialized semiconductors that feature band gaps on the order of a few hundred meV.

Ku-Band Mixers Based on Random-Oriented Carbon Nanotube Films

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are a type of nanomaterial that have excellent electrical properties such as high carrier mobility, high saturation velocity, and small inherent capacitance, showing great promise in radio frequency (RF) applications. Decades of development have been made mainly on cut-off frequency and amplification; however, frequency conversion for RF transceivers, such as CNT-based mixers, has been rarely reported. In this work, based on randomly oriented carbon nanotube films, we focused on exploring the frequency conversion capability of CNT-based RF mixers. CNT-based RF transistors were designed and fabricated with a gate length of 50 nm and gate width of 100 μm to obtain nearly 30 mA of total current and 34 mS of transconductance. The Champion RF transistor has demonstrated cut-off frequencies of 78 GHz and 60 GHz for fT and fmax, respectively. CNT-based mixers achieve high conversion gain from -11.4 dB to -17.5 dB at 10 to 15 GHz in the X and Ku bands. Additionally, linearity is achieved with an input third intercept (IIP3) of 18 dBm. It is worth noting that the results from this work have no matching technology or tuning instrument assistance, which lay the foundations for the application of Ku band transceivers integrated with CNT amplifiers.

Aligned Carbon Nanotubes-Based Radiofrequency Transistors for Amplitude Amplification and Frequency Conversion at Millimeter Wave Band

Aligned carbon nanotubes (ACNTs) have been considered as a promising candidate semiconductor with great potential in radiofrequency (RF) electronics due to their high carrier mobility/saturation velocity and small intrinsic capacitance. However, almost all of previously reported works focused on only the cutoff frequency, which is far from enough for practical RF application. In this work, given the speed advantage of ACNTs, we further explore amplitude amplification and frequency conversion capability of ACNTs based RF devices simultaneously, which are two basic functions in RF electronics. Considering there is no de-embedding process for amplification/conversion and reduction power loss, multifinger configuration RF transistors (still having current density around 1 mA/μm) were fabricated with cutoff frequency and maximum oscillation frequency exceeding 150 and 130 GHz, respectively. Based on dedicated ACNTs based RF FETs, we demonstrate almost 7 dB power gain (S₂₁) with over 40 GHz 3-dB bandwidth for amplification and from -12.7 to -17 dB of conversion gain with over 25 dBm IIP3 (input third-order intercept point) of linearity for conversion simultaneously operating at 30 GHz in millimeter wave (mmWave) band both without any tuning instruments and matching technology assistance. The performance achieved here is the best among all the nanomaterials at the mmWave band.

Enrichment of Large-Diameter Semiconducting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes by Conjugated Polymer-Assisted Separation

Semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (s-SWCNTs) with large diameters are highly desired in the construction of high performance optoelectronic devices. However, it is difficult to selectively prepare large-diameter s-SWCNTs since their structure and chemical stability are quite similar with their metallic counterparts. In this work, we use SWCNTs with large diameter as a raw material, conjugated polymer of regioregular poly-(3-dodecylthiophene) (rr-P3DDT) with long side chain as a wrapping agent to selectively separate large-diameter s-SWCNTs. It is found that s-SWCNTs with a diameter of ~1.9 nm are effectively enriched, which shows a clean surface. By using the sorted s-SWCNTs as a channel material, we constructed thin-film transistors showing charge-carrier mobilities higher than 10 cm² V^-1 s^-1 and on/off ratios higher than 10³.

Chirality-dependent electrical transport properties of carbon nanotubes obtained by experimental measurement

Establishing the relationship between the electrical transport properties of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and their structures is critical for the design of high-performance SWCNT-based electronic and optoelectronic devices. Here, we systematically investigated the effect of the chiral structures of SWCNTs on their electrical transport properties by measuring the performance of thin-film transistors constructed by eleven distinct (n, m) single-chirality SWCNT films. The results show that, even for SWCNTs with the same diameters but different chiral angles, the difference in the on-state current or carrier mobility could reach an order of magnitude. Further analysis indicates that the electrical transport properties of SWCNTs have strong type and family dependence. With increasing chiral angle for the same-family SWCNTs, Type I SWCNTs exhibit increasing on-state current and mobility, while Type II SWCNTs show the reverse trend. The differences in the electrical properties of the same-family SWCNTs with different chiralities can be attributed to their different electronic band structures, which determine the contact barrier between electrodes and SWCNTs, intrinsic resistance and intertube contact resistance. Our present findings provide an important physical basis for performance optimization and application expansion of SWCNT-based devices.

Single-chirality of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) through chromatography and its potential biological applications

Gel chromatography is used to separate single-chirality and selective-diameter SWCNTs. We also explore the use of photothermal therapy and biosensor applications based on single-chirality, selected-diameter, and unique geometric shape.

Probing Carrier Dynamics in sp3-Functionalized Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes with Time-Resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy

The controlled introduction of covalent sp³ defects into semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) gives rise to exciton localization and red-shifted near-infrared luminescence. The single-photon emission characteristics of these functionalized SWCNTs make them interesting candidates for electrically driven quantum light sources. However, the impact of sp³ defects on the carrier dynamics and charge transport in carbon nanotubes remains an open question. Here, we use ultrafast, time-resolved optical-pump terahertz-probe spectroscopy as a direct and quantitative technique to investigate the microscopic and temperature-dependent charge transport properties of pristine and functionalized (6,5) SWCNTs in dispersions and thin films. We find that sp³ functionalization increases charge carrier scattering, thus reducing the intra-nanotube carrier mobility. In combination with electrical measurements of SWCNT network field-effect transistors, these data enable us to distinguish between contributions of intra-nanotube band transport, sp³ defect scattering and inter-nanotube carrier hopping to the overall charge transport properties of nanotube networks.

