Chromoplast-specific carotenoid-associated protein appears to be important for enhanced accumulation of carotenoids in hp1 tomato fruits

Galactinol synthase 2 influences the metabolism of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and ethylene in tomato fruits

Galactinol synthase (GolS), which catalyses the synthesis of galactinol, is the first critical enzyme in the biosynthesis of raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) and contributes to plant growth and development, and resistance mechanisms. However, its role in fruit development remains largely unknown. In this study, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technology in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) to create the gols2 mutant showing uniformly green fruits without dark-green shoulders, and promoting fruit ripening. Analysis indicated that galactinol was undetectable in the ovaries and fruits of the mutant, and the accumulation of chlorophyll and chloroplast development was suppressed in the fruits. RNA-sequencing analysis showed that genes related to chlorophyll accumulation and chloroplast development were down-regulated, including PROTOCHLOROPHYLLIDE OXIDOREDUCTASE, GOLDEN 2-LIKE 2, and CHLOROPHYLL A/B-BINDING PROTEINS. In addition, early color transformation and ethylene release was prompted in the gols2 lines by regulation of the expression of genes involved in carotenoid and ethylene metabolism (e.g. PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1, CAROTENE CIS-TRANS ISOMERASE, and 1-AMINOCYCLOPROPANE-1-CARBOXYLIC ACID SYNTHASE2/4) and fruit ripening (e.g. RIPENING INHIBITOR, NON-RIPENING, and APETALA2a). Our results provide evidence for the involvement of GolS2 in pigment and ethylene metabolism of tomato fruits.

Enhancing post-harvest quality of tomato fruits with chitosan oligosaccharide-zinc oxide nanocomposites: A study on biocompatibility, quality improvement, and carotenoid enhancement

In this study, a new composite with combination of chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs), termed Chitosan Oligosaccharide-Zinc Oxide Nanocomposites (COS-ZnO NC), was designed to enhance the quality of tomato fruits during postharvest storage. SEM analysis showed a uniform distribution of COS-ZnO NC films on tomato surfaces, indicating high biocompatibility, while the FTIR spectrum confirmed the interaction of COS and ZnO NPs via hydrogen bonds. The COS-ZnO NC exerts positive effects on post-harvest quality of tomato fruits, including significantly reduced water loss, fewer skin wrinkles, increased sugar-acid ratio, and enhanced vitamin C and carotenoids accumulation. Furthermore, COS-ZnO NC induces transcription of carotenoid biosynthesis genes and promotes carotenoids storage in the chromoplast. These results suggest that the COS-ZnO NC film can significantly improve the quality traits of tomato fruits, and therefore is potential in post-harvest storage of tomato fruits.

Introgression of a dominant phototropin1 mutant enhances carotenoids and boosts flavour-related volatiles in genome-edited tomato RIN mutants

The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) ripening inhibitor (rin) mutation is known to completely repress fruit ripening. The heterozygous (RIN/rin) fruits have extended shelf life, ripen normally, but have inferior taste/flavour. To address this, we used genome editing to generate newer alleles of RIN (rinCR ) by targeting the K-domain. Unlike previously reported CRISPR alleles, the rinCR alleles displayed delayed onset of ripening, suggesting that the mutated K-domain represses the onset of ripening. The rinCR fruits had extended shelf life and accumulated carotenoids at an intermediate level between rin and progenitor line. Besides, the metabolites and hormonal levels in rinCR fruits were more akin to rin. To overcome the negative attributes of rin, we crossed the rinCR alleles with Nps1, a dominant-negative phototropin1 mutant, which enhances carotenoid levels in tomato fruits. The resulting Nps1/rinCR hybrids had extended shelf life and 4.4-7.1-fold higher carotenoid levels than the wild-type parent. The metabolome of Nps1/rinCR fruits revealed higher sucrose, malate, and volatiles associated with tomato taste and flavour. Notably, the boosted volatiles in Nps1/rinCR were only observed in fruits bearing the homozygous Nps1 mutation. The Nps1 introgression into tomato provides a promising strategy for developing cultivars with extended shelf life, improved taste, and flavour.

Differential content of leaf and fruit pigment in tomatoes culminate in a complex metabolic reprogramming without growth impacts

Although significant efforts to produce carotenoid-enriched foods either by biotechnology or traditional breeding strategies have been carried out, our understanding of how changes in the carotenoid biosynthesis might affect overall plant performance remains limited. Here, we investigate how the metabolic machinery of well characterized tomato carotenoid mutant plants [namely crimson (old gold-og), Delta carotene (Del) and tangerine (t)] adjusts itself to varying carotenoid biosynthesis and whether these adjustments are supported by a reprogramming of photosynthetic and central metabolism in the source organs (leaves). We observed that mutations og, Del and t did not greatly affect vegetative growth, leaf anatomy and gas exchange parameters. However, an exquisite metabolic reprogramming was recorded on the leaves, with an increase in levels of amino acids and reduction of organic acids. Taken together, our results show that despite minor impacts on growth and gas exchange, carbon flux is extensively affected, leading to adjustments in tomato leaves metabolism to support changes in carotenoid biosynthesis on fruits (sinks). We discuss these data in the context of our current understanding of metabolic adjustments and carotenoid biosynthesis as well as regarding to improving human nutrition.

AtSNP_TATAdb: Candidate Molecular Markers of Plant Advantages Related to Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms within Proximal Promoters of Arabidopsis thaliana L

The mainstream of the post-genome target-assisted breeding in crop plant species includes biofortification such as high-throughput phenotyping along with genome-based selection. Therefore, in this work, we used the Web-service Plant_SNP_TATA_Z-tester, which we have previously developed, to run a uniform in silico analysis of the transcriptional alterations of 54,013 protein-coding transcripts from 32,833 Arabidopsis thaliana L. genes caused by 871,707 SNPs located in the proximal promoter region. The analysis identified 54,993 SNPs as significantly decreasing or increasing gene expression through changes in TATA-binding protein affinity to the promoters. The existence of these SNPs in highly conserved proximal promoters may be explained as intraspecific diversity kept by the stabilizing natural selection. To support this, we hand-annotated papers on some of the Arabidopsis genes possessing these SNPs or on their orthologs in other plant species and demonstrated the effects of changes in these gene expressions on plant vital traits. We integrated in silico estimates of the TBP-promoter affinity in the AtSNP_TATAdb knowledge base and showed their significant correlations with independent in vivo experimental data. These correlations appeared to be robust to variations in statistical criteria, genomic environment of TATA box regions, plants species and growing conditions.

Involvement of Transcription Factors and Regulatory Proteins in the Regulation of Carotenoid Accumulation in Plants and Algae

Carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection in photosynthetic organisms, which are widely used in food coloring, feed additives, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Carotenoid biofortification in crop plants or algae has been considered as a sustainable strategy to improve human nutrition and health. However, the regulatory mechanisms of carotenoid accumulation are still not systematic and particularly scarce in algae. This article focuses on the regulatory mechanisms of carotenoid accumulation in plants and algae through regulatory factors (transcription factors and regulatory proteins), demonstrating the complexity of homeostasis regulation of carotenoids, mainly including transcriptional regulation as the primary mechanism, subsequent post-translational regulation, and cross-linking with other metabolic processes. Different organs of plants and different plant/algal species usually have specific regulatory mechanisms for the biosynthesis, storage, and degradation of carotenoids in response to the environmental and developmental signals. In plants and algae, regulators such as MYB, bHLH, MADS, bZIP, AP2/ERF, WRKY, and orange proteins can be involved in the regulation of carotenoid metabolism. And many more regulators, regulatory networks, and mechanisms need to be explored. Our paper will provide a basis for multitarget or multipathway engineering for carotenoid biofortification in plants and algae.

Carotenoid sequestration protein FIBRILLIN participates in CmOR-regulated β-carotene accumulation in melon

Chromoplasts are plant organelles with a unique ability to sequester and store massive carotenoids. Chromoplasts have been hypothesized to enable high levels of carotenoid accumulation due to enhanced sequestration ability or sequestration substructure formation. However, the regulators that control the substructure component accumulation and substructure formation in chromoplasts remain unknown. In melon (Cucumis melo) fruit, β-carotene accumulation in chromoplasts is governed by ORANGE (OR), a key regulator for carotenoid accumulation in chromoplasts. By using comparative proteomic analysis of a high β-carotene melon variety and its isogenic line low-β mutant that is defective in CmOr with impaired chromoplast formation, we identified carotenoid sequestration protein FIBRILLIN1 (CmFBN1) as differentially expressed. CmFBN1 expresses highly in melon fruit tissue. Overexpression of CmFBN1 in transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) containing ORHis that genetically mimics CmOr significantly enhances carotenoid accumulation, demonstrating its involvement in CmOR-induced carotenoid accumulation. Both in vitro and in vivo evidence showed that CmOR physically interacts with CmFBN1. Such an interaction occurs in plastoglobules and results in promoting CmFBN1 accumulation. CmOR greatly stabilizes CmFBN1, which stimulates plastoglobule proliferation and subsequently carotenoid accumulation in chromoplasts. Our findings show that CmOR directly regulates CmFBN1 protein levels and suggest a fundamental role of CmFBN1 in facilitating plastoglobule proliferation for carotenoid sequestration. This study also reveals an important genetic tool to further enhance OR-induced carotenoid accumulation in chromoplasts in crops.

