Combining enhanced root and shoot growth reveals cross talk between pathways that control plant organ size in Arabidopsis

miRNAs and genes as molecular regulators of rice grain morphology and yield

Rice is one of the most consumed crops worldwide and the genetic and molecular basis of its grain yield attributes are well understood. Various studies have identified different yield-related parameters in rice that are regulated by the microRNAs (miRNAs). MiRNAs are endogenous small non-coding RNAs that silence gene expression during or after transcription. They control a variety of biological or genetic activities in plants including growth, development and response to stress. In this review, we have summarized the available information on the genetic control of panicle architecture and grain yield (number and morphology) in rice. The miRNA nodes that are associated with their regulation are also described while focussing on the central role of miR156-SPL node to highlight the co-regulation of two master regulators that determine the fate of panicle development. Since abiotic stresses are known to negatively affect yield, the impact of abiotic stress induced alterations on the levels of these miRNAs are also discussed to highlight the potential of miRNAs for regulating crop yields.

TOR coordinates cytokinin and gibberellin signals mediating development and defense

Plants constantly perceive and process environmental signals and balance between the energetic demands of growth and defense. Growth arrest upon pathogen attack was previously suggested to result from a redirection of the plants' metabolic resources towards the activation of plant defense. The energy sensor Target of Rapamycin (TOR) kinase is a conserved master coordinator of growth and development in all eukaryotes. Although TOR is positioned at the interface between development and defense, little is known about the mechanisms by which TOR may potentially regulate the relationship between these two modalities. The plant hormones cytokinin (CK) and gibberellin (GA) execute various aspects of plant development and defense. The ratio between CK and GA was reported to determine the outcome of developmental programmes. Here, investigating the interplay between TOR-mediated development and TOR-mediated defense in tomato, we found that TOR silencing resulted in rescue of several different aberrant developmental phenotypes, demonstrating that TOR is required for the execution of developmental cues. In parallel, TOR inhibition enhanced immunity in genotypes with a low CK/GA ratio but not in genotypes with a high CK/GA ratio. TOR-inhibition mediated disease resistance was found to depend on developmental status, and was abolished in strongly morphogenetic leaves, while being strongest in mature, differentiated leaves. CK repressed TOR activity, suggesting that CK-mediated immunity may rely on TOR downregulation. At the same time, TOR activity was promoted by GA, and TOR silencing reduced GA sensitivity, indicating that GA signalling requires normal TOR activity. Our results demonstrate that TOR likely acts in concert with CK and GA signalling, executing signalling cues in both defense and development. Thus, differential regulation of TOR or TOR-mediated processes could regulate the required outcome of development-defense prioritisation.

24-epibrassinolide improves cadmium tolerance and lateral root growth associated with regulating endogenous auxin and ethylene in Kentucky bluegrass

The application of phytohormones is a viable technique to increase the efficiency of phytoremediation in heavy metal-contaminated soils. The objective of this study was to determine how the application of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR), a brassinosteroid analog, could regulate root growth and tolerance to cadmium (Cd) stress in Kentucky bluegrass. As a result, the number of lateral root primordia and total root length in the Cd-treated seedlings decreased by 33.1 % and 56.5 %, respectively. After the application of EBR, Cd accumulation in roots and leaves, and the negative effect of Cd on root growth were reduced under Cd stress. Additionally, the expression of the brassinosteroid signaling gene PpBRI1 was significantly upregulated by exogenous EBR. Moreover, exogenous EBR upregulated the expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes and improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes, thereby reduced oxidative stress in roots. Finally, targeted hormonomics analysis highlighted the utility of the application of EBR to alleviate the effect of Cd on the reduction in auxin (IAA) content and the increase in ethylene (ACC) content. These were known to be associated with the upregulation in the expression of auxin biosynthesis gene PpYUCCA1 and downregulation in the expression of ethylene biosynthesis gene PpACO1 in the roots treated with Cd stress. Overall, the application of EBR alleviated Cd-induced oxidative stress in addition to improving root elongation and lateral root growth crosstalk with auxin and ethylene in Kentucky bluegrass subjected to Cd stress. This study further highlights the potential role of brassinosteroids in improving the efficiency of phytoremediation for Cd-contaminated soils.

Modifications of Phytohormone Metabolism Aimed at Stimulation of Plant Growth, Improving Their Productivity and Tolerance to Abiotic and Biotic Stress Factors

Due to the growing human population, the increase in crop yield is an important challenge for modern agriculture. As abiotic and biotic stresses cause severe losses in agriculture, it is also crucial to obtain varieties that are more tolerant to these factors. In the past, traditional breeding methods were used to obtain new varieties displaying demanded traits. Nowadays, genetic engineering is another available tool. An important direction of the research on genetically modified plants concerns the modification of phytohormone metabolism. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art research concerning the modulation of phytohormone content aimed at the stimulation of plant growth and the improvement of stress tolerance. It aims to provide a useful basis for developing new strategies for crop yield improvement by genetic engineering of phytohormone metabolism.

Genome-wide association study of traits in sacred lotus uncovers MITE-associated variants underlying stamen petaloid and petal number variations

Understanding the genetic variants responsible for floral trait diversity is important for the molecular breeding of ornamental flowers. Widely used in water gardening for thousands of years, the sacred lotus exhibits a wide range of diversity in floral organs. Nevertheless, the genetic variations underlying various morphological characteristics in lotus remain largely unclear. Here, we performed a genome-wide association study of sacred lotus for 12 well-recorded ornamental traits. Given a moderate linkage disequilibrium level of 32.9 kb, we successfully identified 149 candidate genes responsible for seven flower traits and plant size variations, including many pleiotropic genes affecting multiple floral-organ-related traits, such as NnKUP2. Notably, we found a 2.75-kb presence-and-absence genomic fragment significantly associated with stamen petaloid and petal number variations, which was further confirmed by re-examining another independent population dataset with petal number records. Intriguingly, this fragment carries MITE transposons bound by siRNAs and is related to the expression differentiation of a nearby candidate gene between few-petalled and double-petalled lotuses. Overall, these genetic variations and candidate genes responsible for diverse lotus traits revealed by our GWAS highlight the role of transposon variations, particularly MITEs, in shaping floral trait diversity.

Cytokinin drives assembly of the phyllosphere microbiome and promotes disease resistance through structural and chemical cues

The plant hormone cytokinin (CK) is an important developmental regulator, promoting morphogenesis and delaying differentiation and senescence. From developmental processes, to growth, to stress tolerance, CKs are central in plant life. CKs are also known to mediate plant immunity and disease resistance, and several classes of microbes can also produce CKs, affecting the interaction with their plant hosts. While host species and genotype can be a driving force in shaping the plant microbiome, how plant developmental hormones such as CK can shape the microbiome is largely uninvestigated. Here, we examined the relationship between CK and the phyllosphere microbiome, finding that CK acts as a selective force in microbiome assembly, increasing richness, and promoting the presence of Firmicutes. CK-mediated immunity was found to partially depend on the microbial community, and bacilli isolated from previously described CK-rich plant genotypes, which overexpress a CK biosynthesis gene or have increased CK sensitivity, induced plant immunity, and promoted disease resistance. Using a biomimetic system, we investigated the relationship between the leaf microstructure, which is differentially patterned upon changes in CK content or signaling, and the growth of different phyllosphere microbes. We found that leaf structures derived from CK-rich plant genotypes support bacilli in the biomimetic system. CK was able to promote the growth, swarming, and biofilm formation of immunity inducing bacillus isolates in vitro. Overall, our results indicate that host genotype and hormonal profiles can act as a strong selective force in microbiome assembly, underlying differential immunity profiles, and pathogen resistance as a result.

