A review of research on plant-based meat alternatives: Driving forces, history, manufacturing, and consumer attitudes

Responsible innovation: Mitigating the food safety aspects of cultured meat production

There is much interest in cultured (cultivated) meat as a potential solution to concerns over the ecological and environmental footprint of food production, especially from animal-derived food products. The aim of this critical review is to undertake a structured analysis of existing literature to (i) identify the range of materials that could be used within the cultured meat process; (ii) explore the potential biological and chemical food safety issues that arise; (iii) identify the known and also novel aspects of the food safety hazard portfolio that will inform hazard analysis and risk assessment approaches, and (iv) position a responsible innovation framework that can be utilized to mitigate food safety concerns with specific emphasis on cultured meat. Although a number of potential food safety hazards are identified that need to be considered within a food safety plan, further research is required to validate and verify that these food safety hazards have been suitably controlled and, where possible, eliminated. The responsible innovation framework developed herein, which extends beyond hazard analysis and traditional risk assessment approaches, can be applied in multiple contexts, including this use case of cultured meat production.

Protein blend extrusion: Crafting meat analogues with varied textural structures and characteristics

With an increasing emphasis on health and environmental consciousness, there is a growing inclination toward plant protein-based meat substitutes as viable alternatives to animal meat. In the pursuit of creating diverse and functional plant protein-based substitutes, innovative plant proteins have been introduced in conjunction with soy protein isolate (SPI), encompassing pea protein isolate (PPI), rice bran protein (RBP), fava bean protein isolate (FPI), and spirulina protein isolate (SPPI). Notably, SPI-WG extrudates and SPI-PPI extrudates exhibited superior fiber structures (fiber degrees were 1.72 and 1.88, respectively), with coarse fibers in SPI-WG extrudates and fine, dense fibers in SPI-PPI extrudates. The addition of RBP, FPI and SPPI had minimal effect on fiber structure. Fresh SPI-FPI displayed the slowest rate of water loss, losing about 7.11% of their total weight in 5 h. Different plant proteins can be selected for the preparation of plant protein-based meat substitutes according to practical needs.

Enhancement of Green Production of Heme by Deleting Odor-Related Genes from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Based on CRISPR/Cas9n

Heme is a crucial component in endowing plant-based meat analogs with flavor and color. This study aimed to develop a green strategy for heme production by reducing fermentation off-odor and accelerating heme synthesis. First, an efficient CRISPR/Cas9n system was constructed in Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to construct the odor-reducing chassis cell HZC9nΔGPSU, and the odor substances including the branched-chain short fatty acids, putrescine, and ammonia were reduced by 62, 70, and 88%, respectively. Meanwhile, the hemA gene was confirmed to be the key gene for enhanced heme synthesis. Various hemA genes were compared to obtain the best gene dhemA, and the catalysis mechanism was explained by molecular docking simulation. After further expression of dhemA in HZC9nΔGPSU, the heme titer of HZC9nΔGPSU/pHY-dhemA reached 11.31 ± 0.51 mg/L, 1.70-fold higher than that of HZC9n/pHY-dhemA. The knockout of off-odor-related genes reduced the odor substances and enhanced the heme synthesis, which is promising for the green production of high-quality heme.

Plant-based fascia tissues: Exploring materials and techniques for realistic simulation

The growing demand for sustainable and ethical food options has led to significant advancements in plant-based meat substitutes (PBMS). PBMS have made considerable progress in simulating the taste, texture, and sensory properties of animal meat. Connective tissue is a fundamental component of animal meat that significantly influences tenderness, texture, and sensory properties. However, the imitation of realistic connective tissues has received relatively less attention in the PBMS industry. The current work focuses on exploring materials and techniques for the replication of plant-based connective tissues (PBCT). By understanding the structural and functional characteristics of animal connective tissues (ACT), it is possible to replicate these characteristics in PBCT. Hydrogels, with their ability to simulate certain properties of ACT, present a viable material for the creation of PBCT. To achieve the desired simulation, their mechanical and structural properties need to be enhanced by using several materials and several physical techniques.

Maillard reaction products and metabolite profile of plant-based meat burgers compared with traditional meat burgers and cooking-induced alterations

We are undergoing a food transformation with the introduction of plant-based meat analogues, but little is known about their chemical characteristics. This study aimed to elucidate the Maillard reactions in plant-based meat burger alternatives (PBMBA). For this purpose, NMR-based metabolomics and targeted MS analysis of Maillard and dehydroalanine pathway markers were conducted on six PBMBA prototypes with different proportions of high-moisture protein extrudates, low-moisture extrudates and pea protein on a commercial PBMBA and on a meat burger before and after cooking. Results revealed that higher levels of Maillard reaction markers were present in PBMBAs in the uncooked state, with lower levels formed during cooking compared with conventional meat. The metabolite profile disclosed that the distinct pattern of the Maillard reaction could be attributed to different substrate availability, but data also revealed that pre-processing of the plant protein affects the presence of Maillard reaction products in PBMBAs.

Comparison of nutritional profile between plant-based meat analogues and real meat: A review focusing on ingredients, nutrient contents, bioavailability, and health impacts

In order to fully understand the nutritional heterogeneity of plant-based meat analogues and real meat, this review summarized their similarities and differences in terms of ingredients, nutrient contents, bioavailability and health impacts. Plant-based meat analogues have some similarities to real meat. However, plant-based meat analogues are lower in protein, cholesterol and VB12 but higher in dietary fiber, carbohydrates, sugar, salt and various food additives than real meat. Moreover, some nutrients in plant-based meat analogues, such as protein and iron, are less bioavailable. There is insufficient evidence that plant-based meat analogues are healthier, which may be related to the specific attributes of these products such as formulation and degree of processing. As things stand, it is necessary to provide comprehensive nutrition information on plant-based meat products so that consumers can make informed choices based on their nutritional needs.

Preventing potential pitfalls of a liberalized potassium diet in the hemodialysis population

Emerging research suggests that a more liberalized diet, specifically a more plant-based diet resulting in liberalization of potassium intake, for people receiving hemodialysis is necessary and the benefits outweigh previously thought risks. If the prescribed hemodialysis diet is to be liberalized, the need to illuminate and prevent potential pitfalls of a liberalized potassium diet is warranted. This paper explores such topics as partial to full adherence to a liberalized diet and its consequences if any, the advantages of a high-fiber intake, the theoretical risk of anemia when consuming a more plant-dominant diet, the potential benefits against renal acid load and effect on metabolic acidosis with increased fruit and vegetable intake, the putative change in serum potassium levels, carbohydrate quality, and the healthfulness of meat substitutes. The benefits of a more plant-based diet for the hemodialysis population are multifold; however, the possible pitfalls of this type of diet must be reviewed and addressed upon meal planning in order to be avoided.