Comparative transcriptomic and plastid development analysis sheds light on the differential carotenoid accumulation in kiwifruit flesh

Carotenoids are colorful lipophilic isoprenoids synthesized in all photosynthetic organisms which play roles in plant growth and development and provide numerous health benefits in the human diet (precursor of Vitamin A). The commercially popular kiwifruits are golden yellow-fleshed (Actinidia chinensis) and green fleshed (A. deliciosa) cultivars which have a high carotenoid concentration. Understanding the molecular mechanisms controlling the synthesis and sequestration of carotenoids in Actinidia species is key to increasing nutritional value of this crop via breeding. In this study we analyzed fruit with varying flesh color from three Actinidia species; orange-fleshed A. valvata (OF), yellow-fleshed A. polygama (YF) and green-fleshed A. arguta (GF). Microscopic analysis revealed that carotenoids accumulated in a crystalline form in YF and OF chromoplasts, with the size of crystals being bigger in OF compared to YF, which also contained globular substructures in the chromoplast. Metabolic profiles were investigated using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), which showed that β-carotene was the predominant carotenoid in the OF and YF species, while lutein was the dominant carotenoid in the GF species. Global changes in gene expression were studied between OF and GF (both tetraploid) species using RNA-sequencing which showed higher expression levels of upstream carotenoid biosynthesis-related genes such as DXS, PSY, GGPPS, PDS, ZISO, and ZDS in OF species compared to GF. However, low expression of downstream pathway genes was observed in both species. Pathway regulatory genes (OR and OR-L), plastid morphology related genes (FIBRILLIN), chlorophyll degradation genes (SGR, SGR-L, RCCR, and NYC1) were upregulated in OF species compared to GF. This suggests chlorophyll degradation (primarily in the initial ripening stages) is accompanied by increased carotenoid production and localization in orange flesh tissue, a contrast from green flesh tissue. These results suggest a coordinated change in the carotenoid pathway, as well as changes in plastid type, are responsible for an orange phenotype in certain kiwifruit species.

Investigating the Physiological and Molecular Responses of Solanum lycopersicum hp Mutants to Light of Different Quality for Biotechnological Applications

The effect of the light of different spectral compositions, white fluorescent light (WFL), red light (RL, 660 nm), blue light (BL, 450 nm), green light (GL, 525 nm), and white LED light (WL, 450 + 580 nm), on the physiological parameters of Solanum lycopersicum 3005 hp-2 (defective for a DET1 gene) and 4012 hp-1w; 3538 hp-1; 0279 hp-1.2 (defective for a DDB1a gene) photomorphogenetic mutants was studied. The parameters of the primary photochemical processes of photosynthesis, photosynthetic and transpiration rates, the antioxidant capacity of low-molecular weight antioxidants, the content of the total phenolic compounds, including flavonoids, and the expression of the genes involved in light signaling and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites were determined. Under BL, the 3005 hp-2 mutant showed the highest nonenzymatic antioxidant activity, which occurred to a greater extent due to the increase in flavonoid content. At the same time, under BL, the number of secretory trichomes on the surface of the leaves of all mutants increased equally. This suggests the accumulation of flavonoids inside leaf cells rather than in trichomes on the leaf surface. The data obtained indicate the possibility of using the hp-2 mutant for biotechnology to increase its nutritional value by enhancing the content of flavonoids and other antioxidants by modulating the spectral composition of light.

Proteomics of Reproductive Development, Fruit Ripening, and Stress Responses in Tomato

The fruits of the tomato crop (Solanum lycopersicum L.) are increasingly consumed by humans worldwide. Due to their rich nutritional quality, pharmaceutical properties, and flavor, tomato crops have gained a salient role as standout crops among other plants. Traditional breeding and applied functional research have made progress in varying tomato germplasms to subdue biotic and abiotic stresses. Proteomic investigations within a span of few decades have assisted in consolidating the functional genomics and transcriptomic research. However, due to the volatility and dynamicity of proteins in the regulation of various biosynthetic pathways, there is a need for continuing research in the field of proteomics to establish a network that could enable a more comprehensive understanding of tomato growth and development. With this view, we provide a comprehensive review of proteomic studies conducted on the tomato plant in past years, which will be useful for future breeders and researchers working to improve the tomato crop.

Chromoplast plastoglobules recruit the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway and contribute to carotenoid accumulation during tomato fruit maturation

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit maturation is associated with a developmental transition from chloroplasts (in mature green fruit) to chromoplasts (in red fruit). The hallmark red color of ripe tomatoes is due to carotenogenesis and accumulation of the red carotenoid lycopene inside chromoplasts. Plastoglobules (PG) are lipid droplets in plastids that are involved in diverse lipid metabolic pathways. In tomato, information on the possible role of PG in carotogenesis and the PG proteome is largely lacking. Here, we outline the role of PG in carotenogenesis giving particular attention to tomato fruit PG proteomes and metabolomes. The proteome analysis revealed the presence of PG-typical FBNs, ABC1K-like kinases, and metabolic enzymes, and those were decreased in the PG of tomato chromoplasts compared to chloroplasts. Notably, the complete β-carotene biosynthesis pathway was recruited to chromoplast PG, and the enzymes PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 (PSY-1), PHYTOENE DESATURASE (PDS), ZETA-CAROTENE DESATURASE (ZDS), and CAROTENOID ISOMERASE (CRTISO) were enriched up to twelvefold compared to chloroplast PG. We profiled the carotenoid and prenyl lipid changes in PG during the chloroplast to chromoplast transition and demonstrated large increases of lycopene and β-carotene in chromoplast PG. The PG proteome and metabolome are subject to extensive remodeling resulting in high accumulation of lycopene during the chloroplast-to-chromoplast transition. Overall, the results indicate that PGs contribute to carotenoid accumulation during tomato fruit maturation and suggest that they do so by functioning as a biosynthetic platform for carotenogenesis.

A mutation in SlCHLH encoding a magnesium chelatase H subunit is involved in the formation of yellow stigma in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Chlorophylls are ubiquitous pigments responsible for the green color in plants. Changes in the chlorophyll content have a significant impact on photosynthesis, plant growth and development. In this study, we used a yellow stigma mutant (ys) generated from a green stigma tomato WT by using ethylmethylsulfone (EMS)-induced mutagenesis. Compared with WT, the stigma of ys shows low chlorophyll content and impaired chloroplast ultrastructure. Through map-based cloning, the ys gene is localized to a 100 kb region on chromosome 4 between dCAPS596 and dCAPS606. Gene expression analysis and nonsynonymous SNP determination identified the Solyc04g015750, as the potential candidate gene, which encodes a magnesium chelatase H subunit (CHLH). In ys mutant, a single base C to T substitution in the SlCHLH gene results in the conversion of Serine into Leucine (Ser92Leu) at the N-terminal region. The functional complementation test shows that the SlCHLH from WT can rescue the green stigma phenotype of ys. In contrast, knockdown of SlCHLH in green stigma tomato AC, observed the yellow stigma phenotype at the stigma development stage. Overexpression of the mutant gene Slys in green stigma tomato AC results in the light green stigma. These results indicate that the mutation of the N-terminal S92 to Leu in SlCHLH is the main reason for the formation of the yellow stigma phenotype. Characterization of the ys mutant enriches the current knowledge of the tomato chlorophyll mutant library and provides a novel and effective tool for understanding the function of CHLH in tomato.