Determination of the electronic transport in type separated carbon nanotubes thin films doped with gold nanocrystals

We report a systematic theoretical and experimental investigation on the electronic transport evolution in metallic and semiconducting carbon nanotubes thin films enriched by gold nanocrystals. We used an ultra-clean production method of both types of single-walled carbon nanotube thin films with/without gold nanocrystals, which were uniformly dispersed in the whole volume of the thin films, causing a modification of the doping level of the films (verified by Raman spectroscopy). We propose a modification of the electronic transport model with the additional high-temperature features that allow us to interpret the transport within a broader temperature range and that are related to the conductivity type of carbon nanotubes. Moreover, we demonstrate, that the proposed model is also working for thin films with the addition of gold nanocrystals, and only a change of the conductivity level of our samples is observed caused by modification of potential barriers between carbon nanotubes. We also find unusual behavior of doped metallic carbon nanotube thin film, which lowers its conductivity due to doping.

Carbon Nanotube Based Radio Frequency Transistors for K-Band Amplifiers

Owing to the combination of high carrier mobility and saturation velocity, low intrinsic capacitance, and excellent stability, the carbon nanotube (CNT) has been considered as a perfect semiconductor to construct radio frequency (RF) field-effect transistors (FETs) and circuits with an ultrahigh frequency band. However, the reported CNT RF FETs usually exhibited poor real performance indicated by the as-measured maximum oscillation frequency (f_max), and then the amplifiers, which are the most important and fundamental RF circuits, suffered from a low power gain and a low frequency band. In this work, we build RF transistors on solution-derived randomly orientated CNT films with improved quality and uniformity. The randomly orientated CNT film FETs exhibit the record as-measured maximum f_max of 90 GHz, demonstrating the potential for over 28 GHz (at least one-third of 90 GHz) 5G mmWave (frequency range 2) applications. Benefiting from the large-scale uniformity of CNT films, FETs are designed and fabricated with a large channel width to present low internal resistance for the standard 50 Ω impedance matching guide line, which is critical to construct an RF amplifier. Furthermore, we first demonstrate amplifiers with a maximum power gain up to 11 dB and output third-order intercept point (OIP3) of 15 dBm, both at the K-band, which represents the record of a CNT amplifier and is even comparable with a commercial amplifier based on III-V RF transistors.

Charge Transport in and Electroluminescence from sp3-Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Networks

The controlled covalent functionalization of semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with luminescent sp³ defects leads to additional narrow and tunable photoluminescence features in the near-infrared and even enables single-photon emission at room temperature, thus strongly expanding their application potential. However, the successful integration of sp³-functionalized SWCNTs in optoelectronic devices with efficient defect state electroluminescence not only requires control over their emission properties but also a detailed understanding of the impact of functionalization on their electrical performance, especially in dense networks. Here, we demonstrate ambipolar, light-emitting field-effect transistors based on networks of pristine and functionalized polymer-sorted (6,5) SWCNTs. We investigate the influence of sp³ defects on charge transport by employing electroluminescence and (charge-modulated) photoluminescence spectroscopy combined with temperature-dependent current-voltage measurements. We find that sp³-functionalized SWCNTs actively participate in charge transport within the network as mobile carriers efficiently sample the sp³ defects, which act as shallow trap states. While both hole and electron mobilities decrease with increasing degree of functionalization, the transistors remain fully operational, showing electroluminescence from the defect states that can be tuned by the defect density.

Nanowire-Enabled Bioelectronics

Bioelectronics explores the use of electronic devices for applications in signal transduction at their interfaces with biological systems. The miniaturization of the bioelectronic systems has enabled seamless integration at these interfaces and is providing new scientific and technological opportunities. In particular, nanowire-based devices can yield smaller sized and unique geometry detectors that are difficult to access with standard techniques, and thereby can provide advantages in sensitivity with reduced invasiveness. In this review, we focus on nanowire-enabled bioelectronics. First, we provide an overview of synthetic studies for designed growth of semiconductor nanowires of which structure and composition are controlled to enable key elements for bioelectronic devices. Second, we review nanowire field-effect transistor sensors for highly sensitive detection of biomolecules, their applications in diagnosis and drug discovery, and methods for sensitivity enhancement. We then turn to recent progress in nanowire-enabled studies of electrogenic cells, including cardiomyocytes and neurons. Representative advances in electrical recording using nanowire electronic devices for single cell measurements, cell network mapping, and three-dimensional recordings of synthetic and natural tissues, and in vivo brain mapping are highlighted. Finally, we overview the key challenges and opportunities of nanowires for fundamental research and translational applications.

Critical challenges and advances in the carbon nanotube-metal interface for next-generation electronics

Next-generation electronics can no longer solely rely on conventional materials; miniaturization of portable electronics is pushing Si-based semiconductors and metallic conductors to their operational limits, flexible displays will make common conductive metal oxide materials obsolete, and weight reduction requirement in the aerospace industry demands scientists to seek reliable low-density conductors. Excellent electrical and mechanical properties, coupled with low density, make carbon nanotubes (CNTs) attractive candidates for future electronics. However, translating these remarkable properties into commercial macroscale applications has been disappointing. To fully realize their great potential, CNTs need to be seamlessly incorporated into metallic structures or have to synergistically work alongside them which is still challenging. Here, we review the major challenges in CNT-metal systems that impede their application in electronic devices and highlight significant breakthroughs. A few key applications that can capitalize on CNT-metal structures are also discussed. We specifically focus on the interfacial interaction and materials science aspects of CNT-metal structures.