Proton-pumping pyrophosphatase homeolog expression is a dynamic trait in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Proton-pumping pyrophosphatases (H+-PPases) have been shown to enhance biomass and yield. However, to date, there has been little work towards identify genes encoding H+-PPases in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) (TaVPs) and limited knowledge on how the expression of these genes varies across different growth stages and tissue types. In this study, the IWGSC database was used to identify two novel TaVP genes, TaVP4 and TaVP5, and elucidate the complete homeolog sequences of the three known TaVP genes, bringing the total number of bread wheat TaVPs from 9 to 15. Gene expression levels of each TaVP homeolog were assessed using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) in four diverse wheat varieties in terms of phenotypic traits related to high vacuolar pyrophosphatase expression. Homeolog expression was analyzed across multiple tissue types and developmental stages. Expression levels of the TaVP homeologs were found to vary significantly between varieties, tissues and plant developmental stages. During early development (Z10 and Z13), expressions of TaVP1 and TaVP2 homeologs were higher in shoot tissue than root tissue, with both shoot and root expression increasing in later developmental stages (Z22). TaVP2-D was expressed in all varieties and tissue types and was the most highly expressed homeolog at all developmental stages. Expression of the TaVP3 homeologs was restricted to developing grain (Z75), while TaVP4 homeolog expression was higher at Z22 than earlier developmental stages. Variation in TaVP4B was detected among varieties at Z22 and Z75, with Buck Atlantico (high biomass) and Scout (elite Australian cultivar) having the highest levels of expression. These findings offer a comprehensive overview of the bread wheat H+-PPase family and identify variation in TaVP homeolog expression that will be of use to improve the growth, yield, and abiotic stress tolerance of bread wheat.

Root engineering in maize by increasing cytokinin degradation causes enhanced root growth and leaf mineral enrichment

Root-specific expression of a cytokinin-degrading CKX gene in maize roots causes formation of a larger root system leading to higher element content in shoot organs. The size and architecture of the root system is functionally relevant for the access to water and soil nutrients. A great number of mostly unknown genes are involved in regulating root architecture complicating targeted breeding of plants with a larger root system. Here, we have explored whether root-specific degradation of the hormone cytokinin, which is a negative regulator of root growth, can be used to genetically engineer maize (Zea mays L.) plants with a larger root system. Root-specific expression of a CYTOKININ OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE (CKX) gene of Arabidopsis caused the formation of up to 46% more root dry weight while shoot growth of these transgenic lines was similar as in non-transgenic control plants. The concentration of several elements, in particular of those with low soil mobility (K, P, Mo, Zn), was increased in leaves of transgenic lines. In kernels, the changes in concentration of most elements were less pronounced, but the concentrations of Cu, Mn and Zn were significantly increased in at least one of the three independent lines. Our data illustrate the potential of an increased root system as part of efforts towards achieving biofortification. Taken together, this work has shown that root-specific expression of a CKX gene can be used to engineer the root system of maize and alter shoot element composition.

The Hulks and the Deadpools of the Cytokinin Universe: A Dual Strategy for Cytokinin Production, Translocation, and Signal Transduction

Cytokinins are plant hormones, derivatives of adenine with a side chain at the N⁶-position. They are involved in many physiological processes. While the metabolism of trans-zeatin and isopentenyladenine, which are considered to be highly active cytokinins, has been extensively studied, there are others with less obvious functions, such as cis-zeatin, dihydrozeatin, and aromatic cytokinins, which have been comparatively neglected. To help explain this duality, we present a novel hypothesis metaphorically comparing various cytokinin forms, enzymes of CK metabolism, and their signalling and transporter functions to the comics superheroes Hulk and Deadpool. Hulk is a powerful but short-lived creation, whilst Deadpool presents a more subtle and enduring force. With this dual framework in mind, this review compares different cytokinin metabolites, and their biosynthesis, translocation, and sensing to illustrate the different mechanisms behind the two CK strategies. This is put together and applied to a plant developmental scale and, beyond plants, to interactions with organisms of other kingdoms, to highlight where future study can benefit the understanding of plant fitness and productivity.

Cytokinin regulates the activity of the inflorescence meristem and components of seed yield in oilseed rape

The number of flowers and seed-bearing structures formed by the inflorescence meristem and the formation of ovules in the female reproductive part of the flowers are important yield-related traits of crop plants. It has been shown that cytokinin is a pivotal factor regulating these traits. Here, we explore the impact of mutation of CYTOKININ OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE (CKX) genes encoding cytokinin-degrading enzymes on these yield-related traits in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). We describe the identification of four BnCKX3 and two BnCKX5 genes as regulators of reproductive development in the allotetraploid B. napus. RNA-seq analysis and in situ hybridization showed expression of these genes in reproductive organs. Loss-of-function mutants for each of these CKX gene copies were identified by targeting induced local lesions in genomes (TILLING) and combined by crossing. Sextuple ckx3 ckx5 mutants showed an increased cytokinin concentration and larger and more active inflorescence meristems. They also produced up to 72% more flowers with gynoecia containing 32% more ovules and up to 54% more pods on the main stem. The weight of seeds harvested from the main stem of plants grown in the greenhouse or in the field was increased by 20-32%. Our results show that cytokinin regulates inflorescence meristem and placenta activity in oilseed rape. The work demonstrates the potential to achieve yield enhancement in a dicot crop plant by modulating the cytokinin status through mutagenesis of specific CKX genes.

Identifying key regulatory genes of maize root growth and development by RNA sequencing

Root system architecture (RSA), the spatio-temporal configuration of roots, plays vital roles in maize (Zea mays L.) development and productivity. We sequenced the maize root transcriptome of four key growth and development stages: the 6th leaf stage, the 12th leaf stage, the tasseling stage and the milk-ripe stage. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected. 81 DEGs involved in plant hormone signal transduction pathway and 26 transcription factor (TF) genes were screened. These DEGs and TFs were predicted to be potential candidate genes during maize root growth and development. Several of these genes are homologous to well-known genes regulating root architecture or development in Arabidopsis or rice, such as, Zm00001d005892 (AtERF109), Zm00001d027925 (AtERF73/HRE1), Zm00001d047017 (AtMYC2, OsMYC2), Zm00001d039245 (AtWRKY6). Identification of these key genes will provide a further understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for maize root growth and development, it will be beneficial to increase maize production and improve stress resistance by altering RSA traits in modern breeding.

Same same, but different: growth responses of primary and lateral roots

The root system architecture describes the shape and spatial arrangement of roots within the soil. Its spatial distribution depends on growth and branching rates as well as directional organ growth. The embryonic primary root gives rise to lateral (secondary) roots, and the ratio of both root types changes over the life span of a plant. Most studies have focused on the growth of primary roots and the development of lateral root primordia. Comparably less is known about the growth regulation of secondary root organs. Here, we review similarities and differences between primary and lateral root organ growth, and emphasize particularly how external stimuli and internal signals differentially integrate root system growth.

Improved Yield and Photosynthate Partitioning in AVP1 Expressing Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Plants

A fundamental factor to improve crop productivity involves the optimization of reduced carbon translocation from source to sink tissues. Here, we present data consistent with the positive effect that the expression of the Arabidopsis thaliana H+-PPase (AVP1) has on reduced carbon partitioning and yield increases in wheat. Immunohistochemical localization of H+-PPases (TaVP) in spring wheat Bobwhite L. revealed the presence of this conserved enzyme in wheat vasculature and sink tissues. Of note, immunogold imaging showed a plasma membrane localization of TaVP in sieve element- companion cell complexes of Bobwhite source leaves. These data together with the distribution patterns of a fluorescent tracer and [U14C]-sucrose are consistent with an apoplasmic phloem-loading model in wheat. Interestingly, 14C-labeling experiments provided evidence for enhanced carbon partitioning between shoots and roots, and between flag leaves and milk stage kernels in AVP1 expressing Bobwhite lines. In keeping, there is a significant yield improvement triggered by the expression of AVP1 in these lines. Green house and field grown transgenic wheat expressing AVP1 also produced higher grain yield and number of seeds per plant, and exhibited an increase in root biomass when compared to null segregants. Another agriculturally desirable phenotype showed by AVP1 Bobwhite plants is a robust establishment of seedlings.