Opportunities to produce food from substantially less land

The vast majority of the food we eat comes from land-based agriculture, but recent technological advances in agriculture and food technology offer the prospect of producing food using substantially less or even virtually no land. For example, indoor vertical farming can achieve very high yields of certain crops with a very small area footprint, and some foods can be synthesized from inorganic precursors in industrial facilities. Animal-based foods require substantial land per unit of protein or per calorie and switching to alternatives could reduce demand for some types of agricultural land. Plant-based meat substitutes and those produced through fermentation are widely available and becoming more sophisticated while in the future cellular agricultural may become technically and economical viable at scale. We review the state of play of these potentially disruptive technologies and explore how they may interact with other factors, both endogenous and exogenous to the food system, to affect future demand for land.

Protein transition: focus on protein quality in sustainable alternative sources

The current consumption trends, combined with the expected demographic growth in the coming years, call for a protein transition, i.e., the partial substitution of animal protein-rich foods with foods rich in proteins produced in a more sustainable way. Here, we have discussed some of the most common and promising protein sources alternative to animal proteins, namely: legumes, insects, and microorganisms (including microalgae and fungi). The primary objective was to assess their nutritional quality through the collection of digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) values available in the scientific literature. Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) values have been used where DIAAS values were not available. The ecological impact of each protein source, its nutritional quality and the potential applications in traditional foods or novel food concepts like meat analogues are also discussed. The data collected show that DIAAS values for animal proteins are higher than all the other protein sources. Soybean proteins, mycoproteins and proteins of some insects present relatively high DIAAS (or PDCAAS) values and must be considered proteins of good quality. This review also highlights the lack of DIAAS values for many potentially promising protein sources and the variability induced by the way the proteins are processed.

High-Moisture Extrusion of Plant Proteins: Fundamentals of Texturization and Applications

The growing demand for sustainable and healthy food alternatives has led to a significant increase in interest in plant-based protein products. Among the various techniques used in creating meat analogs, high-moisture extrusion (HME) stands out as a promising technology for developing plant-based protein products that possess desirable texture and mouthfeel. During the extrusion process, plant proteins undergo a state transition, causing their rheological properties to change, thereby influencing the quality of the final extrudates. This review aims to delve into the fundamental aspects of texturizing plant proteins using HME, with a specific focus on the rheological behavior exhibited by these proteins throughout the process. Additionally, the review explores the future of HME from the perspective of novel raw materials and technologies. In summary, the objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential of HME technology in the development of sustainable and nutritious plant-based protein products.

Influence of substrate aggregation state on the enzymatic-induced crosslinking of soy protein isolate

Transglutaminase (TGase) induced-crosslinking of soy protein isolate (SPI) was markedly influenced by the substrate aggregation state. Results showed that appropriate heating significantly accelerated the TGase crosslinking, and the 7S and 11S acidic subunits were more susceptible to the enzyme than the 11S basic proteins. The content of ε-(γ-glutamyl)-lysine isopeptide bonds increased from 4.74 to 8.61 μmol/g protein when the heating intensity was increased from 75 °C for 15 min to 95 °C for 30 min, due to sufficient unfolding of the protein structure. Rheological data indicated that the gel formed from the SPI heated at 95 °C for 30 min exhibited the best properties, with a 60 % increase in the storage modulus compared with the unheated sample. However, excessive heating (95 °C, 60-120 min) caused severe aggregation of SPI and formation of insoluble aggregates, resulting in poor crosslinking efficiency and weaker gel properties.

Citizen attitudes towards present and future beef consumption before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

There's been a change in citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption in high-income countries, resulting in a decline in its consumption. The COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted citizens' attitudes and behaviours towards beef consumption. This study aimed to investigate Chilean citizens' attitudes towards beef consumption during the initial 18 months of the pandemic. Socio-demographic characteristics and attitudes towards beef consumption were asked in two questionnaires done in 2020 (n = 1142) and 2021 (n = 1221). Citizens' attitudes to beef eating and production did not change between the start and more than a year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants not related with animal production, female, young, and non-meat consumers demonstrated more negative attitudes towards beef consumption and production. Half of the participants agreed that beef is bad for the environment, but only 30% agreed that beef is bad for human health. Half of participants had reduced beef consumption and 48% expressed intentions to reduce beef consumption in the future, primarily motivated by concerns related to animal welfare, the environment, and human health. The majority of participants (80%) thought that their fellow citizens should reduce their beef consumption but only 50% had confidence that this will occur. We conclude that Chilean consumers' attitudes to beef eating did not change due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants expressed strong concern about beef consumption both individually and socially, due to environmental, animal and health concerns, and believed Chileans should reduce beef consumption in the future but had low confidence that this will happen.

Technological challenges and future perspectives of plant-based meat analogues: From the viewpoint of proteins

The global demand for high-quality animal protein faces challenges, prompting a surge in interest in plant-based meat analogues (PBMA). PBMA have emerged as a promising solution, although they encounter technological obstacles. This review discusses the technological challenges faced by PBMA from the viewpoint of plant proteins, emphasizing textural, flavor, color, and nutritional aspects. Texturally, PBMA confront issues, such as deficient fibrous structure, chewiness, and juiciness. Addressing meat flavor and mitigating beany flavor in plant protein are imperative. Furthermore, achieving a distinctive red or pink meat color remains a challenge. Plant proteins exhibit a lower content of essential amino acids. Future research directions encompass (1) shaping myofibril fibrous structures through innovative processing; (2) effectively eliminating the beany flavor; (3) developing biotechnological methodologies for leghemoglobin and plant-derived pigments; (4) optimizing amino acid composition to augment the nutritional profiles. These advancements are crucial for utilization of plant proteins in development of high-quality PBMA.

Alternative protein sources: science powered startups to fuel food innovation

Harnessing the potential of considerable food security efforts requires the ability to translate them into commercial applications. This is particularly true for alternative protein sources and startups being on the forefront of innovation represent the latest advancements in this field.

Plant-Based Meat Analogues in the Human Diet: What Are the Hazards?

Research regarding meat analogues is mostly based on formulation and process development. Information concerning their safety, shelf life, and long-term nutritional and health effects is limited. This article reviews the existing literature and analyzes potential hazards introduced or modified throughout the processing chain of plant-based meat analogues via extrusion processing, encompassing nutritional, microbiological, chemical, and allergen aspects. It was found that the nutritional value of plant-based raw materials and proteins extracted thereof increases along the processing chain. However, the nutritional value of plant-based meat analogues is lower than that of e.g., animal-based products. Consequently, higher quantities of these products might be needed to achieve a nutritional profile similar to e.g., meat. This could lead to an increased ingestion of undigestible proteins and dietary fiber. Although dietary fibers are known to have many positive health benefits, they present a hazard since their consumption at high concentrations might lead to gastrointestinal reactions. Even though there is plenty of ongoing research on this topic, it is still not clear how the sole absorption of metabolites derived from plant-based products compared with animal-based products ultimately affects human health. Allergens were identified as a hazard since plant-based proteins can induce an allergic reaction, are known to have cross-reactivities with other allergens and cannot be eliminated during the processing of meat analogues. Microbiological hazards, especially the occurrence of spore- and non-spore-forming bacteria, do not represent a particular case if requirements and regulations are met. Lastly, it was concluded that there are still many unknown variables and open questions regarding potential hazards possibly present in meat analogues, including processing-related compounds such as n-nitrosamines, acrylamide, and heterocyclic aromatic amino acids.