Charge and Thermoelectric Transport in Polymer-Sorted Semiconducting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Networks

Understanding the charge transport mechanisms in chirality-selected single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) networks and the influence of network parameters is essential for further advances of their optoelectronic and thermoelectric applications. Here, we report on charge density and temperature-dependent field-effect mobility and on-chip field-effect-modulated Seebeck coefficient measurements of polymer-sorted monochiral small-diameter (6,5) (0.76 nm) and mixed large-diameter SWCNT (1.17-1.55 nm) networks (plasma torch nanotubes, RN) with different network densities and length distributions. All untreated networks display balanced ambipolar transport and electron-hole symmetric Seebeck coefficients. We show that charge and thermoelectric transport in SWCNT networks can be modeled by the Boltzmann transport formalism, incorporating transport in heterogeneous media and fluctuation-induced tunneling. Considering the diameter-dependent one-dimensional density of states (DoS) of the SWCNTs composing the network, we can simulate the charge density and temperature-dependent Seebeck coefficients. Our simulations suggest that scattering in these networks cannot be described as simple one-dimensional acoustic and optical phonon scattering as for single SWCNTs. Instead the relaxation time is inversely proportional to energy (τ ∝ (E - E_C)^s, s = -1, E_C being the energy of the first van Hove singularity), presumably pointing toward the more two-dimensional character of scattering events and the necessity to include scattering at the SWCNT junctions. Finally, our observation of higher power factors in trap-free, 1,2,4,5-tetrakis(tetramethylguanidino)benzene-treated (6,5) networks than in the RN networks emphasizes the importance of chirality selection to tune the width of the DoS. To benefit from both higher intrinsic mobilities and a large thermally accessible DoS, we propose trap-free, narrow DoS distribution, large-diameter SWCNT networks for both electronic and thermoelectric applications.

Supramolecular Functionalization for Improving Thermoelectric Properties of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes-Small Organic Molecule Hybrids

Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNTs-P)-small organic molecule hybrid materials are promising candidates for achieving high thermoelectric (TE) performance. In this study, we synthesized rod-coil amphiphilic molecules, that is, tri(ethylene oxide) chain-attached bis(bithiophenyl)-terphenyl derivatives (1 and 2). Supramolecular functionalization of SWCNTs-P with 1 or 2 induced charge-transfer interactions between them. Improved TE properties of the supramolecular hybrids (SWCNTs-1 and SWCNTs-2) are attributed to increased charge-carrier concentration (electrical conductivity), interfacial phonon scattering (thermal conductivity), and energy difference between the transport and Fermi levels (E_Tr - E_F; Seebeck coefficient). SWCNTs-2 exhibited a ZT of 0.42 × 10^-2 at 300 K, which is 350% larger than that of SWCNTs-P. Furthermore, 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F₄TCNQ)-doped SWCNTs-2 showed the highest ZT value of 1.96 × 10^-2 at 300 K among SWCNTs-P/small organic molecule hybrids known until now. These results demonstrated that the supramolecular functionalization of SWCNTs-P with small organic molecules could be useful for enhancement of TE performance and applications in wearable/flexible thermoelectrics.

Conductive Biomaterials as Substrates for Neural Stem Cells Differentiation towards Neuronal Lineage Cells

The injuries and defects in the central nervous system are the causes of disability and death of an affected person. As of now, there are no clinically available methods to enhance neural structural regeneration and functional recovery of nerve injuries. Recently, some experimental studies claimed that the injuries in brain can be repaired by progenitor or neural stem cells located in the neurogenic sites of adult mammalian brain. Various attempts have been made to construct biomimetic physiological microenvironment for neural stem cells to control their ultimate fate. Conductive materials have been considered as one the best choices for nerve regeneration due to the capacity to mimic the microenvironment of stem cells and regulate the alignment, growth, and differentiation of neural stem cells. The review highlights the use of conductive biomaterials, e.g., polypyrrole, polyaniline, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), multi-walled carbon nanotubes, single-wall carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphite oxide, for controlling the neural stem cells activities in terms of proliferation and neuronal differentiation. The effects of conductive biomaterials in axon elongation and synapse formation for optimal repair of central nervous system injuries are also discussed.

Nonlinear Luttinger liquid plasmons in semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes

Interacting electrons confined in one dimension are generally described by the Luttinger liquid formalism, where the low-energy electronic dispersion is assumed to be linear and the resulting plasmonic excitations are non-interacting. Instead, a Luttinger liquid in one-dimensional materials with nonlinear electronic bands is expected to show strong plasmon-plasmon interactions, but an experimental demonstration of this behaviour has been lacking. Here, we combine infrared nano-imaging and electronic transport to investigate the behaviour of plasmonic excitations in semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes with carrier density controlled by electrostatic gating. We show that both the propagation velocity and the dynamic damping of plasmons can be tuned continuously, which is well captured by the nonlinear Luttinger liquid theory. These results contrast with the gate-independent plasmons observed in metallic nanotubes, as expected for a linear Luttinger liquid. Our findings provide an experimental demonstration of one-dimensional electron dynamics beyond the conventional linear Luttinger liquid paradigm and are important for understanding excited-state properties in one dimension.