Overexpression of the Transcription Factor GROWTH-REGULATING FACTOR5 Improves Transformation of Dicot and Monocot Species

Successful regeneration of genetically modified plants from cell culture is highly dependent on the species, genotype, and tissue-type being targeted for transformation. Studies in some plant species have shown that when expression is altered, some genes regulating developmental processes are capable of triggering plant regeneration in a variety of plant cells and tissue-types previously identified as being recalcitrant to regeneration. In the present research, we report that developmental genes encoding GROWTH-REGULATING FACTORS positively enhance regeneration and transformation in both monocot and dicot species. In sugar beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris), ectopic expression of Arabidopsis GRF5 (AtGRF5) in callus cells accelerates shoot formation and dramatically increases transformation efficiency. More importantly, overexpression of AtGRF5 enables the production of stable transformants in recalcitrant sugar beet varieties. The introduction of AtGRF5 and GRF5 orthologs into canola (Brassica napus L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) results in significant increases in genetic transformation of the explant tissue. A positive effect on proliferation of transgenic callus cells in canola was observed upon overexpression of GRF5 genes and AtGRF6 and AtGRF9. In soybean and sunflower, the overexpression of GRF5 genes seems to increase the proliferation of transformed cells, promoting transgenic shoot formation. In addition, the transformation of two putative AtGRF5 orthologs in maize (Zea mays L.) significantly boosts transformation efficiency and resulted in fully fertile transgenic plants. Overall, the results suggest that overexpression of GRF genes render cells and tissues more competent to regeneration across a wide variety of crop species and regeneration processes. This sets GRFs apart from other developmental regulators and, therefore, they can potentially be applied to improve transformation of monocot and dicot plant species.

Wheat germ agglutinin is involved in the protective action of 24-epibrassinolide on the roots of wheat seedlings under drought conditions

The involvement of wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) in the protective action of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) against drought stress was studied in the seedling roots of two wheat cultivars differing in drought tolerance. Under dehydration conditions, the contents of ABA and WGA were shown to change significantly in the roots of either drought-tolerant cultivar Omskaya 35 or drought-sensitive cultivar Salavat Yulaev. Meanwhile, accumulation of either ABA or WGA started earlier and was two times greater in plants of drought-tolerant cultivar. Since WGA is an excreted protein, it is not surprising that the level of lectin in the roots gradually decreased by the 7th day of treatment due to its exudation into root environment. Pre-sowing treatment with EBR contributed to additional accumulation of lectin as compared to the control variants of either cultivar, while the hormone treatment did not change ABA content. Meanwhile, under conditions of drought, EBR-pretreated seedlings were characterized by lower level of accumulation of ABA and WGA in the roots. EBR application was found to prevent drought-induced inhibition of cell division in the root apical meristem, while WGA excreted into the root environment may contribute significantly to the effect.

Biotechnological strategies for improved photosynthesis in a future of elevated atmospheric CO2

The improvement of photosynthesis using biotechnological approaches has been the focus of much research. It is now vital that these strategies be assessed under future atmospheric conditions. The demand for crop products is expanding at an alarming rate due to population growth, enhanced affluence, increased per capita calorie consumption, and an escalating need for plant-based bioproducts. While solving this issue will undoubtedly involve a multifaceted approach, improving crop productivity will almost certainly provide one piece of the puzzle. The improvement of photosynthetic efficiency has been a long-standing goal of plant biotechnologists as possibly one of the last remaining means of achieving higher yielding crops. However, the vast majority of these studies have not taken into consideration possible outcomes when these plants are grown long-term under the elevated CO₂ concentrations (e[CO₂]) that will be evident in the not too distant future. Due to the considerable effect that CO₂ levels have on the photosynthetic process, these assessments should become commonplace as a means of ensuring that research in this field focuses on the most effective approaches for our future climate scenarios. In this review, we discuss the main biotechnological research strategies that are currently underway with the aim of improving photosynthetic efficiency and biomass production/yields in the context of a future of e[CO₂], as well as alternative approaches that may provide further photosynthetic benefits under these conditions.

Integrated transcriptome, small RNA, and degradome analysis reveals the complex network regulating starch biosynthesis in maize

Background

Starch biosynthesis in endosperm is a key process influencing grain yield and quality in maize. Although a number of starch biosynthetic genes have been well characterized, the mechanisms by which the expression of these genes is regulated, especially in regard to microRNAs (miRNAs), remain largely unclear.

Results

Sequence data for small RNAs, degradome, and transcriptome of maize endosperm at 15 and 25 d after pollination (DAP) from inbred lines Mo17 and Ji419, which exhibit distinct starch content and starch granule structure, revealed the mediation of starch biosynthetic pathways by miRNAs. Transcriptome analysis of these two lines indicated that 33 of 40 starch biosynthetic genes were differentially expressed, of which 12 were up-regulated in Ji419 at 15 DAP, one was up-regulated in Ji419 at 25 DAP, 14 were up-regulated in Ji419 at both 15 and 25 DAP, one was down-regulated in Ji419 at 15 DAP, two were down-regulated in Ji419 at 25 DAP, and three were up-regulated in Ji419 at 15 DAP and down-regulated in Ji419 at 25 DAP, compared with Mo17. Through combined analyses of small RNA and degradome sequences, 22 differentially expressed miRNAs were identified, including 14 known and eight previously unknown miRNAs that could target 35 genes. Furthermore, a complex co-expression regulatory network was constructed, in which 19 miRNAs could modulate starch biosynthesis in endosperm by tuning the expression of 19 target genes. Moreover, the potential operation of four miRNA-mediated pathways involving transcription factors, miR169a-NF-YA1-GBSSI/SSIIIa and miR169o-GATA9-SSIIIa/SBEIIb, was validated via analyses of expression pattern, transient transformation assays, and transactivation assays.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that miRNAs play a critical role in starch biosynthesis in endosperm, and that miRNA-mediated networks could modulate starch biosynthesis in this tissue. These results have provided important insights into the molecular mechanism of starch biosynthesis in developing maize endosperm.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5945-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Root enhancement in cytokinin-deficient oilseed rape causes leaf mineral enrichment, increases the chlorophyll concentration under nutrient limitation and enhances the phytoremediation capacity

BACKGROUND

Cytokinin is a negative regulator of root growth, and a reduction of the cytokinin content or signalling causes the formation a larger root system in model plants, improves their growth under drought and nutrient limitation and causes increased accumulation of elements in the shoot. Roots are an important but understudied target of plant breeding. Here we have therefore explored whether root enhancement by lowering the cytokinin content can also be achieved in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) plants.

RESULTS

Transgenic plants overexpressing the CKX2 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana encoding a cytokinin-degrading cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase showed higher CKX activity and a strongly reduced cytokinin content. Cytokinin deficiency led to the formation of a larger root system under different growth conditions, which was mainly due to an increased number of lateral and adventitious roots. In contrast, shoot growth was comparable to wild type, which caused an enhanced root-to-shoot ratio. Transgenic plants accumulated in their leaves higher concentrations of macro- and microelements including P, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, Cu, Mo and Mn. They formed more chlorophyll under Mg- and S-deficiency and accumulated a larger amount of Cd and Zn from contaminated medium and soil.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate the usefulness of ectopic CKX gene expression to achieve root enhancement in oilseed rape and underpin the functional relevance of a larger root system. Furthermore, the lack of major developmental consequences on shoot growth in cytokinin-deficient oilseed rape indicates species-specific differences of CKX gene and/or cytokinin action.