Are novel plant-based meat alternatives the healthier choice?

The global market for plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) is expanding quickly. In this narrative review, analysis of the most recent scientific literature was achieved to understand the nutritional profile, health implications, and the challenges faced by PBMAs. On the positive side, most PBMAs are good sources of dietary fiber, contain phytochemicals, have comparable levels of iron, and are lower in calories, saturated fat, and cholesterol than meat. However, PBMAs frequently contain anti-nutrients, have less protein, iron, and vitamin B12, are lower in protein quality, and also have higher amounts of sodium. Substituting PBMAs for meats may cause iron, vitamin B12, and less likely protein deficiency for these vulnerable population such as women, older adults, and individuals with disorders. PBMAs fall into the category of ultra-processed foods, indicating a need to develop minimally processed, clean-label products. Replacing red meat with healthy plant-based foods is associated with lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and total mortality. There is a lack of robust, long-term evidence on the role of PBMAs consumption in health. As the nutrient contents of PBMAs can vary, consumers must read nutrition facts labels and ingredient lists to select a product that best fits their nutritional and health objectives.

Exploring the Role and Functionality of Ingredients in Plant-Based Meat Analogue Burgers: A Comprehensive Review

The development of plant-based meat analogues has become a significant challenge for the food industry in recent years due to the increasing demand for sustainable and healthier proteins in the context of a global protein transition. Plant-based meat analogues imitate the visual, textural, and chemical properties of traditional meat products and are required to closely resemble meat to appeal to consumers. In addition, consumers demand natural, clean-label, and nutritional, and healthy products. To address these challenges, the food industry must develop highly healthy, nutritious, and E-number-free meat analogue products. Understanding the functionality of each ingredient and its role in the food matrix is crucial to being a key player in the innovation of the meat analogue market. This review provides updated information on the primary ingredients utilized for the development of plant-based burger meat alternatives and their functionality. The key components of meat analogue burgers are outlined, including plant proteins, binding agents, fats and oils, flavorings, colorings, preservatives, fortificants, and clean-label considerations.

Post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates following the ingestion of pea-derived protein do not differ from ingesting an equivalent amount of milk-derived protein in healthy, young males

PURPOSE

Plant-derived proteins have received considerable attention as an alternative to animal-derived proteins. However, plant-derived proteins are considered to have less anabolic properties when compared with animal-derived proteins. The lower muscle protein synthesis rates following ingestion of plant- compared with animal-derived protein have been attributed to the lower essential amino acid content of plant-derived proteins and/or their specific amino acid deficiencies. This study aimed to compare post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates following the ingestion of 30 g pea-derived protein with 30 g milk-derived protein in healthy, young males.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group design, 24 young males (24 ± 3 y) received a primed continuous L-[ring-13C6]-phenylalanine infusion after which they ingested 30 g pea (PEA) or 30 g milk-derived protein (MILK). Blood and muscle biopsies were collected frequently for 5 h to assess post-prandial plasma amino acid profiles and subsequent post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates.

RESULTS

MILK increased plasma essential amino acid concentrations more than PEA over the 5 h post-prandial period (incremental area under curve 151 ± 31 vs 102 ± 15 mmol∙300 min∙L-1, respectively; P < 0.001). Ingestion of both MILK and PEA showed a robust muscle protein synthetic response with no significant differences between treatments (0.053 ± 0.013 and 0.053 ± 0.017%∙h-1, respectively; P = 0.96).

CONCLUSION

Post-prandial muscle protein synthesis rates following the ingestion of 30 g pea-derived protein do not differ from the response following ingestion of an equivalent amount of milk-derived protein. International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (NTR6548; 27-06-2017).

Textured soy protein with meat odor as an ingredient for improving the sensory quality of meat analog and soy burger

Even with the growing consumption of plant-based products, the consumption of soy-based products is still a limitation due to the off-flavor of soy. Thus, two studies were performed using textured soy protein (TSP) with meat odor as meat analog and as soy burger. TSP with meat odor was produced by adding thiamine (aroma precursor) to soy protein concentrate (SPC) before extrusion. Three TSP were used in each study: one without thiamine and two with thiamine but with different moisture contents of the SPC. TSP with thiamine did not affect technological or physical properties of the products. For meat analogs, the samples with thiamine showed greater odor acceptance and greater intensities of meat odor, burnt aftertaste, and aromatic in relation to the sample without thiamine, as well as lower intensity of soy odor. For soy burgers, the samples with thiamine had higher acceptances of odor and flavor and overall acceptance, and higher intensities of chicken odor and aromatic in comparison to the sample without thiamine, as well as lower intensity of soy/vegetable odor. The use of TSP with thiamine raises the sensory quality of meat analogue and soy burger, being an interesting alternative in obtaining soy-based products with lower soy odor.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05875-0.

Transitioning towards more plant-based diets: sharing expert knowledge through a system lens

Transitioning towards more plant-based protein diets is essential for public and planetary health. Current research about consumption practices of protein sources provides limited insight in the multidisciplinary nature and interconnectivity of the food environment. This study aimed to collect mental models of review authors by synthesizing both their implicit and explicit system views into an overarching system view. Published reviews were used to select participants and identify variables that explain the protein transition in relation to the food environment. To overcome differences in disciplines and scale levels (e.g. individual, interpersonal, environmental), variables were organized according to the Determinants of Nutrition and Eating Framework. Eight review authors shared their mental models in an interview. Participants were asked to construct a causal loop diagram (CLD), a tool proven valuable in making one's ontology explicit to others. Implicit system views in narrative were converted into CLDs using a coding framework. The overarching system view suggests that a multitude of feedback loops sustain current consumption patterns of protein sources, for example by reinforcement through habit, availability and peer support. Several aspects require further research, such as variable relationships that were subject to disagreement and the lack of reciprocity between the physical and social elements of the food environment. In addition, knowledge gaps were exposed, including long-term behaviour and interaction of multiple variables. As a boundary object, the overarching system view can facilitate the direction of future research. The findings underscore the interconnected nature of many disparate elements within the food environment, stressing the need for holistic methods like systems thinking. These are essential in developing a systemic understanding and facilitating the transition towards more plant-based diets.

Comparison of Physical and Compositional Attributes between Commercial Plant-Based and Dairy Yogurts

A primary strategy led by the food industry to improve the sustainability of the agricultural food supply is the development of modern plant-based alternatives. The information provided via marketing and product packaging provides consumers with the expectation that these products provide a similar product experience to conventional products, yet it is not well understood whether these commercial alternative products are comparable to traditional animal-based products. To aid in developing improved plant-based products, this study aimed to compare the quality and physical attributes of commercially available plant-based and dairy yogurts. Using instrumental methods, commercially available yogurt products were analyzed for their pH, titratable acidity, color, water activity, moisture content, and rheology, which included 13 plant-based (almond, cashew, coconut, oat, soy) and 8 whole-milk dairy yogurts. The present study reveals that the plant-based and dairy yogurts had no significant differences in pH, lactic acid, water activity, or moisture content. However, there were significant differences in the color and texture properties between the plant-based and dairy yogurts. Additionally, significant differences were observed across the plant-based yogurt products in terms of their color and texture properties. This highlights the need for additional studies to determine how individual ingredients influence the physical characteristics and textural properties to direct the development of plant-based yogurts. Improving upon the physicochemical properties of plant-based yogurt may encourage more consumers to adopt a more sustainable diet.