Separation of Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes Using Conjugated Polymer Wrapping

In the past two decades, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have been explored for electronic applications because of their high charge carrier mobility, low-temperature solution processability and mechanical flexibility. Semiconducting SWNTs (s-SWNTs) are also considered an alternative to traditional silicon-based semiconductors. However, large-scale, as-produced SWNTs have poor solubility, and they are mixtures of metallic SWNTs (m-SWNTs) and s-SWNTs, which limits their practical applications. Conjugated polymer wrapping is a promising method to disperse and separate s-SWNTs, due to its high selectivity, high separation yield and simplicity of operation. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of the conjugated polymer wrapping method, and discuss possible separation mechanisms for s-SWNTs. We also discuss various parameters that may affect the selectivity and sorting yield. Finally, some electronic applications of polymer-sorted s-SWNTs are introduced. The aim of this review is to provide polymer chemist a basic concept of polymer based SWNT separation, as well as some polymer design strategies, influential factors and potential applications.

Guiding Charge Transport in Semiconducting Carbon Nanotube Networks by Local Optical Switching

Photoswitchable, ambipolar field-effect transistors (FETs) are fabricated with dense networks of polymer-sorted, semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in top-gate geometry with photochromic molecules mixed in the polymer matrix of the gate dielectric. Both hole and electron transport are strongly affected by the presence of spiropyran and its photoisomer merocyanine. A strong and persistent reduction of charge carrier mobilities and thus drain currents upon UV illumination (photoisomerization) and its recovery by annealing give these SWCNT transistors the basic properties of optical memory devices. Temperature-dependent mobility measurements and density functional theory calculations indicate scattering of charge carriers by the large dipoles of the merocyanine molecules and electron trapping by protonated merocyanine as the underlying mechanism. The direct dependence of carrier mobility on UV exposure is employed to pattern high- and low-resistance areas within the FET channel and thus to guide charge transport through the nanotube network along predefined paths with micrometer resolution. Near-infrared electroluminescence imaging enables the direct visualization of such patterned current pathways with good contrast. Elaborate mobility and thus current density patterns can be created by local optical switching, visualized and erased again by reverse isomerization through heating.

HOT Graphene and HOT Graphene Nanotubes: New Low Dimensional Semimetals and Semiconductors

We report a new graphene allotrope named HOT graphene containing carbon hexagons, octagons, and tetragons. A corresponding series of nanotubes are also constructed by rolling up the HOT graphene sheet. Ab initio calculations are performed on geometric and electronic structures of the HOT graphene and the HOT graphene nanotubes. Dirac cone and high Fermi velocity are achieved in a non-hexagonal structure of HOT graphene, implying that the honeycomb structure is not an indispensable condition for Dirac fermions to exist. HOT graphene nanotubes show distinctive electronic structures depending on their topology. The (0,1) n (n ≥ 3) HOT graphene nanotubes reveal the characteristics of semimetals, while the other set of nanotubes (1,0) n shows continuously adjustable band gaps (0~ 0.51 eV) with tube size. A competition between the curvature effect and the zone-folding approximation determines the band gaps of the (1,0) n nanotubes. Novel conversion between semimetallicity and semiconductivity arises in ultra-small tubes (radius < 4 Å, i.e., n < 3).

Carbon Nanotube Film-Based Radio Frequency Transistors with Maximum Oscillation Frequency above 100 GHz

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been considered a preferred channel material for constructing high-performance radio frequency (RF) transistors with outstanding current gain cutoff frequency (f_T) and power gain cutoff frequency (f_max) but the highest reported f_max is only 70 GHz. Here, we explore how good RF transistors based on solution-derived randomly oriented semiconducting CNT films, which are the most mature CNT materials for scalable fabrication of transistors and integrated circuits, can be achieved. Owing to the significantly reduced number of CNT/CNT junctions obtained by scaling the channel length down to below 100 nm, we realized RF field-effect transistors (FETs) with maximum transconductance G_m up to 0.38 mS/μm, which is the record among CNT-based RF FETs. After de-embedding the pad-induced capacitances and resistances, the CNT FETs with different gate lengths (L_g) exhibit f_T as high as 103 GHz (intrinsically 281 GHz) or f_max up to 107 GHz (intrinsically 190 GHz), which are the records among CNT-based RF FETs. In particular, the CNT FETs with an L_g of 50 nm present pad de-embedding f_T of 86 GHz and f_max of 85 GHz, and represent the best CNT RF transistor in terms of comprehensive performance to date. To demonstrate the actual high-speed and scalable fabrication of our CNT RF FETs, we fabricated CNT FET-based five-stage ring oscillators with oscillation frequencies above 5 GHz.

Study of field emission properties of pure graphene-CNT heterostructures connected via seamless interface

Vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have proven to be one of the best materials for use as an efficient field emitter. To further improve their efficiency as well as long-term use in practical devices, it is necessary to reduce the quantum resistance originating from the interface between electrode and emitters and the entanglement of the CNTs in a bundle texture. Thus, the incorporation of graphene at the bottom of CNT bundles via a seamless carbonaceous interface can easily solve this bottleneck. In this work we have demonstrated for the first time, growth and field emission properties of pure seamless graphene-CNT heterostructures and pure seamless graphene-vertically patterned oriented CNTs heterostructures (SGVCNTs) on Si/SiO₂ substrates in contrast to the bare CNT mats and few-layer graphene structures without using any tedious post transfer processes. It was observed that seamless SGVCNTs show better field emission performance in terms of higher current density (236 mA cm^-2), lowered turn-on field (0.45 V μm^-1) and threshold field (1.931 V μm^-1 @100 mA cm^-2), and improved field enhancement factor (β ∼ 41 315) which is improved ∼4 fold when compared to a bare CNT mat. The significant improvement of the field emission performance of SGVCNTs is mainly attributed to the low resistive seamless C-C covalent carbonaceous interface, the higher number of emitter sites and patterned vertical orientation that leads to long-term stability of the field emitter with minimal loss up to 32 h. This finding could provide an important solution for carbonaceous material based field emitters for real phase device applications.