Brassinosteroids, the Sixth Class of Phytohormones: A Molecular View from the Discovery to Hormonal Interactions in Plant Development and Stress Adaptation

Phytohormones are natural chemical messengers that play critical roles in the regulation of plant growth and development as well as responses to biotic and abiotic stress factors, maintaining plant homeostasis, and allowing adaptation to environmental changes. The discovery of a new class of phytohormones, the brassinosteroids (BRs), almost 40 years ago opened a new era for the studies of plant growth and development and introduced new perspectives in the regulation of agronomic traits through their use in agriculture. BRs are a group of hormones with significant growth regulatory activity that act independently and in conjunction with other phytohormones to control different BR-regulated activities. Genetic and molecular research has increased our understanding of how BRs and their cross-talk with other phytohormones control several physiological and developmental processes. The present article provides an overview of BRs' discovery as well as recent findings on their interactions with other phytohormones at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, in addition to clarifying how their network works to modulate plant growth, development, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses.

The physiological and molecular mechanism of brassinosteroid in response to stress: a review

The negative effects of environmental stresses, such as low temperature, high temperature, salinity, drought, heavy metal stress, and biotic stress significantly decrease crop productivity. Plant hormones are currently being used to induce stress tolerance in a variety of plants. Brassinosteroids (commonly known as BR) are a group of phytohormones that regulate a wide range of biological processes that lead to tolerance of various stresses in plants. BR stimulate BRASSINAZOLE RESISTANCE 1 (BZR1)/BRI1-EMS SUPPRESSOR 1 (BES1), transcription factors that activate thousands of BR-targeted genes. BR regulate antioxidant enzyme activities, chlorophyll contents, photosynthetic capacity, and carbohydrate metabolism to increase plant growth under stress. Mutants with BR defects have shortened root and shoot developments. Exogenous BR application increases the biosynthesis of endogenous hormones such as indole-3-acetic acid, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, zeatin riboside, brassinosteroids (BR), and isopentenyl adenosine, and gibberellin (GA) and regulates signal transduction pathways to stimulate stress tolerance. This review will describe advancements in knowledge of BR and their roles in response to different stress conditions in plants.

Root Engineering in Barley: Increasing Cytokinin Degradation Produces a Larger Root System, Mineral Enrichment in the Shoot and Improved Drought Tolerance

Root size and architecture are important crop plant traits, as they determine access to water and soil nutrients. The plant hormone cytokinin is a negative regulator of root growth and branching. Here, we generated transgenic barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants with an enlarged root system by enhancing cytokinin degradation in roots to explore the potential of cytokinin modulations in improving root functions. This was achieved through root-specific expression of a CYTOKININ OXIDASE/DEHYDROGENASE gene. Enhanced biomass allocation to roots did not penalize shoot growth or seed yield, indicating that these plants were not source limited. In leaves of transgenic lines, the concentrations of several macroelements and microelements were increased, particularly those with low soil mobility (phosphorus, manganese, and zinc). Importantly, seeds contained up to 44% more zinc, which is beneficial for human nutrition. Transgenic lines also demonstrated dampened stress responses to long-term drought conditions, indicating lower drought sensitivity. Taken together, this work demonstrates that root engineering of cereals is a promising strategy to improve nutrient efficiency, biofortification, and drought tolerance.

BRI1 and BAK1 interact with G proteins and regulate sugar-responsive growth and development in Arabidopsis

Sugars function as signal molecules to regulate growth, development, and gene expression in plants, yeasts, and animals. A coordination of sugar availability with phytohormone signals is crucial for plant growth and development. The molecular link between sugar availability and hormone-dependent plant growth are largely unknown. Here we report that BRI1 and BAK1 are involved in sugar-responsive growth and development. Glucose influences the physical interactions and phosphorylations of BRI1 and BAK1 in a concentration-dependent manner. BRI1 and BAK1 physically interact with G proteins that are essential for mediating sugar signaling. Biochemical data show that BRI1 can phosphorylate G protein β subunit and γ subunits, and BAK1 can phosphorylate G protein γ subunits. Genetic analyses suggest that BRI1 and BAK1 function in a common pathway with G-protein subunits to regulate sugar responses. Thus, our findings reveal an important genetic and molecular mechanism by which BR receptors associate with G proteins to regulate sugar-responsive growth and development.

G-proteins regulate sugar-responsive growth in plants. Here the authors show that brassinosteroid (BR) signaling is also involved in sugar responses and present evidence that the BR receptor BRI1 and its co-receptor BAK1 can phosphorylate G-protein subunits to regulate sugar signaling in Arabidopsis.

The WUSCHEL-related homeobox 5a (PtoWOX5a) is involved in adventitious root development in poplar

Adventitious rooting is an essential step in vegetative propagation. Currently, the mechanism that regulates adventitious root (AR) development in woody plants is poorly understood. This work demonstrates that Populus tomentosa WUSCHEL-related homeobox 5a (PtoWOX5a) transcription factor is involved in AR development in poplar. PtoWOX5a was specifically expressed in the AR tip and lateral root tip during AR and lateral root regeneration from the stem segment. Phenotypic complementation experiments indicated that the PtoWOX5a can functionally complement AtWOX5 in quiescent center (QC) cells. Overexpression of PtoWOX5a introduces significant developmental phenotypes in roots and leaves, such as increased AR number, decreased AR length, swollen AR tip and lateral root tip, and decreased leaf number and area. The conserved mechanism of D-type cyclins (CYCD) repression mediated by WOX5 was confirmed in poplar. The co-expression network of PtWOX5a was constructed, which provided clues to reveal the molecular mechanism of PtoWOX5a in AR development in poplar. Taken together, our results suggest that the PtoWOX5a is involved in AR development though cooperating with a series of functional genes.

Transcriptome analysis reveals the regulation of brassinosteroids on petal growth in Gerbera hybrida

Gerbera hybrida is a cut-flower crop of global importance, and an understanding of the mechanisms underlying petal development is vital for the continued commercial development of this plant species. Brassinosteroids (BRs), a class of phytohormones, are known to play a major role in cell expansion, but their effect on petal growth in G. hybrida is largely unexplored. In this study, we found that the brassinolide (BL), the most active BR, promotes petal growth by lengthening cells in the middle and basal regions of petals, and that this effect on petal growth was greater than that of gibberellin (GA). The RNA-seq (high-throughput cDNA sequencing) technique was employed to investigate the regulatory mechanisms by which BRs control petal growth. A global transcriptome analysis of the response to BRs in petals was conducted and target genes regulated by BR were identified. These differentially expressed genes (DEGs) include various transcription factors (TFs) that were activated during the early stage (0.5 h) of BL treatment, as well as cell wall proteins whose expression was regulated at a late stage (10 h). BR-responsive DEGs are involved in multiple plant hormone signal pathways, hormone biosynthesis and biotic and abiotic stress responses, showing that the regulation of petal growth by BRs is a complex network of processes. Thus, our study provides new insights at the transcriptional level into the molecular mechanisms of BR regulation of petal growth in G. hybrida.