Reduced γ-glutamyl hydrolase activity likely contributes to high folate levels in Periyakulam-1 tomato

Tomato cultivars show wide variation in nutraceutical folate in ripe fruits, yet the loci regulating folate levels in fruits remain unexplored. To decipher regulatory points, we compared two contrasting tomato cultivars: Periyakulam-1 (PKM-1) with high folate and Arka Vikas (AV) with low folate. The progression of ripening in PKM-1 was nearly similar to AV but had substantially lower ethylene emission. In parallel, the levels of phytohormones salicylic acid, ABA, and jasmonic acid were substantially lower than AV. The fruits of PKM-1 were metabolically distinct from AV, with upregulation of several amino acids. Consistent with higher °Brix, the red ripe fruits also showed upregulation of sugars and sugar-derived metabolites. In parallel with higher folate, PKM-1 fruits also had higher carotenoid levels, especially lycopene and β-carotene. The proteome analysis showed upregulation of carotenoid sequestration and folate metabolism-related proteins in PKM-1. The deglutamylation pathway mediated by γ-glutamyl hydrolase (GGH) was substantially reduced in PKM-1 at the red-ripe stage. The red-ripe fruits had reduced transcript levels of GGHs and lower GGH activity than AV. Conversely, the percent polyglutamylation of folate was much higher in PKM-1. Our analysis indicates the regulation of GGH activity as a potential target to elevate folate levels in tomato fruits.

"Omics" insights into plastid behavior toward improved carotenoid accumulation

Plastids are a group of diverse organelles with conserved carotenoids synthesizing and sequestering functions in plants. They optimize the carotenoid composition and content in response to developmental transitions and environmental stimuli. In this review, we describe the turbulence and reforming of transcripts, proteins, and metabolic pathways for carotenoid metabolism and storage in various plastid types upon organogenesis and external influences, which have been studied using approaches including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabonomics. Meanwhile, the coordination of plastid signaling and carotenoid metabolism including the effects of disturbed carotenoid biosynthesis on plastid morphology and function are also discussed. The "omics" insight extends our understanding of the interaction between plastids and carotenoids and provides significant implications for designing strategies for carotenoid-biofortified crops.

Seeing the unseen: a trifoliate (MYB117) mutant allele fortifies folate and carotenoids in tomato fruits

In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), mutations in the gene encoding the R2R3-MYB117 transcription factor elicit trifoliate leaves and initiate the formation of axillary meristems; however, their effects on fruit ripening remain unexplored. The fruits of a new trifoliate (tf) mutant (tf-5) were firmer and had higher °Brix values and higher folate and carotenoid contents. The transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome profiling of tf-5 reflected a broad-spectrum change in cellular homeostasis. The tf-5 allele enhanced the fruit firmness by suppressing cell wall softening-related proteins. tf-5 fruit displayed a substantial increase in amino acids, particularly γ-aminobutyric acid, with a parallel reduction in aminoacyl-tRNA synthases. The increased lipoxygenase protein and transcript levels seemingly elevated jasmonic acid levels. In addition, increased abscisic acid hydrolase transcript levels coupled with reduced precursor supply lowered abscisic acid levels. The upregulation of carotenoids was mediated by modulation of methylerythreitol and plastoquinone pathways and increased the levels of carotenoid isomerization proteins. The upregulation of folate in tf-5 was connoted by the increase in the precursor p-aminobenzoic acid and transcript levels of several folate biosynthesis genes. The reduction in pterin-6-carboxylate levels and γ-glutamyl hydrolase activity indicated that reduced folate degradation in tf-5 increased folate levels. Our study delineates that in addition to leaf development, MYB117 also influences fruit metabolism. The tf-5 allele can be used to increase γ-aminobutyric acid, carotenoid, and folate levels in tomato.

Coordinated transcriptional regulation of the carotenoid biosynthesis contributes to fruit lycopene content in high-lycopene tomato genotypes

Lycopene content in tomato fruit is largely under genetic control and varies greatly among genotypes. Continued improvement of lycopene content in elite varieties with conventional breeding has become challenging, in part because little is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms in high-lycopene tomatoes (HLYs). We collected 42 HLYs with different genetic backgrounds worldwide. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed lycopene contents differed among the positive control wild tomato Solanum pimpinellifolium, HLYs, the normal lycopene cultivar "Moneymaker", and the non-lycopene cultivar NC 1Y at the pink and red ripe stages. Real-time RT-PCR analysis of expression of the 25 carotenoid biosynthesis pathway genes of each genotype showed a significantly higher expression in nine upstream genes (GGPPS1, GGPPS2, GGPPS3, TPT1, SSU II, PSY2, ZDS, CrtISO and CrtISO-L1 but not the well-studied PSY1, PDS and Z-ISO) at the breaker and/or red ripe stages in HLYs compared to Moneymaker, indicating a higher metabolic flux flow into carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in HLYs. Further conversion of lycopene to carotenes may be prevented via the two downstream genes (β-LCY2 and ε-LCY), which had low-abundance transcripts at either or both stages. Additionally, the significantly higher expression of four downstream genes (BCH1, ZEP, VDE, and CYP97C11) at either or both ripeness stages leads to significantly lower fruit lycopene content in HLYs than in the wild tomato. This is the first systematic investigation of the role of the complete pathway genes in regulating fruit lycopene biosynthesis across many HLYs, and enables tomato breeding and gene editing for increased fruit lycopene content.

Phytoene synthase 2 in tomato fruits remains functional and contributes to abscisic acid formation

In ripening tomato fruits, the leaf-specific carotenoids biosynthesis mediated by phytoene synthase 2 (PSY2) is replaced by a fruit-specific pathway by the expression of two chromoplast-specific genes: phytoene synthase 1 (PSY1) and lycopene-β-cyclase (CYCB). Though both PSY1 and PSY2 genes express in tomato fruits, the functional role of PSY2 is not known. To decipher whether PSY2-mediated carotenogenesis operates in ripening fruits, we blocked the in vivo activity of lycopene-β-cyclases in fruits of several carotenoids and ripening mutants by CPTA (2-(4-Chlorophenylthio)triethylamine hydrochloride), an inhibitor of lycopene-β-cyclases. The CPTA-treatment induced accumulation of lycopene in leaves, immature-green and ripening fruits. Even in psy1 mutants V7 and r that are deficient in fruit-specific carotenoid biosynthesis, CPTA triggered lycopene accumulation but lowered the abscisic acid level. Differing from fruit-specific carotenogenesis, CPTA-treated V7 and r mutant fruits accumulated lycopene but not phytoene and phytofluene. The lack of phytoene and phytofluene accumulation was reminiscent of PSY2-mediated leaf-like carotenogenesis, where phytoene and phytofluene accumulation is never seen. The lycopene accumulation was associated with the partial transformation of chloroplasts to chromoplasts bearing thread-like structures. Our study uncovers the operation of a parallel carotenogenesis pathway mediated by PSY2 that provides precursors for abscisic acid biosynthesis in ripening tomato fruits.

Riboswitch-mediated inducible expression of an astaxanthin biosynthetic operon in plastids

The high-value carotenoid astaxanthin (3,3'-dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione) is one of the most potent antioxidants in nature. In addition to its large-scale use in fish farming, the pigment has applications as a food supplement and an active ingredient in cosmetics and in pharmaceuticals for the treatment of diseases linked to reactive oxygen species. The biochemical pathway for astaxanthin synthesis has been introduced into seed plants, which do not naturally synthesize this pigment, by nuclear and plastid engineering. The highest accumulation rates have been achieved in transplastomic plants, but massive production of astaxanthin has resulted in severe growth retardation. What limits astaxanthin accumulation levels and what causes the mutant phenotype is unknown. Here, we addressed these questions by making astaxanthin synthesis in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plastids inducible by a synthetic riboswitch. We show that, already in the uninduced state, astaxanthin accumulates to similarly high levels as in transplastomic plants expressing the pathway constitutively. Importantly, the inducible plants displayed wild-type-like growth properties and riboswitch induction resulted in a further increase in astaxanthin accumulation. Our data suggest that the mutant phenotype associated with constitutive astaxanthin synthesis is due to massive metabolite turnover, and indicate that astaxanthin accumulation is limited by the sequestration capacity of the plastid.