Analysis of ingredient list and nutrient composition of plant-based burgers available in the global market

The nutrient composition of plant-based burgers is a key factor when making their purchase/consumption decision to maintain a balanced diet. For this reason, ingredient list and nutritional information of burgers launched in the global market were retrieved from their labels. Products were classified based on the technology development, market position and region of the manufacturer. From the ingredient analysis, we observed a high heterogeneity in the ingredients used, a predominance of soy and wheat as main sources of proteins, and the increasing use of new protein sources (e.g. peas, other types of beans and pseudo-cereals). Oil was the most cited ingredient followed by salt. Nutritional composition varied mainly depending on the region with no clear pattern among countries. To less extent, technology development resulted in traditional products with lower amounts of protein and higher amounts of carbohydrates. Vegan and vegetarian products showed limited differences due to the high intra-heterogenicity.

Meat- and plant-based products induced similar satiation which was not affected by multimodal augmentation

Little is known about how plant-based products influence satiation compared to corresponding meat-based products. As augmented reality (AR) intensifies sensory experiences, it was hypothesized to improve satiation. This study compared satiation between intake of meatballs and plant-based balls and plant-based balls intensified with AR for visual, olfactory, and haptic sensory properties. Intake order of the meatballs, plant-based balls, and augmented plant-based balls, eaten on separate days, was randomized. Satiation was measured from twenty-eight non-obese adults as ad libitum intake of the balls and extra snacks, and as subjective appetite sensations. Liking and wanting to eat the products were also investigated. There were no differences between the products in satiation. Before tasting the augmented plant-based balls were less liked than the meatballs (p = 0.002) or plant-based balls (p = 0.046), but after eating the first ball or eating the ad libitum number of balls the differences in liking disappeared. Wanting evaluations were similar for each product and decreased during eating (p < 0.001). A group of participants susceptible to AR was found (n = 11), described by decreased intake when augmentation was applied. Among the sub-group, wanting to eat the augmented balls was lower before tasting (p = 0.019) and after eating the first ball (p = 0.002) and appetite was less suppressed after eating the balls ad libitum (p = 0.01), when compared to non-susceptible participants. We conclude that meatballs and plant-based balls were equal in inducing satiation, and multisensory augmentation did not influence satiation. However, the augmentation decreased liking evaluations before tasting. Further studies are needed to explore differences between consumer groups in susceptibility to augmentation.

Development of the lexicon, trained panel validation and sensory profiling of new ready-to-eat plant-based " meatballs" in tomato sauce

Background

Providing educational content for children and parents can promote healthy nutritional habits. During the TITAN project, a pilot digital contest where participants have to developed ready-to-eat meatballs in sauce, using only plant-based ingredients, will be tested. The objective of this study was to develop the lexicon needed to objectively assess the sensory profile of this product.

Methods

Eight judges were recruited and trained. Thirteen 1-hour sessions took place over three months. The steps followed were the selection of commercial reference, generation of descriptors, training of the panel, validation of the trained panel and product characterisation. The judges chose one commercial reference (using simple hedonic evaluation) to serve as a reference. The accepted intensity scale for the generated descriptors was from 0 (low intensity) to 9 (very intense). To test the first versions of the game, food product developers involved in the project, acted as participants, and used a mix of lentils, quinoa, and oats to enhance the commercial version. R-project software was used to analyse the performance of the panel and the sensory profiles.

Results

A glossary with 14 descriptors was generated. The discriminatory capacity of the panel was confirmed by examining the significance of the product effect (p < 0.05). The product-judge interaction was not significant (p > 0.05) for most of the evaluated attributes, indicating a good degree of panel agreement. Overall, the panel was considered reproducible after 9 sessions. Although the appearance, firmness, fragility and chewiness were considered similar to the reference, juiciness and taste (understood as meaty flavour) of the new product were deemed improved.

Conclusions

According to the panel, two of the most appreciated attributes associated with meat analogues, juiciness and taste, were improved compared to the commercial reference. Therefore, the first approach for further development of the contest/game was validated.

Comparison of differences in sensory, volatile odour-activity and volatile profile of commercial plant-based meats

Descriptive sensory analysis was paired with temporal check-all-that-apply gas-chromatography olfactometry (TCATA GC-O) to compare differences in perceived flavour and volatile odour activity across a series of commercial plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) versus conventional beef products. Multiple factor analysis separated PBMAs in two clusters along the first principal axis. The first cluster, rated higher in meaty flavour and odour, also showed higher citation proportions of sulfurous odourants. In contrast, the second cluster, higher in off odour and flavour, had higher citation proportions for fatty / legume odourants. Key odourants correlated with meaty flavour and odour were putatively identified as 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, dimethyl trisulfide, and furfuryl mercaptan while compounds correlated to off flavour and odour were putatively identified as (E,E)-3,5-octadien-2-one, 2-undecanol, and (E,E)-2,4-decadienal. No correspondence was found between PBMA odour-activity and source protein, suggesting that volatile flavour production in PBMAs is derived primarily from exogeneous flavouring materials or precursors rather than the base protein material. Contributions of lipid-protein interactions to overall flavour differences is further suggested by the putative discovery of 5,6-dihydro-2,4,6-trimethyl-4H-1,3,5-dithiazine odour activity in several meat samples profiled.

Modelling the mass consumption potential of Plant Based Meat: Evidence from an emerging economy

The rising demand for plant-based meat (PBM) has the potential to minimize environmental degradation and save the lives of numerous animals. Furthermore, the intention to consume eco-friendly products triggers people to consume PBM. However, it is essential to understand the factors that influence consumer intentions and actual PBM consumption to enhance its adoption. By incorporating the Theory of Consumption Value, this study examines the impact of health consciousness, health motivation, personal innovativeness, perceived critical mass, perceived cost, and perceived product value on the intention to consume PBM. The impact of intention to consume PBM on actual consumption is also analyzed. Furthermore, the mediating role of the intention to consume PBM in the relationship between these factors and actual consumption behavior is investigated. Using a cross-sectional research design, 978 responses were obtained from Indonesia. The data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The results showed that health motivation, perceived critical mass perceived cost, and perceived product value were significant predictors of the intention to consume PBM. However, health motivation and personal innovation had insignificant effects on the intention to consume PBM. Moreover, the intention to consume PBM translated into actual consumption behavior. Furthermore, the intention to consume PBM significantly mediated the relationship between actual consumption behavior and factors other than health motivation, personal innovation, and perceived product value. The findings offer valuable insights for industry, policymakers, and producers interested in PBMA markets in developing focused marketing strategies, improving consumer perceptions, and addressing barriers, such as perceived costs to promote PBM consumption, particularly in emerging markets. Integrating the theory of consumption value and PLS-SEM provides a comprehensive understanding of the underlying dynamics and sheds light on the unique factors driving PBM consumption behavior.