AVP1: One Protein, Many Roles

Constitutive expression of the Arabidopsis vacuolar proton-pumping pyrophosphatase (H⁺-PPase) gene (AVP1) increases plant growth under various abiotic stress conditions and, importantly, under nonstressed conditions. Many interpretations have been proposed to explain these phenotypes, including greater vacuolar ion sequestration, increased auxin transport, enhanced heterotrophic growth, and increased transport of sucrose from source to sink tissues. In this review, we evaluate all the roles proposed for AVP1, using findings published to date from mutant plants lacking functional AVP1 and transgenic plants expressing AVP1. It is clear that AVP1 is one protein with many roles, and that one or more of these roles act to enhance plant growth. The complexity suggests that a systems biology approach to evaluate biological networks is required to investigate these intertwined roles.

Phosphate, phytate and phytases in plants: from fundamental knowledge gained in Arabidopsis to potential biotechnological applications in wheat

Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient for all living organisms. In plants, P is taken up from the rhizosphere by the roots mainly as inorganic phosphate (Pi), which is required in large and sufficient quantities to maximize crop yields. In today's agricultural society, crop yield is mostly ensured by the excessive use of Pi fertilizers, a costly practice neither eco-friendly or sustainable. Therefore, generating plants with improved P use efficiency (PUE) is of major interest. Among the various strategies employed to date, attempts to engineer genetically modified crops with improved capacity to utilize phytate (PA), the largest soil P form and unfortunately not taken up by plants, remains a key challenge. To meet these challenges, we need a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating Pi sensing, signaling, transport and storage in plants. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on these aspects, which are mainly gained from investigations conducted in Arabidopsis thaliana, and we extended it to those available on an economically important crop, wheat. Strategies to enhance the PA use, through the use of bacterial or fungal phytases and other attempts of reducing seed PA levels, are also discussed. We critically review these data in terms of their potential for use as a technology for genetic manipulation of PUE in wheat, which would be both economically and environmentally beneficial.

The OsmiR396c-OsGRF4-OsGIF1 regulatory module determines grain size and yield in rice

Grain weight is the most important component of rice yield and is mainly determined by grain size, which is generally controlled by quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Although numerous QTLs that regulate grain weight have been identified, the genetic network that controls grain size remains unclear. Herein, we report the cloning and functional analysis of a dominant QTL, grain length and width 2 (GLW2), which positively regulates grain weight by simultaneously increasing grain length and width. The GLW2 locus encodes OsGRF4 (growth-regulating factor 4) and is regulated by the microRNA miR396c in vivo. The mutation in OsGRF4 perturbs the OsmiR396 target regulation of OsGRF4, generating a larger grain size and enhanced grain yield. We also demonstrate that OsGIF1 (GRF-interacting factors 1) directly interacts with OsGRF4, and increasing its expression improves grain size. Our results suggest that the miR396c-OsGRF4-OsGIF1 regulatory module plays an important role in grain size determination and holds implications for rice yield improvement.

Drought-Up-Regulated TaNAC69-1 is a Transcriptional Repressor of TaSHY2 and TaIAA7, and Enhances Root Length and Biomass in Wheat

A well-known physiological adaptation process of plants encountering drying soil is to achieve water balance by reducing shoot growth and maintaining or promoting root elongation, but little is known about the molecular basis of this process. This study investigated the role of a drought-up-regulated Triticum aestivum NAC69-1 (TaNAC69-1) in the modulation of root growth in wheat. TaNAC69-1 was predominantly expressed in wheat roots at the early vegetative stage. Overexpression of TaNAC69-1 in wheat roots using OsRSP3 (essentially root-specific) and OsPIP2;3 (root-predominant) promoters resulted in enhanced primary seminal root length and a marked increase in maturity root biomass. Competitive growth analysis under water-limited conditions showed that OsRSP3 promoter-driven TaNAC69-1 transgenic lines produced 32% and 35% more above-ground biomass and grains than wild-type plants, respectively. TaNAC69-1 overexpression in the roots down-regulated the expression of TaSHY2 and TaIAA7, which are from the auxin/IAA (Aux/IAA) transcriptional repressor gene family and are the homologs of negative root growth regulators SHY2/IAA3 and IAA7 in Arabidopsis. The expression of TaSHY2 and TaIAA7 in roots was down-regulated by drought stress and up-regulated by cytokinin treatment, which inhibited root growth. DNA binding and transient expression analyses revealed that TaNAC69-1 bound to the promoters of TaSHY2 and TaIAA7, acted as a transcriptional repressor and repressed the expression of reporter genes driven by the TaSHY2 or TaIAA7 promoter. These data suggest that TaNAC69-1 is a transcriptional repressor of TaSHY2 and TaIAA7 homologous to Arabidopsis negative root growth regulators and is likely to be involved in promoting root elongation in drying soil.

A strong root-specific expression system for stable transgene expression in bread wheat

A strong, stable and root-specific expression system was developed from a rice root-specific GLYCINE - RICH PROTEIN 7 promoter for use as an enabling technology for genetic manipulation of wheat root traits. Root systems play an important role in wheat productivity. Genetic manipulation of wheat root traits often requires a root-specific or root-predominant expression system as an essential enabling technology. In this study, we investigated promoters from rice root-specific or root-predominant expressed genes for development of a root expression system in bread wheat. Transient expression analysis using a GREEN FLUORESCENT PROTEIN (GFP) reporter gene driven by rice promoters identified six promoters that were strongly expressed in wheat roots. Extensive organ specificity analysis of three rice promoters in transgenic wheat revealed that the promoter of rice GLYCINE-RICH PROTEIN 7 (OsGRP7) gene conferred a root-specific expression pattern in wheat. Strong GFP fluorescence in the seminal and branch roots of wheat expressing GFP reporter driven by the OsGRP7 promoter was detected in epidermal, cortical and endodermal cells in mature parts of the root. The GFP reporter driven by the promoter of rice METALLOTHIONEIN-LIKE PROTEIN 1 (OsMTL1) gene was mainly expressed in the roots with essentially no expression in the leaf, stem or seed. However, it was also expressed in floral organs including glume, lemma, palea and awn. In contrast, strong expression of rice RCg2 promoter-driven GFP was found in many tissues. The GFP expression driven by these three rice promoters was stable in transgenic wheat plants through three generations (T1-T3) examined. These data suggest that the OsGRP7 promoter can provide a strong, stable and root-specific expression system for use as an enabling technology for genetic manipulation of wheat root traits.

Contribution of PPi-Hydrolyzing Function of Vacuolar H(+)-Pyrophosphatase in Vegetative Growth of Arabidopsis: Evidenced by Expression of Uncoupling Mutated Enzymes

The vacuolar-type H(+)-pyrophosphatase (H(+)-PPase) catalyzes a coupled reaction of pyrophosphate (PPi) hydrolysis and active proton translocation across the tonoplast. Overexpression of H(+)-PPase improves growth in various plant species, and loss-of-function mutants (fugu5s) of H(+)-PPase in Arabidopsis thaliana have post-germinative developmental defects. Here, to further clarify the physiological significance of this important enzyme, we newly generated three varieties of H(+)-PPase overexpressing lines with different levels of activity that we analyzed together with the loss-of-function mutant fugu5-3. The H(+)-PPase overexpressors exhibited enhanced activity of H(+)-PPase during vegetative growth, but no change in the activity of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase. Overexpressors with high enzymatic activity grew more vigorously with fresh weight increased by more than 24 and 44%, compared to the wild type and fugu5-3, respectively. Consistently, the overexpressors had larger rosette leaves and nearly 30% more cells in leaves than the wild type. When uncoupling mutated variants of H(+)-PPase, that could hydrolyze PPi but could not translocate protons, were introduced into the fugu5-3 mutant background, shoot growth defects recovered to the same levels as when a normal H(+)-PPase was introduced. Taken together, our findings clearly demonstrate that additional expression of H(+)-PPase improves plant growth by increasing cell number, predominantly as a consequence of the PPi-hydrolyzing activity of the enzyme.