Perovskite and Conjugated Polymer Wrapped Semiconducting Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Films for High-Performance Transistors and Phototransistors

Although organic-inorganic halide perovskites continue to generate considerable interest due to great potentials for various optoelectronic devices, there are some critical obstacles to practical applications, including lead toxicity, relatively low field-effect mobility, and strong hysteresis during operation. This paper proposes a universal approach to significantly improve mobility and operational stability with reduced dual-sweep hysteresis for perovskite-based thin film transistors (TFTs) by coupling low-dimensional lead-free perovskite material (C₆H₅C₂H₄NH₃)₂SnI₄ (hereafter abbreviated as (PEA)₂SnI₄) with embedded conjugated polymer wrapped semiconducting carbon nanotubes (semi-CNTs). In (PEA)₂SnI₄/semi-CNT hybrid TFTs, semi-CNTs can provide highway-like transport paths, enabling smoother carrier transport with less trapping and scattering. We also demonstrate the performance of (PEA)₂SnI₄/semi-CNT hybrid phototransistors with ultrahigh photoresponsivity ( R) of 6.3 × 10⁴ A/W and detectivity ( D*) of 1.12 × 10¹⁷ Jones, which is about 2 or 3 orders of magnitude higher than that of the best devices available to date. The results indicate promising potentials for solution-processed perovskite/semi-CNT hybrid platforms, and the developed strategy can be applied for high-performance perovskite nanomaterial optoelectronics.

Strong light-matter interactions: a new direction within chemistry

Strong light–matter coupling enables the possibility of changing the properties of molecules, without modifying their chemical structures, thus enabling a completely new way to study chemistry and explore materials.

It is possible to modify the chemical and physical properties of molecules, not only through chemical modifications but also by coupling molecules strongly to light. More intriguingly, strong coupling between molecules and light is possible even without the presence of a photon. The phenomenon that makes this possible is called vacuum fluctuations, which is the finite zero point energy of the quantized electromagnetic field inside an optical cavity. The light–matter coupling, which can be as large as 1 eV (100 kJ mol^–1), leads to the formation of new hybrid states, called polaritons. The formed hybrid states can be viewed as a linear combination of light (vacuum field) and matter (molecules), thus completely changing the energy landscape of the system. Using vacuum fluctuations, strong light–matter interactions have for instance been used to change chemical reactivity, charge conductivity, excited state relaxation pathways and rates of chemical reactions of organic molecules. In this review a brief history of the field is given, followed by a theoretical framework, methods of analysis, and a review of accomplishments. Finally, a personal reflection on the future perspectives and applications within this field is given.

Function-driven engineering of 1D carbon nanotubes and 0D carbon dots: mechanism, properties and applications

Metal-free carbonaceous nanomaterials have witnessed a renaissance of interest due to the surge in the realm of nanotechnology. Among myriads of carbon-based nanostructures with versatile dimensionality, one-dimensional (1D) carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and zero-dimensional (0D) carbon dots (CDs) have grown into a research frontier in the past few decades. With extraordinary mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties, CNTs are utilized in transparent displays, quantum wires, field emission transistors, aerospace materials, etc. Although CNTs possess diverse characteristics, their most attractive property is their unique photoluminescence. On the other hand, another growing family of carbonaceous nanomaterials, which is CDs, has drawn much research attention due to its cost-effectiveness, low toxicity, environmental friendliness, fluorescence, luminescence and simplicity to be synthesized and functionalized with surface passivation. Benefiting from these unprecedented properties, CDs have been widely employed in biosensing, bioimaging, nanomedicine, and catalysis. Herein, we have systematically presented the fascinating properties, preparation methods and multitudinous applications of CNTs and CDs (including graphene quantum dots). We will discuss how CNTs and CDs have emerged as auspicious nanomaterials for potential applications, especially in electronics, sensors, bioimaging, wearable devices, batteries, supercapacitors, catalysis and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Last but not least, this review is concluded with a summary, outlook and invigorating perspectives for future research horizons in this emerging platform of carbonaceous nanomaterials.

Configurable multifunctional integrated circuits based on carbon nanotube dual-material gate devices

Nanoelectronic devices with specifically designed structures for performance promotion or function expansion are of great interest, aiming for diversified advanced nanoelectronic systems. In this work, we report a dual-material gate (DMG) carbon nanotube (CNT) device with multiple functions, which can be configured either as a high-performance p-type field-effect transistor (FET) or a diode by changing the input manners of the device. When operating as a FET, the device exhibits a large current on/off ratio of more than 108 and a drain-induced barrier lowering of 97.3 mV V-1. When configured as a diode, the rectification ratio of the device can be greater than 105. We then demonstrate configurable analog and digital integrated circuits that are enabled by utilizing these devices. The configurability enables the realization of transformable functions in a single device or circuits, which gives future electronic systems the flexibility to adapt to the diverse requirements of their applications and/or ever-changing operating environments.