Recent advance in modification strategies and applications of soy protein gel properties

Soy protein gel can be developed into a variety of products, ranging from traditional food (e.g., tofu) to newly developed food (e.g., soy yogurt and meat analog). So far, efforts are still needed to be made on modifying the gel properties of soy protein for improving its sensory properties as animal protein-based food substitutes. Furthermore, there is always a need to regulate its gel properties for designing novel and tailored products of soy protein gels due to the fast-growing plant protein-based product market. This review gave an emphasis on the latest modification strategies and applications of gel properties of soy protein. The modifying methods of soy protein gel properties were reviewed from an aspect of composition or processing. Compositional modification included changing protein composition and gelling conditions and using additives, whereas processing strategies can be achieved through physical, chemical, and enzymatic treatments. Several compositional modification and processing strategies have been both proven to alter the gel properties of soy protein effectively. So far, soy protein gel has been applied in the field of food and biomedicine. In the future, more mechanistic studies on the modification methods are still needed to facilitate the full application of soy protein gel.

Current Technologies and Future Perspective in Meat Analogs Made from Plant, Insect, and Mycoprotein Materials: A Review

This study reviewed the current data presented in the literature on developing meat analogs using plant-, insect-, and protein-derived materials and presents a conclusion on future perspectives. As a result of this study, it was found that the current products developed using plant-, insect-, and mycoprotein-derived materials still did not provide the quality of traditional meat products. Plant-derived meat analogs have been shown to use soybean-derived materials and beta-glucan or gluten, while insect-derived materials have been studied by mixing them with plant-derived materials. It is reported that the development of meat analogs using mycoprotein is somewhat insufficient compared to other materials, and safety issues should also be considered. Growth in the meat analog market, which includes products made using plant-, insect-, and mycoprotein-derived materials is reliant upon further research being conducted, as well as increased efforts for it to coexist alongside the traditional livestock industry. Additionally, it will become necessary to clearly define legal standards for meat analogs, such as their classification, characteristics, and product-labeling methods.

Outcomes of structure, function and flavor of pea protein isolate treated by AC, DC and pulsed electric fields

Based on the standpoint of low carbon footprint processing and less denaturation of plant protein ingredient, the effects of pulsed electric field (PEF), direct current electric field (DCEF), and alternating current electric field (ACEF) treatments on the structure, functional properties and volatile compounds of pea protein isolate were investigated. The results showed that the electric fields (EFs) caused both blueshifts (max. ∼8 cm-1) and redshifts (max. ∼7 cm-1) in the IR spectra and blueshifts (max. ∼5 nm) in the UV spectra. PEF caused an increase of emulsifying activity index and a decrease of emulsion stability index to DCEF and ACEF. A total of 27 volatile compounds were identified and the EFs could cause emerging of new volatiles and disappearing of inherent volatiles potentially to modify the flavor of products. Alterations were significantly observed among the types of EF, but seldomly among the operating parameter levels in the same EF.

Sensory Evaluation of Plant-Based Meat: Bridging the Gap with Animal Meat, Challenges and Future Prospects

Globally, the demand for plant-based meat is increasing rapidly as these products are becoming quite popular among vegans and vegetarians. However, its development is still in the early stage and faces various technological challenges; the imitation of the sensory profile of meat is the most challenging part as these products are meant to be an alternative to animal meat. The development of a product similar to meat requires accurate selection of ingredients and processing techniques. An understanding of the relevant sensory profile can help in constructing products and technologies that are consumer-centric and sustainable. In this review, we focus on the comparative differences in the sensory profiles of animal meat and plant-based meat alternatives, particularly regarding the color, texture, and flavor, along with the methods used to compare them. This paper also explains the sensory evaluation and how it affects consumer preference and acceptability. Additionally, a direction for further research on developing better plant-based meat products is suggested.

The Evaluation of Roasted Lentils (L. culinaris L.) Quick Meals as An Alternative to Meat Dishes

Despite the health-promoting benefits, the consumption of lentils in East Europe is low, attracting researchers' interest in solving the problem. The aim of this study was to develop an alternative to animal proteins for nutrient-dense plant-based quick meals using roasted lentils as the primary raw material, performing sensory analysis, and evaluating the content of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The consumption of legumes in Latvia is also low, even though most respondents associate the use of legumes with a healthy choice. Roasted lentil quick meals can deliver 15.6% and 26.2% of the reference intake for protein. Furthermore, one-third of the amino acids (AAs) are essential AAs. AA values in prepared quick meals make them promising alternatives to meat products. One portion of ready-roasted lentils with Bolognese sauce provided above 15% of the daily reference intake of thiamin and vitamin B9. One portion of a ready-quick meal of tomato soup with roasted lentils and roasted lentils with Bolognese sauce provided 20.3% and 25.6% of iron, according to daily reference intake. Further studies on the bioavailability of quick meals must be conducted to claim they can replace meat nutritionally.

Mathematical optimisation of extruded mixed plant protein-based meat analogues based on amino acid compositions

Developing meat analogues of superior amino acid (AA) profiles in the food industry is a challenge as plant proteins contain less of some essential AA than animal proteins. Mathematical optimisation models such as linear/non-linear programming models were used to overcome this challenge and create high-moisture meat analogues (HMMA) with AA profiles as close as possible to chicken breast meat. The effect on the physiochemical properties and specific mechanical energy (SME) of the HMMA was investigated. The AA content of HMMA was generally lower than chicken. Strong intermolecular bonds present in the globulin fraction could hinder protein acid hydrolysis of HMMA. Plant proteins also affect the HMMA colour as certain AA forms Maillard reaction products with higher browning intensity. Lastly, different characteristics of plant proteins resulted in different SME values under the same extrusion conditions. While mathematical programming can optimise plant protein combinations, fortification is required to match the AA profile of HMMA to an animal source.

An Overview of Ingredients Used for Plant-Based Meat Analogue Production and Their Influence on Structural and Textural Properties of the Final Product

Plant-based meat analogues are food products made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients that are intended to mimic taste, texture and appearance of meat. They are becoming increasingly popular as people look for more sustainable and healthy protein sources. Furthermore, plant-based foods are marketed as foods with a low carbon footprint and represent a contribution of the consumers and the food industry to a cleaner and a climate-change-free Earth. Production processes of plant-based meat analogues often include technologies such as 3D printing, extrusion or shear cell where the ingredients have to be carefully picked because of their influence on structural and textural properties of the final product, and, in consequence, consumer perception and acceptance of the plant-based product. This review paper gives an extensive overview of meat analogue components, which affect the texture and the structure of the final product, discusses the complex interaction of those ingredients and reflects on numerous studies that have been performed in that area, but also emphasizes the need for future research and optimization of the mixture used in plant-based meat analogue production, as well as for optimization of the production process.