GROWTH REGULATING FACTOR5 stimulates Arabidopsis chloroplast division, photosynthesis, and leaf longevity

Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaf development relies on subsequent phases of cell proliferation and cell expansion. During the proliferation phase, chloroplasts need to divide extensively, and during the transition from cell proliferation to expansion, they differentiate into photosynthetically active chloroplasts, providing the plant with energy. The transcription factor GROWTH REGULATING FACTOR5 (GRF5) promotes the duration of the cell proliferation period during leaf development. Here, it is shown that GRF5 also stimulates chloroplast division, resulting in a higher chloroplast number per cell with a concomitant increase in chlorophyll levels in 35S:GRF5 leaves, which can sustain higher rates of photosynthesis. Moreover, 35S:GRF5 plants show delayed leaf senescence and are more tolerant for growth on nitrogen-depleted medium. Cytokinins also stimulate leaf growth in part by extending the cell proliferation phase, simultaneously delaying the onset of the cell expansion phase. In addition, cytokinins are known to be involved in chloroplast development, nitrogen signaling, and senescence. Evidence is provided that GRF5 and cytokinins synergistically enhance cell division and chlorophyll retention after dark-induced senescence, which suggests that they also cooperate to stimulate chloroplast division and nitrogen assimilation. Taken together with the increased leaf size, ectopic expression of GRF5 has great potential to improve plant productivity.

Molecular systems governing leaf growth: from genes to networks

Arabidopsis leaf growth consists of a complex sequence of interconnected events involving cell division and cell expansion, and requiring multiple levels of genetic regulation. With classical genetics, numerous leaf growth regulators have been identified, but the picture is far from complete. With the recent advances made in quantitative phenotyping, the study of the quantitative, dynamic, and multifactorial features of leaf growth is now facilitated. The use of high-throughput phenotyping technologies to study large numbers of natural accessions or mutants, or to screen for the effects of large sets of chemicals will allow for further identification of the additional players that constitute the leaf growth regulatory networks. Only a tight co-ordination between these numerous molecular players can support the formation of a functional organ. The connections between the components of the network and their dynamics can be further disentangled through gene-stacking approaches and ultimately through mathematical modelling. In this review, we describe these different approaches that should help to obtain a holistic image of the molecular regulation of organ growth which is of high interest in view of the increasing needs for plant-derived products.

Versatile roles of brassinosteroid in plants in the context of its homoeostasis, signaling and crosstalks

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of steroidal plant hormones that play diverse roles in plant growth and developmental processes. Recently, the easy availability of biological resources, and development of new molecular tools and approaches have provided the required impetus for deeper understanding of the processes involved in BRs biosynthesis, transport, signaling and degradation pathways. From recent studies it is also evident that BRs interact with other phytohormones such as auxin, cytokinin, ethylene, gibberellin, jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and polyamine in regulating wide range of physiological and developmental processes in plants. The inputs from these studies are now being linked to the versatile roles of BRs. The present review highlights the conceptual development with regard to BR homeostasis, signaling and its crosstalk with other phytohormones. This information will assist in developing predictive models to modulate various useful traits in plants and address current challenges in agriculture.

Challenges of modifying root traits in crops for agriculture

Roots play an essential role in the acquisition of water and minerals from soils. Measuring crop root architecture and assaying for changes in function can be challenging, but examples have emerged showing that modifications to roots result in higher yield and increased stress tolerance. In this review, we focus mainly on the molecular genetic advances that have been made in altering root system architecture and function in crop plants, as well as phenotyping methods. The future for the modification of crop plant roots looks promising based on recent advances, but there are also important challenges ahead.

Combining growth-promoting genes leads to positive epistasis in Arabidopsis thaliana

Several genes positively influence final leaf size in Arabidopsis when mutated or overexpressed. The connections between these growth regulators are still poorly understood although such knowledge would further contribute to understand the processes driving leaf growth. In this study, we performed a combinatorial screen with 13 transgenic Arabidopsis lines with an increased leaf size. We found that from 61 analyzed combinations, 39% showed an additional increase in leaf size and most resulted from a positive epistasis on growth. Similar to what is found in other organisms in which such an epistasis assay was performed, only few genes were highly connected in synergistic combinations as we observed a positive epistasis in the majority of the combinations with samba, BRI1(OE) or SAUR19(OE). Furthermore, positive epistasis was found with combinations of genes with a similar mode of action, but also with genes which affect distinct processes, such as cell proliferation and cell expansion.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02252.001.

Expression of the Arabidopsis vacuolar H⁺-pyrophosphatase gene (AVP1) improves the shoot biomass of transgenic barley and increases grain yield in a saline field

Cereal varieties with improved salinity tolerance are needed to achieve profitable grain yields in saline soils. The expression of AVP1, an Arabidopsis gene encoding a vacuolar proton pumping pyrophosphatase (H⁺-PPase), has been shown to improve the salinity tolerance of transgenic plants in greenhouse conditions. However, the potential for this gene to improve the grain yield of cereal crops in a saline field has yet to be evaluated. Recent advances in high-throughput nondestructive phenotyping technologies also offer an opportunity to quantitatively evaluate the growth of transgenic plants under abiotic stress through time. In this study, the growth of transgenic barley expressing AVP1 was evaluated under saline conditions in a pot experiment using nondestructive plant imaging and in a saline field trial. Greenhouse-grown transgenic barley expressing AVP1 produced a larger shoot biomass compared to null segregants, as determined by an increase in projected shoot area, when grown in soil with 150 mM NaCl. This increase in shoot biomass of transgenic AVP1 barley occurred from an early growth stage and also in nonsaline conditions. In a saline field, the transgenic barley expressing AVP1 also showed an increase in shoot biomass and, importantly, produced a greater grain yield per plant compared to wild-type plants. Interestingly, the expression of AVP1 did not alter barley leaf sodium concentrations in either greenhouse- or field-grown plants. This study validates our greenhouse-based experiments and indicates that transgenic barley expressing AVP1 is a promising option for increasing cereal crop productivity in saline fields.

Glucose and phytohormone interplay in controlling root directional growth in Arabidopsis

Sensing and responding toward gravity vector is a complicated and multistep process. Gravity is a constant factor feeding plants with reliable information for the spatial orientation of their organs. Auxin, cytokinin, ethylene and BRs have been the most explored hormones in relation to gravitropism. We have previously shown that glucose (Glc) could promote brassinosteroid (BR) signaling thereby inducing changes in root directional growth. Auxin signaling and polar transport components are also involved in Glc induced changes in root directional growth. Here, we provide evidence for involvement of cytokinin and ethylene signaling components in regulation of root directional growth downstream to Glc and BR. Altogether, Glc mediated change in root direction is an adaptive feature which is a result of a collaborative effort integrating phytohormonal signaling cues.

ANGUSTIFOLIA3 binds to SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complexes to regulate transcription during Arabidopsis leaf development

The transcriptional coactivator ANGUSTIFOLIA3 (AN3) stimulates cell proliferation during Arabidopsis thaliana leaf development, but the molecular mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we show that inducible nuclear localization of AN3 during initial leaf growth results in differential expression of important transcriptional regulators, including GROWTH REGULATING FACTORs (GRFs). Chromatin purification further revealed the presence of AN3 at the loci of GRF5, GRF6, CYTOKININ RESPONSE FACTOR2, CONSTANS-LIKE5 (COL5), HECATE1 (HEC1), and ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE REGULATOR4 (ARR4). Tandem affinity purification of protein complexes using AN3 as bait identified plant SWITCH/SUCROSE NONFERMENTING (SWI/SNF) chromatin remodeling complexes formed around the ATPases BRAHMA (BRM) or SPLAYED. Moreover, SWI/SNF ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 73B (SWP73B) is recruited by AN3 to the promoters of GRF5, GRF3, COL5, and ARR4, and both SWP73B and BRM occupy the HEC1 promoter. Furthermore, we show that AN3 and BRM genetically interact. The data indicate that AN3 associates with chromatin remodelers to regulate transcription. In addition, modification of SWI3C expression levels increases leaf size, underlining the importance of chromatin dynamics for growth regulation. Our results place the SWI/SNF-AN3 module as a major player at the transition from cell proliferation to cell differentiation in a developing leaf.