Effect of high-intensity light on the photosynthetic activity, pigment content and expression of light-dependent genes of photomorphogenetic Solanum lycopersicum hp mutants

The relationship between photosynthesis, pigment accumulation, and the expression of key light-regulated genes in Solanum lycopersicum hp-1, hp-2 and hp-1.2 photomorphogenetic mutants under conditions of high-intensity light (2000 μm (photons) m^-2s^-1) was studied. The hp-2 mutant (LA3006) and the hp-1 mutants (LA4012 and LA3538) are deficient in DET1 (De-etiolated 1 and DDB1 (DNA DAMAGE-BINDING PROTEIN 1), respectively, which are components of the CDD complex (COP10, DDB1, DET1). HP mutants are superproducers of various pigments and are sensitive to light. We have shown that HIL (high-intensity light) causes a decrease in PSII activity after 24 and 72 h of irradiation, which was partially restored after 72 h in the WT. The photosynthetic rate noticeably decreased only in LA4012 and LA3538 after 24 h of irradiation. After 72 h, the photosynthetic rate decreased in all mutants, with the exception of hp-1.2 LA0279, but the decrease was most noticeable in LA4012, yet significant changes in the respiration rate were absent. The LA0279 mutant was more capable of accumulating anthocyanin in the cells of the subepidermal parenchyma and chlorenchyma, as well as in the cells at the base of large multicellular glandular trichomes and in the mesophyll. Another important difference was the accumulation of increased amounts of antheraxanthin and phenolic compounds in the leaves of LA0279 after 72 h of HIL irradiation. Unlike LA4012, LA3006, LA0279, and LA3538 sowed a significant increase in the expression levels of CHS, HY5, and FLS genes after 24 h, which may be one of the reasons for the higher adaptive potential of those three mutants. In addition to that in LA3538, strong light-induced stress led to an increased level of flavonol synthase (FLS) expression in the LA3006, LA0279, and LA4012 mutants. We hypothesize that the photosynthetic apparatus (PA) of the LA0279 mutant, which is deficient in the DET1 and DDB1 genes, is most adapted to prolonged HIL. Most likely, the resistance of PA mutants to HIL is due to a variety of factors, which, in addition to the redistribution of carotenoids, may include morphological features associated with the accumulation of anthocyanin in the epidermis, subepidermal layer, mesophyll and trichomes of leaves and with an increase in leaf thickness.

Making extra room for carotenoids in plant cells: New opportunities for biofortification

Plant carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection and provide colors in the yellow to red range to non-photosynthetic organs such as petals and ripe fruits. They are also the precursors of biologically active molecules not only in plants (including hormones and retrograde signals) but also in animals (including retinoids such as vitamin A). A carotenoid-rich diet has been associated with improved health and cognitive capacity in humans, whereas the use of carotenoids as natural pigments is widespread in the agrofood and cosmetic industries. The nutritional and economic relevance of carotenoids has spurred a large number of biotechnological strategies to enrich plant tissues with carotenoids. Most of such approaches to alter carotenoid contents in plants have been focused on manipulating their biosynthesis or degradation, whereas improving carotenoid sink capacity in plant tissues has received much less attention. Our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms influencing carotenoid storage in plants has substantially grown in the last years, opening new opportunities for carotenoid biofortification. Here we will review these advances with a particular focus on those creating extra room for carotenoids in plant cells either by promoting the differentiation of carotenoid-sequestering structures within plastids or by transferring carotenoid production to the cytosol.

The new kid on the block: a dominant-negative mutation of phototropin1 enhances carotenoid content in tomato fruits

Phototropins, the UVA-blue light photoreceptors, endow plants to detect the direction of light and optimize photosynthesis by regulating positioning of chloroplasts and stomatal gas exchange. Little is known about their functions in other developmental responses. A tomato Non-phototropic seedling1 (Nps1) mutant, bearing an Arg495His substitution in the vicinity of LOV2 domain in phototropin1, dominant-negatively blocks phototropin1 responses. The fruits of Nps1 mutant were enriched in carotenoids, particularly lycopene, compared with its parent, Ailsa Craig. On the contrary, CRISPR/CAS9-edited loss of function phototropin1 mutants displayed subdued carotenoids compared with the parent. The enrichment of carotenoids in Nps1 fruits is genetically linked with the mutation and exerted in a dominant-negative fashion. Nps1 also altered volatile profiles with high levels of lycopene-derived 6-methyl 5-hepten2-one. The transcript levels of several MEP and carotenogenesis pathway genes were upregulated in Nps1. Nps1 fruits showed altered hormonal profiles with subdued ethylene emission and reduced respiration. Proteome profiles showed a causal link between higher carotenogenesis and increased levels of protein protection machinery, which may stabilize proteins contributing to MEP and carotenogenesis pathways. The enhancement of carotenoid content by Nps1 in a dominant-negative fashion offers a potential tool for high lycopene-bearing hybrid tomatoes.

Transcriptome regulation of carotenoids in five flesh-colored watermelons (Citrullus lanatus)

BACKGROUND

Fruit flesh color in watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a great index for evaluating the appearance quality and a key contributor influencing consumers' preferences. But the molecular mechanism of this intricate trait remains largely unknown. Here, the carotenoids and transcriptome dynamics during the fruit development of cultivated watermelon with five different flesh colors were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 13 carotenoids and 16,781 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 1295 transcription factors (TFs), were detected in five watermelon genotypes during the fruit development. The comprehensive accumulation patterns of carotenoids were closely related to flesh color. A number of potential structural genes and transcription factors were found to be associated with the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway using comparative transcriptome analysis. The differentially expressed genes were divided into six subclusters and distributed in different GO terms and metabolic pathways. Furthermore, we performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis and predicted the hub genes in six main modules determining carotenoid contents. Cla018406 (a chaperone protein dnaJ-like protein) may be a candidate gene for β-carotene accumulation and highly expressed in orange flesh-colored fruit. Cla007686 (a zinc finger CCCH domain-containing protein) was highly expressed in the red flesh-colored watermelon, maybe a key regulator of lycopene accumulation. Cla003760 (membrane protein) and Cla021635 (photosystem I reaction center subunit II) were predicted to be the hub genes and may play an essential role in yellow flesh formation.

CONCLUSIONS

The composition and contents of carotenoids in five watermelon genotypes vary greatly. A series of candidate genes were revealed through combined analysis of metabolites and transcriptome. These results provide an important data resource for dissecting candidate genes and molecular basis governing flesh color formation in watermelon fruit.

Mutations in tomato 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase2 uncover its role in development beside fruit ripening

The role of ethylene in plant development is mostly inferred from its exogenous application. The usage of mutants affecting ethylene biosynthesis proffers a better alternative to decipher its role. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase2 (ACS2) is a key enzyme regulating ripening-specific ethylene biosynthesis. We characterised two contrasting acs2 mutants; acs2-1 overproduces ethylene, has higher ACS activity, and has increased protein levels, while acs2-2 is an ethylene underproducer, displays lower ACS activity, and has lower protein levels than wild type. Consistent with high/low ethylene emission, the mutants show opposite phenotypes, physiological responses, and metabolomic profiles compared with the wild type. The acs2-1 mutant shows early seed germination, faster leaf senescence, and accelerated fruit ripening. Conversely, acs2-2 has delayed seed germination, slower leaf senescence, and prolonged fruit ripening. The phytohormone profiles of mutants were mostly opposite in the leaves and fruits. The faster/slower senescence of acs2-1/acs2-2 leaves correlated with the endogenous ethylene/zeatin ratio. The genetic analysis showed that the metabolite profiles of respective mutants co-segregated with the homozygous mutant progeny. Our results uncover that besides ripening, ACS2 participates in the vegetative and reproductive development of tomato. The distinct influence of ethylene on phytohormone profiles indicates the intertwining of ethylene action with other phytohormones in regulating plant development.

Mutations in tomato 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase2 uncover its role in development beside fruit ripening

The role of ethylene in plant development is mostly inferred from its exogenous application. The usage of mutants affecting ethylene biosynthesis proffers a better alternative to decipher its role. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), 1-aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase2 (ACS2) is a key enzyme regulating ripening-specific ethylene biosynthesis. We characterised two contrasting acs2 mutants; acs2-1 overproduces ethylene, has higher ACS activity, and has increased protein levels, while acs2-2 is an ethylene underproducer, displays lower ACS activity, and has lower protein levels than wild type. Consistent with high/low ethylene emission, the mutants show opposite phenotypes, physiological responses, and metabolomic profiles compared with the wild type. The acs2-1 mutant shows early seed germination, faster leaf senescence, and accelerated fruit ripening. Conversely, acs2-2 has delayed seed germination, slower leaf senescence, and prolonged fruit ripening. The phytohormone profiles of mutants were mostly opposite in the leaves and fruits. The faster/slower senescence of acs2-1/acs2-2 leaves correlated with the endogenous ethylene/zeatin ratio. The genetic analysis showed that the metabolite profiles of respective mutants co-segregated with the homozygous mutant progeny. Our results uncover that besides ripening, ACS2 participates in the vegetative and reproductive development of tomato. The distinct influence of ethylene on phytohormone profiles indicates the intertwining of ethylene action with other phytohormones in regulating plant development.