Probing photoresponse of aligned single-walled carbon nanotube doped ultrathin MoS2

We report a facile method to produce ultrathin molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) hybrids with polarized near-infrared (NIR) photoresponses, in which horizontally-aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are integrated with single- and few-layer MoS2 through a two-step chemical vapor deposition process. The photocurrent generation mechanisms in SWNT-MoS2 hybrids are systematically investigated through wavelength- and polarization-dependent scanning photocurrent measurements. When the incident photon energy is above the direct bandgap of MoS2, isotropic photocurrent signals are observed, which can be primarily attributed to the direct bandgap transition in MoS2. In contrast, if the incident photon energy in the NIR region is below the direct bandgap of MoS2, the maximum photocurrent response occurs when the incident light is polarized in the direction along the SWNTs, indicating that photocurrent signals mainly result from the anisotropic absorption of SWNTs. More importantly, these two-dimensional (2D) hybrid structures inherit the electrical transport properties from MoS2, displaying n-type characteristics at a zero gate voltage. These fundamental studies provide a new way to produce ultrathin MoS2 hybrids with inherited electrical properties and polarized NIR photoresponses, opening doors for engineering various 2D hybrid materials for future broadband optoelectronic applications.

Scalable Preparation of High-Density Semiconducting Carbon Nanotube Arrays for High-Performance Field-Effect Transistors

Although chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-grown carbon nanotube (CNT) arrays are considered ideal materials for constructing high-performance field-effect transistors (FETs) and integrated circuits (ICs), a significant gap remains between the required and achieved densities and purities of CNT arrays. Here, we develop a directional shrinking transfer method to realize up to 10-fold density amplification of CNT array films without introducing detectable damage or defects. In addition, the method improves the film uniformity while retaining the perfect alignment and high carrier mobility of 1600 cm² V^-1 s^-1 of CVD-grown CNT arrays. By combining the density amplification method with the thermocapillary flow method developed by Rogers et al., semiconducting CNT arrays with high densities and high qualities are obtained. High-performance FETs with a channel length of 200 nm are demonstrated using these high-density semiconducting CNT arrays, yielding a record-high on-state current density of 150 μA/μm, a peak transconductance of 80 μS/μm, and a current on/off ratio of more than 10⁴ among the CVD-grown CNT-based FETs.

Analysis of contact resistance in single-walled carbon nanotube channel and graphene electrodes in a thin film transistor

In this work, we present the experimental investigation on the contact resistance of graphene/single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) junction using transfer length method with the simple equivalent circuit model. We find that p-n like junctions are formed in graphene/SWCNT transistors, and the contact resistance in the junction is observed to be ~ 494 and ~ 617 kΩ in case of metallic SWCNT (m-SWCNT) and semiconducting SWCNT (s-SWCNT), respectively. In addition, the contact resistance increases from 617 to 2316 kΩ as V_g increases from - 30 to - 10 V. Through our study, high carrier density induced from doping in both graphene and SWCNT leads to low contact resistance. This development of contact engineering, namely modulation of carrier density in the junction and contact length (L_con) scaling shows the potential for all-carbon based electronics.

Recent Developments in Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Thin Films Fabricated by Dry Floating Catalyst Chemical Vapor Deposition

Transparent conducting films (TCFs) are critical components of many optoelectronic devices that pervade modern technology. Due to their excellent optoelectronic properties and flexibility, single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) films are regarded as an important alternative to doped metal oxides or brittle and expensive ceramic materials. Compared with liquid-phase processing, the dry floating catalyst chemical vapor deposition (FCCVD) method without dispersion of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in solution is more direct and simpler. By overcoming the tradeoff between CNT length and solubility during film fabrication, the dry FCCVD method enables production of films that contain longer CNTs and offer excellent optoelectronic properties. This review focuses on fabrication of SWNT films using the dry FCCVD method, covering SWNT synthesis, thin-film fabrication and performance regulation, the morphology of SWNTs and bundles, transparency and conductivity characteristics, random bundle films, patterned films, individual CNT networks, and various applications, especially as TCFs in touch displays. Films based on SWNTs produced by the dry FCCVD method are already commercially available for application in touch display devices. Further research on the dry FCCVD method could advance development of not only industrial applications of CNTs but also the fundamental science of related nanostructured materials and nanodevices.

Designing hybrid gate dielectric for fully printing high-performance carbon nanotube thin film transistors

The electrical characteristics of carbon nanotube (CNT) thin-film transistors (TFTs) strongly depend on the properties of the gate dielectric that is in direct contact with the semiconducting CNT channel materials. Here, we systematically investigated the dielectric effects on the electrical characteristics of fully printed semiconducting CNT-TFTs by introducing the organic dielectrics of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) to modify SiO₂ dielectric. The results showed that the organic-modified SiO₂ dielectric formed a favorable interface for the efficient charge transport in s-SWCNT-TFTs. Compared to single-layer SiO₂ dielectric, the use of organic-inorganic hybrid bilayer dielectrics dramatically improved the performances of SWCNT-TFTs such as mobility, threshold voltage, hysteresis and on/off ratio due to the suppress of charge scattering, gate leakage current and charge trapping. The transport mechanism is related that the dielectric with few charge trapping provided efficient percolation pathways for charge carriers, while reduced the charge scattering. High density of charge traps which could directly act as physical transport barriers and significantly restrict the charge carrier transport and, thus, result in decreased mobile carriers and low device performance. Moreover, the gate leakage phenomenon is caused by conduction through charge traps. So, as a component of TFTs, the gate dielectric is of crucial importance to the manufacture of high quality TFTs from the aspects of affecting the gate leakage current and device operation voltage, as well as the charge carrier transport. Interestingly, the OTS-modified SiO₂ allows to directly print horizontally aligned CNT film, and the corresponding devices exhibited a higher mobility than that of the devices with the hybrid PMMA/SiO₂ dielectric although the thickness of OTS layer is only ∼2.5 nm. Our present result may provide key guidance for the further development of printed nanomaterial electronics.