Lateral root formation and growth of Arabidopsis is redundantly regulated by cytokinin metabolism and signalling genes

The plant root system is important for the uptake of water and nutrients and the anchoring of plants in the soil. Lateral roots (LRs) contribute considerably to root system architecture. Their post-embryonic formation is regulated by hormones and environmental cues. The hormone cytokinin influences LR formation and growth in Arabidopsis thaliana on different levels by disturbing cell division activity and pattern formation. This includes inhibition of the first formative cell division of pericycle founder cells and inhibition of the outgrowth of young LR primordia. Mutant analysis revealed that the cytokinin biosynthesis genes IPT3 and IPT5 and all three cytokinin receptor genes (AHK2, AHK3, and CRE1/AHK4) act redundantly during LR initiation. Mutation of AHK2 and AHK3 caused increased auxin sensitivity of LR formation, corroborating the functional relevance of auxin-cytokinin interaction during LR formation. In contrast, LR development of cytokinin receptor mutants in response to other hormones was mostly similar to that of the wild type, which is consistent with separate response pathways. A noticeable exception was an increased sensitivity of LR elongation to brassinolide in ahk2 ahk3 mutants indicating antagonistic action of cytokinin and brassinosteroid. It is proposed that the multilevel redundancy of the cytokinin system in modulating LR formation reflects its role in mediating environmental cues.

The phytohormone crosstalk paradigm takes center stage in understanding how plants respond to abiotic stresses

The highly coordinated, dynamic nature of growth requires plants to perceive and react to various environmental signals in an interactive manner. Elaborate signaling networks mediate this plasticity in growth and the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The fluctuations of stress-responsive hormones help alter the cellular dynamics and hence play a central role in coordinately regulating the growth responses under stress. Recent experimental data unequivocally demonstrated that interactions among various phytohormones are the rule rather than exception in integrating the diverse input signals and readjusting growth as well as acquiring stress tolerance. The presence of multiple and often redundant signaling intermediates for each phytohormone appears to help in such crosstalk. Furthermore, there are several examples of similar developmental changes occurring in response to distinct abiotic stress signals, which can be explained by the crosstalk in phytohormone signaling. Therefore, in this brief review, we have highlighted the major phytohormone crosstalks with a focus on the response of plants to abiotic stresses. The recent findings have made it increasingly apparent that such crosstalk will also explain the extreme pleiotropic responses elicited by various phytohormones. Indeed, it would not be presumptuous to expect that in the coming years this paradigm will take a central role in explaining developmental regulation.

Improved growth, drought tolerance, and ultrastructural evidence of increased turgidity in tobacco plants overexpressing Arabidopsis vacuolar pyrophosphatase (AVP1)

An increasing volume of evidence indicating the mechanisms of drought tolerance of AVP1-overexpressing transgenic plants has been reported. In the present study, we are reporting the experiments conducted for the drought tolerance of AVP1 overexpressing plants and WT tobacco plants in three water regimes named as "fully watered," "less-watered," and "desiccated". Results suggest that AVP1 plants exhibited greater vigor and drought tolerance in quantitative terms i.e., increase in size and weight of shoots and capsules. AVP1 plants produced more seeds than WT across all three water regimes. The less-watered regime was found to produce the greatest contrast. AVP1 overexpression enhanced solute accumulation in vacuoles resulting in an increase in water retention and turgor of the cell. The ultrastructure study of AVP1 overexpressing cells and WT leaf cells revealed that AVP1 plants displayed more turgid and hyperosmotic cells than WT. Moreover, guard cells in the AVP1 plants exhibited thick cell walls, few vacuoles, and deep and close stomata, whereas WT plants showed larger vacuoles and relatively open stomata aperture with no significant difference in size and number of the cells per unit area.

Improved growth, drought tolerance, and ultrastructural evidence of increased turgidity in tobacco plants overexpressing Arabidopsis vacuolar pyrophosphatase (AVP1)

An increasing volume of evidence indicating the mechanisms of drought tolerance of AVP1-overexpressing transgenic plants has been reported. In the present study, we are reporting the experiments conducted for the drought tolerance of AVP1 overexpressing plants and WT tobacco plants in three water regimes named as "fully watered," "less-watered," and "desiccated". Results suggest that AVP1 plants exhibited greater vigor and drought tolerance in quantitative terms i.e., increase in size and weight of shoots and capsules. AVP1 plants produced more seeds than WT across all three water regimes. The less-watered regime was found to produce the greatest contrast. AVP1 overexpression enhanced solute accumulation in vacuoles resulting in an increase in water retention and turgor of the cell. The ultrastructure study of AVP1 overexpressing cells and WT leaf cells revealed that AVP1 plants displayed more turgid and hyperosmotic cells than WT. Moreover, guard cells in the AVP1 plants exhibited thick cell walls, few vacuoles, and deep and close stomata, whereas WT plants showed larger vacuoles and relatively open stomata aperture with no significant difference in size and number of the cells per unit area.

Auxin transport inhibitor induced low complexity petiolated leaves and sessile leaf-like stipules and architectures of heritable leaf and stipule mutants in Pisum sativum suggest that its simple lobed stipules and compound leaf represent ancestral forms in angiosperms

In angiosperms, leaf and stipule architectures are inherited species-specific traits. Variation in leaf and stipule sizes, and forms result from the interaction between abiotic and biotic stimuli, and gene regulatory network(s) that underlie the leaf and stipule developmental programme(s). Here, correspondence between variation in leaf and stipule architectures described for extant angiosperms and that induced mutationally and by imposition of stress in model angiosperm species, especially in Pisum sativum, was detected. Following inferences were drawn from the observations. (i) Several leaf forms in P. sativum have origin in fusion of stipule and leaf primordia. Perfoliate (and amplexicaul and connate) simple sessile leaves and sessile adnate leaves are the result of such primordial fusions. Reversal of changes in the gene regulatory network responsible for fusion products are thought to restore original stipule and leaf conditions. (ii) Compound leaf formation in several different model plants, is a result of promotion of pathways for such condition by gene regulatory networks directed by KNOx1 and LEAFY transcription factors or intercalation of the gene networks directed by them. (iii) Gene regulatory network for compound leaves in P. sativum when mutated generates highly complex compound leaves on one hand and simple leaves on other hand. These altered conditions are mutationally reversible. (vi) Simple leaves in model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana despite overexpression of KNOx1 orthologues do not become compound. (v) All forms of leaves, including simple leaf, probably have origins in a gene regulatory network of the kind present in P. sativum.

Long-distance signaling in bypass1 mutants: bioassay development reveals the bps signal to be a metabolite

Root-to-shoot signaling is used by plants to coordinate shoot development with the conditions experienced by the roots. A mobile and biologically active compound, the bps signal, is over-produced in roots of an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant called bypass1 (bps1), and might also be a normally produced signaling molecule in wild-type plants. Our goal is to identify the bps signal chemically, which will then allow us to assess its production in normal plants. To identify any signaling molecule, a bioassay is required, and here we describe the development of a robust, simple, and quantitative bioassay for the bps signal. The developed bioassay follows the growth-reducing activity of the bps signal using the pCYCB1;1::GUS cell cycle marker. Wild-type plants carrying this marker, and provided the bps signal through either grafts or metabolite extracts, showed reduced cell division. By contrast, control grafts and treatment with control extracts showed no change in pCYCB1;1::GUS expression. To determine the chemical nature of the bps signal, extracts were treated with RNase A, Proteinase K, or heat. None of these treatments diminished the activity of bps1 extracts, suggesting that the active molecule might be a metabolite. This bioassay will be useful for future biochemical fractionation and analysis directed toward bps signal identification.