Enzymatic and transcriptomic analysis reveals the essential role of carbohydrate metabolism in freesia (Freesia hybrida) corm formation

Starch and sucrose metabolism plays a crucial role in the formation and development of bulbs in bulbous plants. However, these mechanisms remain unclear and unexplored in the corms of Freesia hybrida. Herein, we investigated the dynamics of the major form of carbohydrates and related enzyme activities and profiled the transcriptome of freesia corms at four developmental stages with the aim to reveal the relation between the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and the accumulation of carbohydrates in corm developmental stages for further exploring the mechanism on the starch and sucrose metabolism regulating the formation and development of corms in F. hybrida. The content of starch, sucrose and soluble sugars followed an overall upward trend across the corm developmental stages. Activities of the adenosine diphosphoglucose pyrophosphorylase, starch branching enzyme and β-amylase generally followed the pattern of the starch and sucrose levels. Activities of sucrose phosphate synthase increased from corm formation till the initial swelling stage and subsequently reached a plateau. Activities of invertase and sucrose synthase peaked at the later rapid swelling stage. These suggested that the starch and sucrose dynamics paralleled corm swelling under the action of metabolic enzymes. A total of 100,999 unigenes were assembled in the transcriptomic analysis, and 44,405 unigenes of them were annotated. Analysis based on Clusters of Orthologous Groups suggested that carbohydrate transport and metabolism (9.34% of the sequences) was prominent across the corm developmental process. In total 3,427 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and the enrichment analysis detected starch and sucrose metabolism as a critical pathway in corm development, especially at the rapid swelling stage. Further, DEGs encoding key carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes were identified and correlated to enzyme activities and carbohydrate accumulation. The results construct a valuable resource pool for further molecular-level studies, which are helpful for metabolic regulation of carbohydrates and improvement in F. hybrida.

High-Level Patchoulol Biosynthesis in Artemisia annua L

Terpenes constitute the largest class of secondary metabolites in plants. Some terpenes are essential for plant growth and development, membrane components, and photosynthesis. Terpenes are also economically useful for industry, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals. However, there is very low content of most terpenes in microbes and plants. Chemical or microbial synthesis of terpenes are often costly. Plants have the elaborate and economic biosynthetic way of producing high-value terpenes through photosynthesis. Here we engineered the heterogenous sesquiterpenoid patchoulol production in A. annua. When using a strong promoter such as 35S to over express the avian farnesyl diphosphate synthase gene and patchoulol synthase gene, the highest content of patchoulol was 52.58 μg/g DW in transgenic plants. When altering the subcellular location of the introduced sesquiterpene synthetase via a signal peptide, the accumulation of patchoulol was observably increased to 273 μg/g DW. This case demonstrates that A. annua plant with glandular trichomes is a useful platform for synthetic biology studies.

Yellow-fruited phenotype is caused by 573 bp insertion at 5' UTR of YFT1 allele in yft1 mutant tomato

The yft1 tomato mutant has a yellow-fruited phenotype controlled by a recessive gene of YFT1 allele, which has been shown by map-based cloning to be a homolog of ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (EIN2). Genetic lesion of YFT1 allele in yft1 is attributed to a 573 bp DNA fragment (IF₅₇₃) insertion at 1,200 bp downstream of the transcription start site. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that YFT1 lesion resulted in 5,053 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in yft1 pericarp compared with the M82 wild type cultivar. These were annotated as being involved in ethylene synthesis, chromoplast development, and carotenoid synthesis. The YFT1 lesion caused a reduction in its own transcript levels in yft1 and impaired ethylene emission and signal transduction, delayed chromoplast development and decreased carotenoid accumulation. The molecular mechanism underlying the downregulated YFT1 allele in yft1 was examined at both RNA and DNA levels. The IF₅₇₃ event appeared to introduce two negative regulatory sequences located at -272 to -173 bp and -172 to -73 bp in the YFT1 allele promoter, causing alterative splicing due to introduction of aberrant splicing sites, and breaking upstream open reading frames (uORF) structure in the 5'-UTR. Those results a new provided insight into molecular regulation of color formation in tomato fruit.

Dissection of complex traits of tomato in the post-genome era

We present the main advances of dissection of complex traits in tomato by omics, the genes identified to control complex traits and the application of CRISPR/Cas9 in tomato breeding. Complex traits are believed to be under the control of multiple genes, each with different effects and interaction with environmental factors. Advance development of sequencing and molecular technologies has enabled the recognition of the genomic structure of most organisms and the identification of a nearly limitless number of markers that have made it to accelerate the speed of QTL identification and gene cloning. Meanwhile, multiomics have been used to identify the genetic variations among different tomato species, determine the expression profiles of genes in different tissues and at distinct developmental stages, and detect metabolites in different pathways and processes. The combination of these data facilitates to reveal mechanism underlying complex traits. Moreover, mutants generated by mutagens and genome editing provide relatively rich genetic variation for deciphering the complex traits and exploiting them in tomato breeding. In this article, we present the main advances of complex trait dissection in tomato by omics since the release of the tomato genome sequence in 2012. We provide further insight into some tomato complex traits because of the causal genetic variations discovered so far and explore the utilization of CRISPR/Cas9 for the modification of tomato complex traits.

Prospects for Carotenoid Biofortification Targeting Retention and Catabolism

Due to the ongoing prevalence of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) in developing countries there has been a large effort towards increasing the carotenoid content of staple foods via biofortification. Common strategies used for carotenoid biofortification include altering flux through the biosynthesis pathway to direct synthesis to a specific product, generally β-carotene, or via increasing the expression of genes early in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. Recently, carotenoid biofortification strategies are turning towards increasing the retention of carotenoids in plant tissues either via altering sequestration within the cell or via downregulating enzymes known to cause degradation of carotenoids. To date, little attention has focused on increasing the stability of carotenoids, which may be a promising method of increasing carotenoid content in staple foods.

Identified trans-splicing of YELLOW-FRUITED TOMATO 2 encoding the PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 protein alters fruit color by map-based cloning, functional complementation and RACE

Found a trans-splicing of PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 alters tomato fruit color by map-based cloning, functional complementation and RACE providing an insight into fruit color development. Color is an important fruit quality trait and a major determinant of the economic value of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Fruit color inheritance in a yellow-fruited cherry tomato (cv. No. 22), named yellow-fruited tomato 2 (yft2), was shown to be controlled by a single recessive gene, YFT2. The YFT2 gene was mapped in a 95.7 kb region on chromosome 3, and the candidate gene, PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 (PSY1), was confirmed by functional complementation analysis. Constitutive over expression of PSY1 in yft2 increased the accumulation of carotenoids and resulted in a red fruit color, while no causal mutation was detected in the YFT2 allele of yft2, compared with red-fruited SL1995 cherry tomato or cultivated variety (cv. M82). Expression of YFT2 3' region in yft2 was significantly lower than in SL1995, and further studies revealed a difference in YFT2 post-transcriptional processing in yft2 compared with SL1995 and cv. M82, resulting in a longer YFT2 transcript. The alternatively trans-spliced allele of YFT2 in yft2 is predicted to encode a novel LT-YFT2 protein of 432 amino acid (AA) residues, compared to the 412 AA YFT2 protein of SL1995. The trans-spliced event also resulted in significantly down regulated expression of YFT2 in yft2 tomato, and the YFT2 allele suppressed expression of the downstream genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway and carotenoids synthesis by a mechanism of the feed-forward regulation. In conclusion, we found that trans-splicing of YFT2 alters tomato fruit color, providing new insights into fruit color development.

Transcriptomic changes triggered by carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitors and role of Citrus sinensis phosphate transporter 4;2 (CsPHT4;2) in enhancing carotenoid accumulation

Carotenoid accumulation and chromoplast development in orange were perturbed by carotenoid inhibitors, and candidate genes were identified via transcriptomic analysis. The role of CsPHT4;2 in enhancing carotenoid accumulation was revealed. Carotenoids are important plant pigments and their accumulation can be affected by biosynthesis inhibitors, but the genes involved were largely unknown. Here, application of norflurazon (NFZ), 2-(4-chlorophenylthio)-triethylamine hydrochloride (CPTA) and clomazone for 30 days to in vitro cultured sweet orange juice vesicles caused over-accumulation of phytoene (over 1000-fold), lycopene (2.92 μg g^-1 FW, none in control), and deficiency in total carotenoids (reduced to 22%), respectively. Increased carotenoids were associated with bigger chromoplasts with enlarged plastoglobules or a differently crystalline structure in NFZ, and CPTA-treated juice vesicles, respectively. Global transcriptomic changes following inhibitor treatments were profiled. Induced expression of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase 1 by CPTA, hydroxymethylbutenyl 4-diphosphate reductase by both NFZ and CPTA, and reduced expression of chromoplast-specific lycopene β-cyclase by CPTA, as well as several downstream genes by at least one of the three inhibitors were observed. Expression of fibrillin 11 (CsFBN11) was induced following both NFZ and CPTA treatments. Using weighted correlation network analysis, a plastid-type phosphate transporter 4;2 (CsPHT4;2) was identified as closely correlated with high-lycopene accumulation induced by CPTA. Transient over-expression of CsPHT4;2 significantly enhanced carotenoid accumulation over tenfold in 'Cara Cara' sweet orange juice vesicle-derived callus. The study provides a valuable overview of the underlying mechanisms for altered carotenoid accumulation and chromoplast development following carotenoid inhibitor treatments and sheds light on the relationship between carotenoid accumulation and chromoplast development.