Willingness to Pay a Higher Price for Pork Obtained Using Animal-Friendly Raising Techniques: A Consumers' Opinion Survey

In Italy, the consumption of pork meat is increasing, despite consumers' attitudes being addressed toward a greater sensitivity about animal welfare and its link with safe food. Considering the relatively high animal welfare standards and the divergence in public interest in farm animal welfare and ethical issues, the objective of this study-in continuation of our previous paper relating to consumer behavior and preferences in welfare-friendly pork breeding-was to investigate habits of pork consumers regarding pig welfare, principally evaluating their willingness to pay (WTP) a higher price for pork obtained using raising techniques with an approach based on animal welfare. An ad hoc questionnaire-based survey was submitted to consumers (n = 404) in Messina province, Italy. Results suggest that 47% of consumers were willing to pay an additional price for pork from farms that apply specific animal welfare standards. Positive correlations were between WTP and farming techniques (p = 0.001), organic farming methods (p = 0.001), and farms in which animal welfare is taken care of and guaranteed (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that consumers intend to pay a higher price for pork, like other animal products obtained using animal-friendly raising techniques. The sensitivity to the animal welfare of a single human being may influence consumers' attitudes toward pork consumption.

Molecular Characterization of Cooking Processes: A Metabolomics Decoding of Vaporous Emissions for Food Markers and Thermal Reaction Indicators

Thermal processing of food plays a fundamental role in everyday life. Whereas most researchers study thermal processes directly in the matrix, molecular information in the form of non- and semivolatile compounds conveyed by vaporous emissions is often neglected. We performed a metabolomics study of processing emissions from 96 different food items to define the interaction between the processed matrix and released metabolites. Untargeted profiling of vapor samples revealed matrix-dependent molecular spaces that were characterized by Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance-mass spectrometry and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Thermal degradation products of peptides and amino acids can be used for the differentiation of animal-based food from plant-based food, which generally is characterized by secondary plant metabolites or carbohydrates. Further, heat-sensitive processing indicators were characterized and discussed in the background of the Maillard reaction. These reveal that processing emissions contain a dense layer of information suitable for deep insights into food composition and control of cooking processes based on processing emissions.

A review of alternative proteins for vegan diets: Sources, physico-chemical properties, nutritional equivalency, and consumer acceptance

Alternate proteins are gaining popularity as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to animal-based proteins. These proteins are often considered healthier and are suitable for people following a vegetarian or vegan diet. Alternative proteins can be recovered from natural sources like legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds, while single cell proteins (mycoproteins), and algal proteins are being developed using cutting-edge technology to grow fungus, yeast and algal cells in a controlled environment, creating a more sustainable source of protein. Although, the demand for alternative protein products is increasing, there still happens to be a large gap in use among the general consumers mainly stemming from its lower bioavailability, lack of nutritional equivalency and reduced digestibility compared to animal proteins. The focus of the review is to emphasize on various sources and technologies for recovering alternative proteins for vegan diets. The review discusses physicochemical properties of alternative proteins and emphasise on the role of various processing technologies that can change the digestibility and bioavailability of these proteins. It further accentuates the nutritional equivalency and environmental sustainability of alternative protein against the conventional proteins from animals. The food laws surrounding alternative proteins as well as the commercial potential and consumer acceptance of alternative protein products are also highlighted. Finally, key challenges to improve the consumer acceptability and market value of plant-based proteins would be in achieving nutrient equivalency and enhance bioavailability and digestibility while maintaining the same physicochemical properties, taste, texture, as animal proteins, has also been highlighted.

Stages of Change toward Meat Reduction: Associations with Motives and Longitudinal Dietary Data on Animal-Based and Plant-Based Food Intakes in French Adults

BACKGROUND

Reducing meat consumption is advocated for healthier and more sustainable diets. However, behavioral studies are needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying meat-reducing dietary changes.

OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this study was to compare the motives associated with stages of change toward meat reduction in French adults, using the transtheoretical model (TTM). A second aim was to investigate the associations between stages of change and adherence to dietary patterns favoring a better balance of animal and plant food consumption over time.

METHODS

This longitudinal study included 25,143 non-vegetarian participants of the web-based NutriNet-Santé cohort with a mean follow-up of 6.2 (SD = 2.6) y. Dietary data were obtained from 24-h dietary records over the period 2009-2019. The contribution of meat to total energy intake and scores measuring the contribution of healthy and unhealthy plant-based foods to the diet were computed. A questionnaire completed in 2018 allowed us to identify the TTM stages of change related to meat reduction (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance), and recorded motives related to meat consumption. We used multivariate linear mixed models for repeated data to assess associations between food intake changes and stages, and logistic regression for motives, presented as adjusted frequencies.

RESULTS

Participants in later stages were characterized by a significantly higher decrease in meat intake over time, compared with the earliest stage (for example, βmaintenance ∗ time = -0.08, P < 0.0001), and a higher increase in the healthy plant-based food consumption score over time (for example, βmaintenance∗time = 0.11, P < 0.0001). Concerns about health, nutrition, and the environment were the most frequently cited motives for reducing meat consumption at all stages.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals who had already initiated meat reduction adhered to healthier and more sustainable diets than meat continuers. Characterizing motives according to readiness to reduce meat consumption could support tailored public health campaigns.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The study protocol is registered at clinicaltrials.gov with Clinical Trial Registry number NCT03335644 available at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03335644.

Comparative Evaluation of Polysaccharide Binders on the Quality Characteristics of Plant-Based Patties

Polysaccharides have been used in the production of plant-based meat analogs to replicate the texture of real meat. However, there has been no study that comprehensively compares the effects of different polysaccharides, and a limited number of polysaccharides have been evaluated. Thus, we aimed to identify the most suitable polysaccharide and concentration for plant-based patties. Plant-based patties were manufactured by blending different concentrations (0%, 1%, and 2%) of six polysaccharides with other ingredients, and the quality characteristics and sensory properties were evaluated. The L* values of plant-based patties reduced during the cooking process resembled the color change of beef patty (BP). In particular, a 2% κ-carrageenan-added patty (Car-2) exhibited the lowest L* value among the plant-based patties, measured at 44.05 (p < 0.05). Texture parameters exhibited high values by adding 2% κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum, which was close to BP. In the sensory evaluation, Car-2 showed higher scores for sensory preferences than other plant-based patties. Based on our data, incorporating 2% κ-carrageenan could offer a feasible way of crafting plant-based meat analogs due to its potential to enhance texture and flavor. Further studies are required to evaluate the suitability of polysaccharides in various types of plant-based meat analogs.

The potentials and challenges of using fermentation to improve the sensory quality of plant-based meat analogs

Despite the advancements made in improving the quality of plant-based meat substitutes, more work needs to be done to match the texture, appearance, and flavor of real meat. This review aims to cover the sensory quality constraints of plant-based meat analogs and provides fermentation as a sustainable approach to push these boundaries. Plant-based meat analogs have been observed to have weak and soft textural quality, poor mouth feel, an unstable color, and unpleasant and beany flavors in some cases, necessitating the search for efficient novel technologies. A wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, as well as fungi like Fusarium venenatum and Neurospora intermedia, have improved the product texture to mimic fibrous meat structures. Additionally, the chewiness and hardness of the resulting meat analogs have been further improved through the use of Bacillus subtilis. However, excessive fermentation may result in a decrease in the final product's firmness and produce a slimy texture. Similarly, several microbial metabolites can mimic the color and flavor of meat, with some concerns. It appears that fermentation is a promising approach to modulating the sensory profiles of plant-derived meat ingredients without adverse consequences. In addition, the technology of starter cultures can be optimized and introduced as a new strategy to enhance the organoleptic properties of plant-based meat while still meeting the needs of an expanding and sustainable economy.