Carrier photogeneration, drift and recombination in a semiconducting carbon nanotube network

Charge carrier photogeneration, drift and recombination in thin film networks of polymer-wrapped (6,5)-single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) blended with phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) have been investigated by using transient photocurrent and time-delayed collection field (TDCF) techniques. Three distinct transient photocurrent components on the nano- and microsecond timescales have been identified. We attribute the dominant (>50% of total extracted charge) ultrashort photocurrent component with a decay time below our experimental time-resolution of 2 ns to the intratube hole motion. The second component on the few microsecond timescale is attributed to the intertube hole transfer, while the slowest component is assigned to the electron drift within the PCBM phase. The hole drift distance appears to be limited by gaps in the nanotube percolation network rather than by hole trapping or recombination. Photocurrent saturation was observed when excitation densities reached more than one charge pair per nanotube; we attribute this to the local electric field screening.

Investigating Limiting Factors in Stretchable All-Carbon Transistors for Reliable Stretchable Electronics

Stretchable form factors enable electronic devices to conform to irregular 3D structures, including soft and moving entities. Intrinsically stretchable devices have potential advantages of high surface coverage of active devices, improved durability, and reduced processing costs. This work describes intrinsically stretchable transistors composed of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) electrodes and semiconductors and a dielectric that consists of a nonpolar elastomer. The use of a nonpolar elastomer dielectric enabled hysteresis-free device characteristics. Compared to devices on SiO₂ dielectrics, stretchable devices with nonpolar dielectrics showed lower mobility in ambient conditions because of the absence of doping from water. The effect of a SWNT band gap on device characteristics was investigated by using different SWNT sources as the semiconductor. Large-band-gap SWNTs exhibited trap-limited behavior caused by the low capacitance of the dielectric. In contrast, high-current devices based on SWNTs with smaller band gaps were more limited by contact resistance. Of the tested SWNT sources, SWNTs with a maximum diameter of 1.5 nm performed the best, with a mobility of 15.4 cm²/Vs and an on/off ratio >10³ for stretchable transistors. Large-band-gap devices showed increased sensitivity to strain because of a pronounced dependence on the dielectric thickness, whereas contact-limited devices showed substantially less strain dependence.

Scaling down contact length in complementary carbon nanotube field-effect transistors

We performed an experimental investigation on contact length (L_c) scaling of carbon nanotube (CNT) complementary field-effect transistors (FETs). Contact resistances of Sc-contacted (for n-type) and Pd-contacted (for p-type) CNT FETs are respectively retrieved based on the experimental data through the transfer length method (TLM). The performance of L_c scaling of Sc/CNT is proved to be comparable to that of the Pd/CNT contact with L_c larger than approximately 40 nm, but it degrades sharply when further scaling down L_c mainly owing to the surface oxidation of the Sc film. After decoupling the effect of oxide thickness, the intrinsic contact scaling behavior of Sc-contacted CNT FETs is found to be as good as that of the Pd-contacted ones, which can further satisfy the requirement of developing complementary CNT FET technology scaled down to the 14 nm node.

Universal Selective Dispersion of Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes from Commercial Sources Using a Supramolecular Polymer

Selective extraction of semiconducting carbon nanotubes is a key step in the production of high-performance, solution-processed electronics. Here, we describe the ability of a supramolecular sorting polymer to selectively disperse semiconducting carbon nanotubes from five commercial sources with diameters ranging from 0.7 to 2.2 nm. The sorting purity of the largest-diameter nanotubes (1.4 to 2.2 nm; from Tuball) was confirmed by short channel measurements to be 97.5%. Removing the sorting polymer by acid-induced disassembly increased the transistor mobility by 94 and 24% for medium-diameter and large-diameter carbon nanotubes, respectively. Among the tested single-walled nanotube sources, the highest transistor performance of 61 cm²/V·s and on/off ratio >10⁴ were realized with arc discharge carbon nanotubes with a diameter range from 1.2 to 1.7 nm. The length and quality of nanotubes sorted from different sources is compared using measurements from atomic force microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The transistor mobility is found to correlate with the G/D ratio extracted from the Raman spectra.

Carbon nanotube radio-frequency electronics

Carbon nanotube (CNT) is considered a promising material for radio-frequency (RF) applications, owing to its high carrier mobility and saturated drift velocity, as well as ultra-small intrinsic gate capacitance. Here, we review progress on CNT-based devices and integrated circuits for RF applications, including theoretical projection of RF performance of CNT-based devices, preparation of CNT materials, fabrication, optimization of RF field-effect transistors (FETs) structures, and ambipolar FET-based RF applications, and we outline challenges and prospects of CNT-based RF applications.