Benefits of brassinosteroid crosstalk

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a group of phytohormones that regulate various biological processes in plants. Interactions and crosstalk between BRs and other plant hormones control a broad spectrum of physiological and developmental processes. In this review, we examine recent findings which indicate that BR signaling components mainly interact with the signaling elements of other hormones at the transcriptional level. Our major challenge is to understand how BR signaling independently, or in conjunction with other hormones, controls different BR-regulated activities. The application of a range of biotechnological strategies based on the modulation of BR content and its interplay with other plant growth regulators (PGRs) could provide a unique tool for the genetic improvement of crop productivity in a sustainable manner.

Transcript profiling of cytokinin action in Arabidopsis roots and shoots discovers largely similar but also organ-specific responses

BACKGROUND

The plant hormone cytokinin regulates growth and development of roots and shoots in opposite ways. In shoots it is a positive growth regulator whereas it inhibits growth in roots. It may be assumed that organ-specific regulation of gene expression is involved in these differential activities, but little is known about it. To get more insight into the transcriptional events triggered by cytokinin in roots and shoots, we studied genome-wide gene expression in cytokinin-treated and cytokinin-deficient roots and shoots.

RESULTS

It was found by principal component analysis of the transcriptomic data that the immediate-early response to a cytokinin stimulus differs from the later response, and that the transcriptome of cytokinin-deficient plants is different from both the early and the late cytokinin induction response. A higher cytokinin status in the roots activated the expression of numerous genes normally expressed predominantly in the shoot, while a lower cytokinin status in the shoot reduced the expression of genes normally more active in the shoot to a more root-like level. This shift predominantly affected nuclear genes encoding plastid proteins. An organ-specific regulation was assigned to a number of genes previously known to react to a cytokinin signal, including root-specificity for the cytokinin hydroxylase gene CYP735A2 and shoot specificity for the cell cycle regulator gene CDKA;1. Numerous cytokinin-regulated genes were newly discovered or confirmed, including the meristem regulator genes SHEPHERD and CLAVATA1, auxin-related genes (IAA7, IAA13, AXR1, PIN2, PID), several genes involved in brassinosteroid (CYP710A1, CYP710A2, DIM/DWF) and flavonol (MYB12, CHS, FLS1) synthesis, various transporter genes (e.g. HKT1), numerous members of the AP2/ERF transcription factor gene family, genes involved in light signalling (PhyA, COP1, SPA1), and more than 80 ribosomal genes. However, contrasting with the fundamental difference of the growth response of roots and shoots to the hormone, the vast majority of the cytokinin-regulated transcriptome showed similar response patterns in roots and shoots.

CONCLUSIONS

The shift of the root and shoot transcriptomes towards the respective other organ depending on the cytokinin status indicated that the hormone determines part of the organ-specific transcriptome pattern independent of morphological organ identity. Numerous novel cytokinin-regulated genes were discovered which had escaped earlier discovery, most probably due to unspecific sampling. These offer novel insights into the diverse activities of cytokinin, including crosstalk with other hormones and different environmental cues, identify the AP2/ERF class of transcriptions factors as particularly cytokinin sensitive, and also suggest translational control of cytokinin-induced changes.

Cytokinin oxidase is involved in the regulation of cytokinin content by 24-epibrassinolide in wheat seedlings

Fast and stable 2-fold accumulation of cytokinins (CKs) was detected initially in roots and then in shoots of 4-day-old wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings in the course of their treatment with 0.4μM 24-epibrassinolide (EBR). Elevated cytokinin level has been maintained only in the presence of EBR, while the hormone removal has led to return of cytokinin concentration to the control level initially in the roots and then in the shoots. EBR-induced accumulation of cytokinins was accompanied by inhibition of both cytokinin oxidase (CKX) (cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase, EC 1.5.99.12) activity and expression of the gene coding for this enzyme, and on the contrary the decline in CKs level resulted in increase in these characteristics up to the control level in roots and then in shoots. Sharp accumulation of cytokinin O-glucosides has been discovered in response to EBR-treatment suggesting fast EBR-induced activation of production of cytokinins, which excessive amounts were transferred into the storage forms. The obtained data provide evidence for the involvement of EBR in regulation of cytokinin level in wheat seedlings.

Somatic embryogenesis receptor kinases control root development mainly via brassinosteroid-independent actions in Arabidopsis thaliana

Brassinosteroids (BRs), a group of plant steroidal hormones, play critical roles in many aspects of plant growth and development. Previous studies showed that BRI1-mediated BR signaling regulates cell division and differentiation during Arabidopsis root development via interplaying with auxin and other phytohormones. Arabidopsis somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinases (SERKs), as co-receptors of BRI1, were found to play a fundamental role in an early activation step of BR signaling pathway. Here we report a novel function of SERKs in regulating Arabidopsis root development. Genetic analyses indicated that SERKs control root growth mainly via a BR-independent pathway. Although BR signaling pathway is completely disrupted in the serk1 bak1 bkk1 triple mutant, the root growth of the triple mutant is much severely damaged than the BR deficiency or signaling null mutants. More detailed analyses indicated that the triple mutant exhibited drastically reduced expression of a number of genes critical to polar auxin transport, cell cycle, endodermis development and root meristem differentiation, which were not observed in null BR biosynthesis mutant cpd and null BR signaling mutant bri1-701.

Development of feedstocks for cellulosic biofuels

The inclusion of cellulosic ethanol in the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 and the revised Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) has spurred development of the first commercial scale cellulosic ethanol biorefineries. These efforts have also revived interest in the development of dedicated energy crops selected for biomass productivity and for properties that facilitate conversion of biomass to liquid fuels. While many aspects of developing these feedstocks are compatible with current agricultural activities, improving biomass productivity may provide opportunities to expand the potential for biofuel production beyond the classical research objectives associated with improving traditional food and feed crops.

Brassinosteroids antagonize gibberellin- and salicylate-mediated root immunity in rice

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a unique class of plant steroid hormones that orchestrate myriad growth and developmental processes. Although BRs have long been known to protect plants from a suite of biotic and abiotic stresses, our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms is still rudimentary. Aiming to further decipher the molecular logic of BR-modulated immunity, we have examined the dynamics and impact of BRs during infection of rice (Oryza sativa) with the root oomycete Pythium graminicola. Challenging the prevailing view that BRs positively regulate plant innate immunity, we show that P. graminicola exploits BRs as virulence factors and hijacks the rice BR machinery to inflict disease. Moreover, we demonstrate that this immune-suppressive effect of BRs is due, at least in part, to negative cross talk with salicylic acid (SA) and gibberellic acid (GA) pathways. BR-mediated suppression of SA defenses occurred downstream of SA biosynthesis, but upstream of the master defense regulators NONEXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES1 and OsWRKY45. In contrast, BR alleviated GA-directed immune responses by interfering at multiple levels with GA metabolism, resulting in indirect stabilization of the DELLA protein and central GA repressor SLENDER RICE1 (SLR1). Collectively, these data favor a model whereby P. graminicola coopts the plant BR pathway as a decoy to antagonize effectual SA- and GA-mediated defenses. Our results highlight the importance of BRs in modulating plant immunity and uncover pathogen-mediated manipulation of plant steroid homeostasis as a core virulence strategy.