The tomato HIGH PIGMENT1/DAMAGED DNA BINDING PROTEIN 1 gene contributes to regulation of fruit ripening

Fleshy fruit ripening is governed by multiple external and internal cues and accompanied by changes in color, texture, volatiles, and nutritional quality traits. While extended shelf-life and increased phytonutrients are desired, delaying ripening via genetic or postharvest means can be accompanied by reduced nutritional value. Here we report that the high pigment 1 (hp1) mutation at the UV-DAMAGED DNA BINDING PROTEIN 1 (DDB1) locus, previously shown to influence carotenoid and additional phytonutrient accumulation via altered light signal transduction, also results in delayed ripening and firmer texture, resulting at least in part from decreased ethylene evolution. Transcriptome analysis revealed multiple ethylene biosynthesis and signaling-associated genes downregulated in hp1. Furthermore, the hp1 mutation impedes softening of the pericarp, placenta, columella as well as the whole fruit, in addition to reduced expression of the FRUITFUL2 (FUL2) MADS-box transcription factor and xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase 5 (XTH5). These results indicate that DDB1 influences a broader range of fruit development and ripening processes than previously thought and present an additional genetic target for increasing fruit quality and shelf-life.

Papaya CpbHLH1/2 regulate carotenoid biosynthesis-related genes during papaya fruit ripening

The ripening of papaya is a physiological and metabolic process associated with accumulation of carotenoids, alternation of flesh color and flavor, which depending on genotype and external factors such as light and hormone. Transcription factors regulating carotenoid biosynthesis have not been analyzed during papaya fruit ripening. RNA-Seq experiments were implemented using different ripening stages of papaya fruit from two papaya varieties. Cis-elements in lycopene β-cyclase genes (CpCYC-B and CpLCY-B) were identified, and followed by genome-wide analysis to identify transcription factors binding to these cis-elements, resulting in the identification of CpbHLH1 and CpbHLH2, two bHLH genes. The expressions of CpbHLH1/2 were changed during fruit development, coupled with transcript increase of carotenoid biosynthesis-related genes including CpCYC-B, CpLCY-B, CpPDS2, CpZDS, CpLCY-E, and CpCHY-B. Yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) and transient expression assay revealed that CpbHLH1/2 could bind to the promoters of CpCYC-B and CpLCY-B, and regulate their transcriptions. In response to strong light, the results of elevated expression of carotenoid biosynthesis-related genes and the changed expression of CpbHLH1/2 indicated that CpbHLH1/2 were involved in light-mediated mechanisms of regulating critical genes in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. Collectively, our findings demonstrated several TF family members participating in the regulation of carotenoid genes and proved that CpbHLH1 and CpbHLH2 individually regulated the transcription of lycopene β-cyclase genes (CpCYC-B and CpLCY-B). This study yielded novel findings on regulatory mechanism of carotenoid biosynthesis during papaya fruit ripening.

Heteromeric Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Synthase Contributes to Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Ripening Fruits of Red Pepper ( Capsicum annuum var. conoides)

Pepper ( Capsicum annuum) fruits are a rich source of carotenoids. Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) is the precursor for carotenoid biosynthesis and is produced by GGPP synthase (GGPPS), which belongs to the prenyl transferase (PTS) family. In this study, we identified from the pepper genome a total of eight PTS homologues. Our subcellular localization, enzymatic activity, and expression level analyses proved that among these homologues Capana04g000412 is the only functional GGPPS (CaGGPPS1) for carotenoid biosynthesis in pepper fruits. We demonstrated that CaGGPPS1 interacts with a catalytically inactive small subunit homologue protein CaSSUII, and such an interaction promotes CaGGPPS1 enzymatic activity. We also revealed a protein-protein interaction between CaSSUII and a putative phytoene synthase and the repression of carotenoid accumulation by silencing CaSSUII in pepper fruits. Taken together, our results suggest an essential contribution of the CaGGPPS1/CaSSUII interaction to carotenoid biosynthesis in ripening pepper fruits.

A ripening-induced SlGH3-2 gene regulates fruit ripening via adjusting auxin-ethylene levels in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Silencing of SlGH3-2 in tomato alters auxin and ethylene levels during fruit ripening and cause reduced lycopene accumulation in the transgenic fruits. While auxin's role during fleshy fruit ripening is widely acknowledged to be important, the physiological functions of several ripening-induced genes, especially those involved in the maintenance of cellular auxin homeostasis, largely remain under-explored. In the present study, the updated inventory shows that 24 members constitute the Gretchen-Hagen 3 (GH3) gene family in tomato. Their characterization using an expression profiling approach revealed that SlGH3-2, a member of the group II IAA-amido synthetase, is strongly induced at the commencement of fruit ripening. Phylogenetic analysis and homology modeling revealed that SlGH3-2 is the closest homolog of pepper CcGH3 and grapevine VvGH3-1. Expression profiling revealed that the mRNA level of SlGH3-2 is inhibited in ripening mutants such as ripening-inhibitor (rin) and Never-ripe (Nr). Whereas both auxin and ethylene were found to act as positive regulators of its transcript accumulation. The fruits of 35S::SlGH3-2 RNAi lines exhibited prolonged shelf-life. Both ethylene production and lycopene accumulation were affected in the fruits of SlGH3-2 silenced lines. These observations were corroborated by the altered expression of key ethylene and carotenoid biosynthesis genes such as ACS2 and PSY1, respectively, in the RNAi lines. Additionally, the SlGH3-2 silenced line fruits had higher IAA and IBA levels at the ripening stages, and showed increased transcript accumulation of several known auxin-induced SlIAA and SlGH3 genes. Altogether, the present study suggests that SlGH3-2 influences fruit ripening in tomato via modulating ethylene and auxin crosstalk, especially during the early phase.

A global perspective on carotenoids: Metabolism, biotechnology, and benefits for nutrition and health

Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and some non-photosynthetic prokaryotes and fungi. With some notable exceptions, animals (including humans) do not produce carotenoids de novo but take them in their diets. In photosynthetic systems carotenoids are essential for photoprotection against excess light and contribute to light harvesting, but perhaps they are best known for their properties as natural pigments in the yellow to red range. Carotenoids can be associated to fatty acids, sugars, proteins, or other compounds that can change their physical and chemical properties and influence their biological roles. Furthermore, oxidative cleavage of carotenoids produces smaller molecules such as apocarotenoids, some of which are important pigments and volatile (aroma) compounds. Enzymatic breakage of carotenoids can also produce biologically active molecules in both plants (hormones, retrograde signals) and animals (retinoids). Both carotenoids and their enzymatic cleavage products are associated with other processes positively impacting human health. Carotenoids are widely used in the industry as food ingredients, feed additives, and supplements. This review, contributed by scientists of complementary disciplines related to carotenoid research, covers recent advances and provides a perspective on future directions on the subjects of carotenoid metabolism, biotechnology, and nutritional and health benefits.

NAC-NOR mutations in tomato Penjar accessions attenuate multiple metabolic processes and prolong the fruit shelf life

Several Penjar accessions of tomato grown in the Mediterranean exhibit prolonged shelf life and harbor alcobaca mutation. To uncover the metabolic basis underlying shelf life, we compared four Penjar accessions to Ailsa Craig. Three accessions bore alcobaca mutation, whereas the fourth was a novel NAC-NOR allele. Cuticle composition of Penjars varied widely during fruit ripening. All Penjars exhibited delayed ripening, prolonged on-vine and off-vine shelf life, low ethylene emission, and carotenoid levels. Metabolic profiling revealed shifts in Krebs cycle intermediates, amino acids, and γ-aminobutyric acid levels indicating the attenuation of respiration in Penjars during post-harvest storage. Penjar fruits also showed concerted downregulation of several cell-wall modifying genes and related metabolites. The high ABA and sucrose levels at the onset of senescence in Penjar fruits likely contribute to reduced water loss. Our analyses reveal that the attenuation of various metabolic processes by NAC-NOR mutation likely prolongs the shelf life of Penjar fruits.