Simulation of carbon nanotube welding through Ar bombardment

Single-walled carbon nanotubes show promise as nanoscale transistors for nanocomputing applications. This use will require appropriate methods for creating electrical connections between distinct nanotubes, analogous to welding of metallic wires at larger length scales, but methods for performing nanoscale chemical welding are not yet sufficiently understood. This study examines the effect of Ar bombardment on the junction of two crossed single-walled carbon nanotubes, to understand the value and limitations of this method for generating connections between nanotubes. A geometric criterion was used to assess the quality of the junctions formed, with the goal of identifying the most productive conditions for experimental ion bombardment. In particular, the effects of nanotube chirality, Ar impact kinetic energy, impact particle flux and fluence, and annealing temperature were considered. The most productive bombardment conditions, leading to the most crosslinking of the tubes with the smallest loss of graphitic (i.e., conductive) character, were found to be at relatively mild impact energies (100 eV), with low flux and high-temperature (3000 K) annealing. Particularly noteworthy for experimental application, a high junction quality is maintained for a relatively broad range of fluences, from 3 × 10¹⁹ m^-2 to at least 1 × 10²⁰ m^-2.

Ultrahigh Carrier Mobility Achieved in Photoresponsive Hybrid Perovskite Films via Coupling with Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Organolead trihalide perovskites have drawn substantial interest for photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications due to their remarkable physical properties and low processing cost. However, perovskite thin films suffer from low carrier mobility as a result of their structural imperfections such as grain boundaries and pinholes, limiting their device performance and application potential. Here we demonstrate a simple and straightforward synthetic strategy based on coupling perovskite films with embedded single-walled carbon nanotubes. We are able to significantly enhance the hole and electron mobilities of the perovskite film to record-high values of 595.3 and 108.7 cm² V^-1 s^-1 , respectively. Such a synergistic effect can be harnessed to construct ambipolar phototransistors with an ultrahigh detectivity of 3.7 × 10¹⁴ Jones and a responsivity of 1 × 10⁴ A W^-1 , on a par with the best devices available to date. The perovskite/carbon nanotube hybrids should provide a platform that is highly desirable for fields as diverse as optoelectronics, solar energy conversion, and molecular sensing.

Development of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube-Based Biosensor for the Detection of Staphylococcus aureus

The goal of this research is to develop a single-walled carbon nanotube- (SWCNT-) based biosensor to detect Staphylococcus aureus. The specificity of 11 bacteria and polyclonal anti-Staphylococcus aureus antibodies (pAbs) was determined using an indirect ELISA. The pAbs were immobilized onto sensor platform after the hybridization of 1-pyrenebutanoic acid succinimidyl ester (PBASE). The resistance difference (ΔR) was calculated using a potentiostat. The bacteria detected by the biosensor were observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The optimum concentration of SWCNTs on the platform was determined to be 0.1 mg/mL. The binding of pAbs with S. aureus resulted in a significant increase in resistance value of the biosensor (P<0.05). The SEM images confirmed the specific binding of S. aureus on the biosensor. The SWCNT-based biosensor was able to detect S. aureus with a limit of detection (LOD) of 4 log⁡CFU/mL.

Functional Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes and Nanoengineered Networks for Organic- and Perovskite-Solar-Cell Applications

Carbon nanotubes have a variety of remarkable electronic and mechanical properties that, in principle, lend them to promising optoelectronic applications. However, the field has been plagued by heterogeneity in the distributions of synthesized tubes and uncontrolled bundling, both of which have prevented nanotubes from reaching their full potential. Here, a variety of recently demonstrated solution-processing avenues is presented, which may combat these challenges through manipulation of nanoscale structures. Recent advances in polymer-wrapping of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are shown, along with how the resulting nanostructures can selectively disperse tubes while also exploiting the favorable properties of the polymer, such as light-harvesting ability. New methods to controllably form nanoengineered SWNT networks with controlled nanotube placement are discussed. These nanoengineered networks decrease bundling, lower the percolation threshold, and enable a strong enhancement in charge conductivity compared to random networks, making them potentially attractive for optoelectronic applications. Finally, SWNT applications, to date, in organic and perovskite photovoltaics are reviewed, and insights as to how the aforementioned recent advancements can lead to improved device performance provided.

"Smart poisoning" of Co/SiO2 catalysts by sulfidation for chirality-selective synthesis of (9,8) single-walled carbon nanotubes

The chirality-selective synthesis of relatively large (diameter > 1 nm) single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) is of great interest for a variety of practical applications, but only a few catalysts are available so far. Previous studies suggested that S (compounds) can enhance the chirality-selectivity of Co catalysts in SWCNT synthesis, however, the mechanism behind is not fully understood, and no tailorable methodology has yet been developed. Here, we demonstrate a facile approach to achieve the chirality-selective synthesis of SWCNTs by the sulfidation-based poisoning of silica-supported Co catalysts using a mixture of H₂S and H₂. The UV-vis-NIR, photoluminescence, and Raman spectroscopy results together show that the resulting SWCNTs have a narrow diameter distribution of around 1.2 nm, and (9,8) nanotubes have an abundance of ∼38% among the semiconducting species. More importantly, the carbon yield achieved by the sulfided catalyst (2.5 wt%) is similar to that of the nonsulfided one (2.7 wt%). The characterization of the catalysts by X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, and H₂ temperature-programmed reduction shows that the sulfidation leads to the formation of Co₉S₈ nanoparticles. However, Co₉S₈ nanoparticles are reduced back to regenerate metallic Co nanoparticles during the synthesis of SWCNTs, which maintain a high carbon yield. In this process, Co₉S₈ nanoparticles seemingly intermediate the production of Co nanoparticles with narrow size distribution. Due to the fact that the poisoning step improves the quality of the end-product rather than hampering the growth process, we have coined the process developed as "smart poisoning". This study not only reveals the mechanism behind the beneficial role of S in the selective synthesis of relatively large SWCNTs but also presents a promising method to create chirality-selective catalysts with high activity for scalable synthesis.