Comparison of the Declared Nutrient Content of Plant-Based Meat Substitutes and Corresponding Meat Products and Sausages in Germany

Plant-based meat substitutes (PBMS) are becoming increasingly popular due to growing concerns about health, animal welfare, and environmental issues associated with animal-based foods. The aim of this study was to compare the declared energy and nutrient contents of PBMS with corresponding meat products and sausages available on the German market. Mandatory nutrition labelling data of 424 PBMS and 1026 meat products and sausages, surveyed in 2021 and 2020, respectively, as part of the German national monitoring of packaged food were used to test for differences in energy and nutrient contents. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to describe characteristics in the energy and nutrient contents. The comparison showed that most of the PBMS subcategories had significantly lower contents of fat and saturated fat but higher contents of carbohydrate and sugar than corresponding meat subcategories. For salt, the only striking difference was that PBMS salamis had lower salt content than meat salamis. Overall, the PCA revealed protein as a main characteristic for most PBMS categories, with the protein content being equivalent to or, in most protein-based PBMS, even higher than in the corresponding meat products. The wide nutrient content ranges within subcategories, especially for salt, reveal the need and potential for reformulation.

Novel plant-based meat alternatives: future opportunities and health considerations

Present food systems threaten population and environmental health. Evidence suggests reduced meat and increased plant-based food consumption would align with climate change and health promotion priorities. Accelerating this transition requires greater understanding of determinants of plant-based food choice. A thriving plant-based food industry has emerged to meet consumer demand and support dietary shift towards plant-based eating. 'Traditional' plant-based diets are low-energy density, nutrient dense, low in saturated fat and purportedly associated with health benefits. However, fast-paced contemporary lifestyles continue to fuel growing demand for meat-mimicking plant-based convenience foods which are typically ultra-processed. Processing can improve product safety and palatability and enable fortification and enrichment. However, deleterious health consequences have been associated with ultra-processing, though there is a paucity of equivocal evidence regarding the health value of novel plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) and their capacity to replicate the nutritional profile of meat-equivalents. Thus, despite the health halo often associated with plant-based eating, there is a strong rationale to improve consumer literacy of PBMAs. Understanding the impact of extensive processing on health effects may help to justify the use of innovative methods designed to maintain health benefits associated with particular foods and ingredients. Furthering knowledge regarding the nutritional value of novel PBMAs will increase consumer awareness and thus support informed choice. Finally, knowledge of factors influencing engagement of target consumer subgroups with such products may facilitate production of desirable, healthier PBMAs. Such evidence-based food manufacturing practice has the potential to positively influence future individual and planetary health.

Are genetic drift and stem cell adherence in laboratory culture issues for cultivated meat production?

Mesenchymal stem cell-based cultivated meat is a promising solution to the ecological and ethical problems posed by traditional meat production, since it exhibits a protein content and composition that is more comparable to original meat proteins than any other source of cultivated meat products, including plants, bacteria, and fungi. Nonetheless, the nature and laboratory behavior of mesenchymal stem cells pose two significant challenges for large-scale production: genetic drift and adherent growth in culture. Culture conditions used in the laboratory expose the cells to a selective pressure that causes genetic drift, which may give rise to oncogene activation and the loss of "stemness." This is why genetic and functional analysis of the cells during culture is required to determine the maximum number of passages within the laboratory where no significant mutations or loss of function are detected. Moreover, the adherent growth of mesenchymal stem cells can be an obstacle for their large-scale production since volume to surface ratio is limited for high volume containers. Multi-tray systems, roller bottles, and microcarriers have been proposed as potential solutions to scale-up the production of adherent cells required for cultivated meat. The most promising solutions for the safety problems and large-scale obstacles for cultivated meat production are the determination of a limit number of passages based on a genetic analysis and the use of microcarriers from edible materials to maximize the volume to surface proportion and decrease the downstream operations needed for cultivated meat production.

Significance of Fermentation in Plant-Based Meat Analogs: A Critical Review of Nutrition, and Safety-Related Aspects

Plant-based meat analogs have been shown to cause less harm for both human health and the environment compared to real meat, especially processed meat. However, the intense pressure to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based meat alternatives has caused their nutritional and safety aspects to be overlooked. This paper reviews our current understanding of the nutrition and safety behind plant-based meat alternatives, proposing fermentation as a potential way of overcoming limitations in these aspects. Plant protein blends, fortification, and preservatives have been the main methods for enhancing the nutritional content and stability of plant-based meat alternatives, but concerns that include safety, nutrient deficiencies, low digestibility, high allergenicity, and high costs have been raised in their use. Fermentation with microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Neurospora intermedia, and Rhizopus oryzae improves digestibility and reduces allergenicity and antinutritive factors more effectively. At the same time, microbial metabolites can boost the final product's safety, nutrition, and sensory quality, although some concerns regarding their toxicity remain. Designing a single starter culture or microbial consortium for plant-based meat alternatives can be a novel solution for advancing the health benefits of the final product while still fulfilling the demands of an expanding and sustainable economy.

Nutritional Assessment of Plant-Based Meat Products Available on Hong Kong Market: A Cross-Sectional Survey

BACKGROUND

Plant-based meat (PBM) takes up ever-increasing market shares and draws great attention from both customers and retailers these days. However, little is known about the nutritional quality of PBM products.

OBJECTIVE

This study intended to profile and evaluate the overview nutrition of PBM with equivalent meat products on the Hong Kong market.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 274 PBM and 151 meat products from 27 different brands on the Hong Kong market in October 2022. The nutritional differences between PBM and meat products were assessed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and two independent sample t-test. The nutritional quality of PBMs was evaluated according to nutrient reference value, front-of-package (FoP) criteria and nutritional score.

RESULTS

PBM had relatively lower energy density, total fat, saturated fat, protein, and salt compared to meat. According to the FoP criteria, 91.36%, 17.88%, and 99.34% of PBMs were labeled as medium to high in fat, salt, and sugar, respectively. Through ingredient analysis of 81 PBM products, soy and canola were the main source of protein and fat.

CONCLUSIONS

PBM products have a roughly better nutrient quality compared to muscle-based meat, though there is still potential for further refinement in terms of production, consumption, and regulation.

Plant-based meat analogs and fat substitutes, structuring technology and protein digestion: A review

There is currently an increasing trend in the consumption of meat analogs and fat substitutes due to the health hazards by excessive consumption of meat. Simulating the texture and mouthfeel of meat through structured plant-derived polymers has become a popular processing method. In this review, the mechanical structuring technology of plant polymers for completely replacing real meat is mainly introduced in this review, which mainly focuses on the parameters and principles of mechanical equipment for the production of vegan meat. The difference in composition between plant meat and real meat is mainly reflected in the protein, and particular attention should be paid to the digestive characteristics of plant meat protein in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, the differences in the protein digestibility properties of meat analogs and real meat is discussed in this review, focusing primarily on protein digestibility and peptide/amino acid composition of mechanically structured vegan meats. In terms of fat substitutes for meat products, the types of plant polymer colloidal systems used for meat fat substitutes is comprehensively introduced, including emulsion, hydrogel and oleogel.