Carotenoid Metabolism in Plants: The Role of Plastids

Carotenoids are indispensable to plants and critical in human diets. Plastids are the organelles for carotenoid biosynthesis and storage in plant cells. They exist in various types, which include proplastids, etioplasts, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, and chromoplasts. These plastids have dramatic differences in their capacity to synthesize and sequester carotenoids. Clearly, plastids play a central role in governing carotenogenic activity, carotenoid stability, and pigment diversity. Understanding of carotenoid metabolism and accumulation in various plastids expands our view on the multifaceted regulation of carotenogenesis and facilitates our efforts toward developing nutrient-enriched food crops. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of various types of plastids on carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation, and discuss recent advances in our understanding of the regulatory control of carotenogenesis and metabolic engineering of carotenoids in light of plastid types in plants.

Green-fruited Solanum habrochaites lacks fruit-specific carotenogenesis due to metabolic and structural blocks

Members of the tomato clade exhibit a wide diversity in fruit color, but the mechanisms governing inter-species diversity of coloration are largely unknown. The carotenoid profiles, carotenogenic gene expression and proteome profiles of green-fruited Solanum habrochaites (SH), orange-fruited S. galapagense, and red-fruited S. pimpinellifolium were compared with cultivated tomato [S. lycopersicum cv. Ailsa Craig (SL)] to decipher the molecular basis of coloration diversity. Green-fruited SH, though it showed normal expression of chromoplast-specific phytoene synthase1 and lycopene β-cyclase genes akin to orange/red-fruited species, failed to accumulate lycopene and β-carotene. The SH phytoene synthase1 cDNA encoded an enzymatically active protein, whereas the lycopene β-cyclase cDNA was barely active. Consistent with its green-fruited nature, SH's fruits retained chloroplast structure and PSII activity, and had impaired chlorophyll degradation with high pheophorbide a levels. Comparison of the fruit proteomes with SL revealed retention of the proteome complement related to photosynthesis in SH. Targeted peptide monitoring revealed a low abundance of key carotenogenic and sequestration proteins in SH compared with tomato. The green-fruitedness of SH appears to stem from blocks at several critical steps regulating fruit-specific carotenogenesis namely the absence of chloroplast to chromoplast transformation, block in carotenoid biosynthesis, and a dearth of carotenoid sequestering proteins.

Fine Mapping, Transcriptome Analysis, and Marker Development for Y2 , the Gene That Conditions β-Carotene Accumulation in Carrot (Daucus carota L.)

Domesticated carrots, Daucus carota subsp. sativus, are the richest source of β-carotene in the US diet, which, when consumed, is converted into vitamin A, an essential component of eye health and immunity. The Y2 locus plays a significant role in beta-carotene accumulation in carrot roots, but a candidate gene has not been identified. To advance our understanding of this locus, the genetic basis of β-carotene accumulation was explored by utilizing an advanced mapping population, transcriptome analysis, and nucleotide diversity in diverse carrot accessions with varying levels of β-carotene. A single large effect Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) on the distal arm of chromosome 7 overlapped with the previously identified β-carotene accumulation QTL, Y2 Fine mapping efforts reduced the genomic region of interest to 650 kb including 72 genes. Transcriptome analysis within this fine mapped region identified four genes differentially expressed at two developmental time points, and 13 genes differentially expressed at one time point. These differentially expressed genes included transcription factors and genes involved in light signaling and carotenoid flux, including a member of the Di19 gene family involved in Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis, and a homolog of the bHLH36 transcription factor involved in maize carotenoid metabolism. Analysis of nucleotide diversity in 25 resequenced carrot accessions revealed a drastic decrease in diversity of this fine-mapped region in orange cultivated accessions as compared to white and yellow cultivated and to white wild samples. The results presented in this study provide a foundation to identify and characterize the gene underlying β-carotene accumulation in carrot.

Illuminating colors: regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation by light

Light stimulates the biosynthesis of carotenoids and regulates the development of plastid structures to accommodate these photoprotective pigments. Work with Arabidopsis revealed molecular factors coordinating carotenoid biosynthesis and storage with photosynthetic development during deetiolation, when underground seedlings emerge to the light. Some of these factors also adjust carotenoid biosynthesis in response to plant proximity (i.e., shade), a mechanism that was readapted in tomato to monitor fruit ripening progression. While light positively impacts carotenoid production and accumulation in most cases, total carotenoid levels decrease in roots of colored carrot cultivars when illuminated. The recent discovery that such cultivars might be photomorphogenic mutants provides an explanation for this striking phenotype.

Unraveling Massive Crocins Transport and Accumulation through Proteome and Microscopy Tools during the Development of Saffron Stigma

Crocins, the glucosides of crocetin, are present at high concentrations in saffron stigmas and accumulate in the vacuole. However, the biogenesis of the saffron chromoplast, the changes during the development of the stigma and the transport of crocins to the vacuole, are processes that remain poorly understood. We studied the process of chromoplast differentiation in saffron throughout stigma development by means of transmission electron microscopy. Our results provided an overview of a massive transport of crocins to the vacuole in the later developmental stages, when electron dense drops of a much greater size than plastoglobules (here defined "crocinoplast") were observed in the chromoplast, connected to the vacuole with a subsequent transfer of these large globules inside the vacuole. A proteome analysis of chromoplasts from saffron stigma allowed the identification of several well-known plastid proteins and new candidates involved in crocetin metabolism. Furthermore, expressions throughout five developmental stages of candidate genes responsible for carotenoid and apocarotenoid biogenesis, crocins transport to the vacuole and starch metabolism were analyzed. Correlation matrices and networks were exploited to identify a series of transcripts highly associated to crocetin (such as 1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS), 1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO), Crocetin glucosyltransferase 2 (UGT2), etc.) and crocin (e.g., ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS) and plastid-lipid-associated proteins (PLAP2)) accumulation; in addition, candidate aldehyde dehydrogenase (ADH) genes were highlighted.

Nitric Oxide Overproduction in Tomato shr Mutant Shifts Metabolic Profiles and Suppresses Fruit Growth and Ripening

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a pivotal role in growth and disease resistance in plants. It also acts as a secondary messenger in signaling pathways for several plant hormones. Despite its clear role in regulating plant development, its role in fruit development is not known. In an earlier study, we described a short root (shr) mutant of tomato, whose phenotype results from hyperaccumulation of NO. The molecular mapping localized shr locus in 2.5 Mb region of chromosome 9. The shr mutant showed sluggish growth, with smaller leaves, flowers and was less fertile than wild type. The shr mutant also showed reduced fruit size and slower ripening of the fruits post-mature green stage to the red ripe stage. Comparison of the metabolite profiles of shr fruits with wild-type fruits during ripening revealed a significant shift in the patterns. In shr fruits intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle were differentially regulated than WT indicating NO affected the regulation of TCA cycle. The accumulation of several amino acids, particularly tyrosine, was higher, whereas most fatty acids were downregulated in shr fruits. Among the plant hormones at one or more stages of ripening, ethylene, Indole-3-acetic acid and Indole-3-butyric acid increased in shr, whereas abscisic acid declined. Our analyses indicate that the retardation of fruit growth and ripening in shr mutant likely results from the influence of NO on central carbon metabolism and endogenous phytohormones levels.

Isolation and Characterization of Gut Bacterial Proteases Involved in Inducing Pathogenicity of Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin in Cotton Bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera

Bacillus thuringiensis toxin proteins are deployed in transgenic plants for pest management. The present studies were aimed at characterization of gut bacterial proteases involved in activation of inactive Cry1Ac protoxin (pro-Cry1Ac) to active toxin in Helicoverpa armigera. Bacterial strains were isolated from H. armigera midgut and screened for their proteolytic activation toward pro-Cry1Ac. Among 12 gut bacterial isolates seven isolates showed proteolytic activity, and proteases from three isolates (IVS1, IVS2, and IVS3) were found to be involved in the proteolytic conversion of pro-Cry1Ac into active toxin. The proteases from IVS1, IVS2, and IVS3 isolates were purified to 11.90-, 15.50-, and 17.20-fold, respectively. The optimum pH and temperature for gut bacterial protease activity was 8.0 and 40°C. Maximum inhibition of total proteolytic activity was exerted by phenylmethane sulfonyl fluoride followed by EDTA. Fluorescence zymography revealed that proteases from IVS1, IVS2, and IVS3 were chymotrypsin-like and showing protease band at ~15, 65, and 15 kDa, respectively. Active Cry1Ac formed from processing pro-Cry1Ac by gut bacterial proteases exhibited toxicity toward H. armigera. The gut bacterial isolates IVS1, IVS2, and IVS3 showed homology with B. thuringiensis (CP003763.1), Vibrio fischeri (CP000020.2), and Escherichia coli (CP011342.1), respectively. Proteases produced by midgut bacteria are involved in proteolytic processing of B. thuringiensis protoxin and play a major role in inducing pathogenicity of B. thuringiensis toxins in H. armigera.

Carotenoids in Staple Cereals: Metabolism, Regulation, and Genetic Manipulation

Carotenoids play a critical role in animal and human health. Animals and humans are unable to synthesize carotenoids de novo, and therefore rely upon diet as sources of these compounds. However, major staple cereals often contain only small amounts of carotenoids in their grains. Consequently, there is considerable interest in genetic manipulation of carotenoid content in cereal grain. In this review, we focus on carotenoid metabolism and regulation in non-green plant tissues, as well as genetic manipulation in staple cereals such as rice, maize, and wheat. Significant progress has been made in three aspects: (1) seven carotenogenes play vital roles in carotenoid regulation in non-green plant tissues, including 1-deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate synthase influencing isoprenoid precursor supply, phytoene synthase, β-cyclase, and ε-cyclase controlling biosynthesis, 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate reductase and carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases responsible for degradation, and orange gene conditioning sequestration sink; (2) provitamin A-biofortified crops, such as rice and maize, were developed by either metabolic engineering or marker-assisted breeding; (3) quantitative trait loci for carotenoid content on chromosomes 3B, 7A, and 7B were consistently identified, eight carotenogenes including 23 loci were detected, and 10 gene-specific markers for carotenoid accumulation were developed and applied in wheat improvement. A comprehensive and deeper understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of carotenoid metabolism in crops will be beneficial in improving our precision in improving carotenoid contents. Genomic selection and gene editing are emerging as transformative technologies for provitamin A biofortification.

Shotgun Proteomics of Tomato Fruits: Evaluation, Optimization and Validation of Sample Preparation Methods and Mass Spectrometric Parameters

An optimized protocol was developed for shotgun proteomics of tomato fruit, which is a recalcitrant tissue due to a high percentage of sugars and secondary metabolites. A number of protein extraction and fractionation techniques were examined for optimal protein extraction from tomato fruits followed by peptide separation on nanoLCMS. Of all evaluated extraction agents, buffer saturated phenol was the most efficient. In-gel digestion [SDS-PAGE followed by separation on LCMS (GeLCMS)] of phenol-extracted sample yielded a maximal number of proteins. For in-solution digested samples, fractionation by strong anion exchange chromatography (SAX) also gave similar high proteome coverage. For shotgun proteomic profiling, optimization of mass spectrometry parameters such as automatic gain control targets (5E+05 for MS, 1E+04 for MS/MS); ion injection times (500 ms for MS, 100 ms for MS/MS); resolution of 30,000; signal threshold of 500; top N-value of 20 and fragmentation by collision-induced dissociation yielded the highest number of proteins. Validation of the above protocol in two tomato cultivars demonstrated its reproducibility, consistency, and robustness with a CV of < 10%. The protocol facilitated the detection of five-fold higher number of proteins compared to published reports in tomato fruits. The protocol outlined would be useful for high-throughput proteome analysis from tomato fruits and can be applied to other recalcitrant tissues.

The Quest for Golden Bananas: Investigating Carotenoid Regulation in a Fe'i Group Musa Cultivar

The regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in a high-carotenoid-accumulating Fe'i group Musa cultivar, "Asupina", has been examined and compared to that of a low-carotenoid-accumulating cultivar, "Cavendish", to understand the molecular basis underlying carotenogenesis during banana fruit development. Comparisons in the accumulation of carotenoid species, expression of isoprenoid genes, and product sequestration are reported. Key differences between the cultivars include greater carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (CCD4) expression in "Cavendish" and the conversion of amyloplasts to chromoplasts during fruit ripening in "Asupina". Chromoplast development coincided with a reduction in dry matter content and fruit firmness. Chromoplasts were not observed in "Cavendish" fruits. Such information should provide important insights for future developments in the biofortification and breeding of banana.

The yellow-fruited tomato 1 (yft1) mutant has altered fruit carotenoid accumulation and reduced ethylene production as a result of a genetic lesion in ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2

The isolated yft1 allele controls the formation of fruit color in n3122 via the regulation of response to ethylene, carotenoid accumulation and chromoplast development. Fruit color is one of the most important quality traits of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and is closely associated with both nutritional and market value. In this study, we characterized a tomato fruit color mutant n3122, named as yellow-fruited tomato 1 (yft1), which produces yellow colored mature fruit. Fruit color segregation of the progeny from an intra-specific cross (M82 × n3122) and an inter-specific cross (n3122 × LA1585) revealed that a single recessive nuclear gene determined the yellow fruit phenotype. Through map-based cloning, the yft1 locus was assigned to an 88.2 kb region at the top of chromosome 9 that was annotated as containing 12 genes. Sequencing revealed that one gene, Solyc09g007870, which encodes ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2 (EIN2), contained two mutations in yft1: a 13 bp deletion and a 573 bp insertion at position -318 bp upstream of the translation initiation site. We detected that EIN2 expression was substantially lower in yft1 than in the red-fruited M82 wild type and that, in addition, carotenoid accumulation was decreased, ethylene synthesis and perception were impaired and chromoplast development was delayed. The results implied that the reduced expression of EIN2 in yft1 leads to suppressed ethylene signaling which results in abnormal carotenoid production.

Tomato MBD5, a methyl CpG binding domain protein, physically interacting with UV-damaged DNA binding protein-1, functions in multiple processes

In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), high pigment mutations (hp-1 and hp-2) were mapped to genes encoding UV-damaged DNA binding protein 1 (DDB1) and de-etiolated-1 (DET1), respectively. Here we characterized a tomato methyl-CpG-binding domain protein SlMBD5 identified by yeast two-hybrid screening using SlDDB1 as a bait. Yeast two-hybrid assay demonstrated that the physical interaction of SlMBD5 with SlDDB1 is mediated by the C-termini of SlMBD5 and the β-propeller-C (BPC) of SlDDB1. Co-immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that SlMBD5 associates with SlDDB1-interacting partners including SlDET1, SlCUL4, SlRBX1a and SlRBX1b in vivo. SlMBD5 was shown to target to nucleus and dimerizes via its MBD motif. Electrophoresis mobility shift analysis suggested that the MBD of SlMBD5 specifically binds to methylated CpG dinucleotides but not to methylated CpHpG or CpHpH dinucleotides. SlMBD5 expressed in protoplast is capable of activating transcription of CG islands, whereas CUL4/DDB1 antagonizes this effect. Overexpressing SlMBD5 resulted in diverse developmental alterations including darker green fruits with increased plastid level and elevated pigmentation, as well as enhanced expression of SlGLK2, a key regulator of plastid biogenesis. Taken together, we hypothesize that the physical interaction of SlMBD5 with the CUL4-DDB1-DET1 complex component may affect its binding activity to methylated DNA and subsequently attenuate its transcription activation of downstream genes.

Ubiquitin-conjugated degradation of golden 2-like transcription factor is mediated by CUL4-DDB1-based E3 ligase complex in tomato

CULLIN4-RING ubiquitin ligases (CRL4s) as well as their targets are fundamental regulators functioning in many key developmental and stress responses in eukaryotes. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), molecular cloning has revealed that the underlying genes of natural spontaneous mutations high pigment 1 (hp1), high pigment 2 (hp2) and uniform ripening (u) encode UV-DAMAGED DNA BINDING PROTEIN 1 (DDB1), DE-ETIOLATED 1 (DET1) and GOLDEN 2-LIKE (GLK2), respectively. However, the molecular basis of the opposite actions of tomato GLK2 vs CUL4-DDB1-DET1 complex on regulating plastid level and fruit quality remains unknown. Here, we provide molecular evidence showing that the tomato GLK2 protein is a substrate of the CUL4-DDB1-DET1 ubiquitin ligase complex for the proteasome degradation. SlGLK2 is degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome system, which is mainly determined by two lysine residues (K11 and K253). SlGLK2 associates with the CUL4-DDB1-DET1 E3 complex in plant cells. Genetically impairing CUL4, DDB1 or DET1 results in a retardation of SlGLK2 degradation by the 26S proteasome. These findings are relevant to the potential of nutrient accumulation in tomato fruit by mediating the plastid level and contribute to a deeper understanding of an important regulatory loop, linking protein turnover to gene regulation.