Techno-Functional and Sensory Characterization of Commercial Plant Protein Powders

Many new plant proteins are appearing on the market, but their properties are insufficiently characterized. Hence, we collected 24 commercial proteins from pea, oat, fava bean, chickpea, mung bean, potato, canola, soy, and wheat, including different batches, and assessed their techno-functional and sensory properties. Many powders had yellow, red, and brown color tones, but that of fava bean was the lightest. The native pH ranged from 6.0 to 7.7. The water solubility index was 28% on average, but after heat treatment the solubility typically increased. Soy isolate had by far the best water-holding capacity of 6.3 g (H₂O) g^-1, and canola had the highest oil-holding capacity of 2.8 g (oil) g^-1. The foaming capacity and stability results were highly varied but typical to the raw material. The emulsification properties of all powders were similar. Upon heating, the highest viscosity and storage modulus were found in potato, canola, and mung bean. All powders had raw material flavor, were bitter and astringent, and undissolved particles were perceived in the mouth. Large differences in functionality were found between the batches of one pea powder. In conclusion, we emphasize the need for methodological standardization, but while respecting the conditions found in end applications like meat and dairy analogs.

Comprehensive Review on the Role of Plant Protein As a Possible Meat Analogue: Framing the Future of Meat

Animal proteins from meat and goods derived from meat have recently been one of the primary concerns in the quest for sustainable food production. According to this perspective, there are exciting opportunities to reformulate more sustainably produced meat products that may also have health benefits by partially replacing meat with nonmeat substances high in protein. Considering these pre-existing conditions, this review critically summarizes recent findings on extenders from a variety of sources, including pulses, plant-based ingredients, plant byproducts, and unconventional sources. It views these findings as a valuable opportunity to improve the technological profile and functional quality of meat, with a focus on their ability to affect the sustainability of meat products. As a result, meat substitutes like plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), meat made from fungi, and cultured meat are being offered to encourage sustainability.

Are plant-based alternatives healthier? A two-dimensional evaluation from nutritional and processing standpoints

BACKGROUND

Plant-Based Alternative Products (PBAPs) to meat and dairy are increasingly available. Their relative nutritional quality in comparison to animal-based homologs is poorly documented.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize and evaluate the plant-based alternatives available on the market in Spain in comparison to animal products in terms of their nutritional composition and profile, and degree of processing.

METHODS

Nutritional information for PBAPs and homologs were obtained from the Spanish 'Veggie base', branded food composition database. Five PBAPs categories (cheese, dairy products, eggs, meat, and fish, n = 922) were compared to animal-based processed (n = 922) and unprocessed (n = 381) homologs, using the modified version of the Food Standard Agency Nutrient Profiling System (FSAm-NPS score) and NOVA classification criteria.

RESULTS

Compared to processed or unprocessed animal food, PBAPs contain significantly higher sugar, salt, and fiber. PBAPs for fish, seafood, and meat were lower in protein and saturated fatty acids. Overall, 68% of PBAPs, 43% of processed and 75% of unprocessed animal-homologs had Nutri-Score ratings of A or B (most healthy). About 17% of PBAPs, 35% of processed and 13% of unprocessed animal-based food were in Nutri-Score categories D or E (least healthy). Dairy, fish, and meat alternatives had lower FSAm-NPS scores (most healthy), while cheese alternatives scored higher (least healthy) than animal-based homologs. Unprocessed fish and meat were healthier than similar PBAPs based on FSAm-NPS criteria. Approximately 37% of PBAPs and 72% of processed animal-based products were ultra-processed food (NOVA group 4). Within the ultra-processed food group, Nutri-Score varied widely.

CONCLUSIONS

Most PBAPs had better nutrient profile than animal-based homologs. However, cheese, fish and meats PBAPs had poorer nutrient profile and were more processed. Given the high degree of processing and variable nutritional profile, PBAPs require a multi-dimensional evaluation of their health impact.

The effect of mycoprotein intake on biomarkers of human health: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Mycoprotein is a fungal source of protein that is increasingly consumed as an ingredient in meat analogs.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze the effects of mycoprotein intake on selected biomarkers of human health.

METHODS

This study was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022308980). We searched the PubMed, Scopus, and Embase databases to identify randomized control trials in any language until 16 August, 2022. Trials were included if they administered a mycoprotein intervention against a nonmycoprotein control arm and if reported outcomes included blood lipids, blood glucose, insulin, blood pressure, or body weight. Eligible trials were assessed for risk of bias using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials. An inverse-variance-weighted, random-effects meta-analysis model was used to assess the effects of intake across each biomarker.

RESULTS

Nine trials that included 178 participants with a mean follow-up of 13 d were included, with 4 reporting on blood lipids and 5 reporting on postprandial blood glucose or insulin. The overall reduction of total cholesterol was -0.55 mmol/L (95% CI: -0.85 to -0.26; P < 0.001) in the mycoprotein group compared to control, but no clear effects on HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, or TGs were found (all P > 0.05). There were no reductions in postprandial blood glucose concentrations at 30, 60, 90 or 120 min. Postprandial blood insulin concentration was reduced by -76.51 pmol/L (95% CI: -150.75 to -2.28; P = 0.043) at 30 min, with no detectable effects at 60, 90, or 120 min.

CONCLUSIONS

Mycoprotein intake may have important effects on blood lipids, but the evidence base is limited by the small sample sizes and short intervention periods of the contributing trials. The protocol for this systematic review has been registered in PROSPERO as CRD42022308980.

A global perspective on a new paradigm shift in bio-based meat alternatives for healthy diet

A meat analogue is a casserole in which the primary ingredient is something other than meat. It goes by various other names, such as meat substitute, fake meat, alternative meat, and imitation meat. Consumers growing interest in improving their diets and the future of the planet have contributed to the move towards meat substitutes. This change is due to the growing popularity of low-fat and low-calorie diets, the rise of flexitarians, the spread of animal diseases, the loss of natural resources, and the need to cut down on carbon emissions, which lead to greenhouse effects. Plant-based meat, cultured meat, algal protein-based meat, and insect-based meat substitutes are available on the market with qualities like appearance and flavor similar to those of traditional meat. Novel ingredients like mycoprotein and soybean leg haemoglobin are mixed in with the more traditional soy proteins, cereals, green peas, etc. Plant-based meat is currently more popular in the West, but the growing interest in this product in Asian markets indicates the industry in this region will expand rapidly in the near future. Future growth in the food sector can be anticipated from technologies like lab-grown meat and its equivalents that do not require livestock breeding. Insect-based products also hold great potential as a new source of protein for human consumption. However, product safety and quality should be considered along with other factors such as marketability and affordability.