A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children

The association between maternal and child posttraumatic stress symptoms among families living in southern Israel: The buffering role of maternal executive functions

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a prolonged stress and anxiety response that occurs after exposure to a traumatic event. Research shows that both parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are correlated but parental executive functions (EFs) could buffer this link. EFs refers to a group of high-level cognitive processes that enable self-regulation of thoughts and actions to achieve goal-directed behaviours and can be of importance for both positive parenting interactions and effective coping skills for PTSS. Our study aimed to (1) examine the link between maternal and child PTSS and the moderating role of varying degrees of exposure to severe security threats context, and (2) to identify the moderating role of maternal EFs in this interaction, among families living in southern Israel. Our sample included 131 mothers in their second pregnancy and their firstborn children. Mothers performed computerised tasks to assess their EFs and they reported on their own and their child's PTSS. Results revealed a positive correlation between maternal PTSS and child PTSS. However, the link between maternal and child PTSS was moderated by maternal working memory updating abilities and threat context severity. Among mothers with lower updating capacities, the association between maternal and child symptoms was stronger under higher threat contexts; conversely, among mothers with higher maternal updating abilities, threat context did not modulate the link between maternal and child PTSS, suggesting a stress-buffering effect. Our study contributes to the growing literature on the significant role of parental EFs in the context of parent-child interactions.

The effects of working memory training on working memory, self-regulation, and analogical reasoning of preschool children

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This study examined the effects of working memory training (WMT) on WM and fluid intelligence. A novel four-pronged model of mediated learning, cognitive functions, task characteristics and metacognition is presented as a conceptual basis for the Modifiability of a Working Memory Program (MWMP). Our basic assumption is that increasing WM depends on a synchronized combination of the four components.

SAMPLE

A group of typically developed preschool children (n = 62) participated in the experimental group, receiving the MWMP. They were compared with a control group (n = 56) of preschool children who engaged in a substitute program. This comparison allowed us to discern the specific effects of the MWMP.

METHODS

All participants received tests of WM, self-regulation and analogical reasoning before and after the intervention. The MWMP was administered to children in the experimental group for 10 weekly sessions, each lasting 40 minutes, in small groups of two children. The children in the control group engaged in didactic activities that were part of a school curriculum routine for kindergartners for the same length of time.

RESULTS

We used ANCOVA analysis to compare the Treatment x Time with age and socioeconomic status as covariates. The findings revealed a higher improvement in some WM and self-regulation tests among children in the experimental group compared to those in the control group. However, no significant transfer effects were observed in analogical thinking.

CONCLUSION

The findings confirm the effectiveness of a non-computerized WMT among kindergartners and support our four-pronged theoretical model. We also discuss earlier findings on far-transfer effects and educational implications. We suggest that future WM studies adopt the following: (1) the development of training methods that are theoretically anchored; (2) training procedures should not rely heavily on computerized exercises but can be adapted to group characteristics, educational settings and cost-effectiveness aspects; (3) varying the task characteristics and training strategies to stimulate task-intrinsic motivation; (4) identifying training strategies to produce cognitive improvements underlying WM; (5) intervention should target individuals in early development as much as possible; (6) development of training procedures that facilitate motivation; and (7) providing empirical evidence of far-transfer effects for WM training. The empirical evidence should link gains in WM capacity and achievements in academic and other life domains.

Association between glucose levels of children with type 1 diabetes and parental economic status in mobile health application

BACKGROUND

The glycemic control of children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) may be influenced by the economic status of their parents.

AIM

To investigate the association between parental economic status and blood glucose levels of children with T1D using a mobile health application.

METHODS

Data from children with T1D in China's largest T1D online community, Tang-TangQuan®. Blood glucose levels were uploaded every three months and parental economic status was evaluated based on annual household income. Children were divided into three groups: Low-income (< 30000 Yuan), middle-income (30000-100000 Yuan), and high-income (> 100000 yuan) (1 Yuan = 0.145 United States Dollar approximately). Blood glucose levels were compared among the groups and associations were explored using Spearman's correlation analysis and multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

From September 2015 to August 2022, 1406 eligible children with T1D were included (779 female, 55.4%). Median age was 8.1 years (Q1-Q3: 4.6-11.6) and duration of T1D was 0.06 years (0.02-0.44). Participants were divided into three groups: Low-income (n = 320), middle-income (n = 724), and high-income (n = 362). Baseline hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels were comparable among the three groups (P = 0.072). However, at month 36, the low-income group had the highest HbA1c levels (P = 0.036). Within three years after registration, glucose levels increased significantly in the low-income group but not in the middle-income and high-income groups. Parental economic status was negatively correlated with pre-dinner glucose (r = -0.272, P = 0.012). After adjustment for confounders, parental economic status remained a significant factor related to pre-dinner glucose levels (odds ratio = 13.02, 95%CI: 1.99 to 126.05, P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

The blood glucose levels of children with T1D were negatively associated with parental economic status. It is suggested that parental economic status should be taken into consideration in the management of T1D for children.

The mediating role of community identity in the relationship between social class and life satisfaction: Evidence from Chinese community residents

Research has shown that social class is an important predictor of life satisfaction. However, the underlying mechanism for this relationship is yet to be fully elucidated. The study examined the underlying mechanism based on the social identity approach to health. Study 1 recruited 577 community residents to complete self-report questionnaires. Correlation analysis showed that social class, community identity, and life satisfaction were positively correlated with each other. Regression analysis showed that community identity mediated the relationship. To increase the replicability and derive causal inference of the results, Study 2 was a randomized control trial (N = 76) that used the resource-availability task to manipulate subjective social class, and found that life satisfaction in the lower-class group was significantly lower than that in the control group. Further analysis showed that social class predicted life satisfaction through the mediating role of community identity. The findings provide potential strategies to enhance community residents' life satisfaction.

Cognitive control in infancy: Attentional predictors using a tablet-based measure

Cognitive control is a predictor of later-life outcomes and may underpin higher order executive processes. The present study examines the development of early cognitive control during the first 24-month. We evaluated a tablet-based assessment of cognitive control among infants aged 18- and 24-month. We also examined concurrent and longitudinal associations between attentional disengagement, general cognitive skills and cognitive control. Participants (N = 60, 30 female) completed the tablet-task at 18- and 24-month of age. Attentional disengagement and general cognitive development were assessed at 5-, 8-, 12-, 18- and 24-month using an eye-tracking measure and the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL), respectively. The cognitive control task demonstrated good internal consistency, sensitivity to age-related change in performance and stable individual differences. No associations were found between infant cognitive control and MSEL scores longitudinally or concurrently. The eye-tracking task revealed that slower attentional disengagement at 8-month, but faster disengagement at 18-month, predicted higher cognitive control scores at 24-month. This task may represent a useful tool for measuring emergent cognitive control. The multifaceted relationship between attention and infant cognitive control suggests that the rapid development of the attentional system in infancy results in distinct attentional skills, at different ages, being relevant for cognitive control development.

Modifiable factors influencing attention performance in healthy children: insights from a comprehensive school nutrition study

BACKGROUND

There is inconclusive evidence for the effects of various leisure activities on attention performance in children. The literature reports inconsistent associations between activities such as physical activities or media use. To date, no study has thoroughly examined the various factors influencing attentional performance in a larger cohort of healthy children. This study aims to close this research gap.

METHODS

From 2018 to 2019, the Leipzig School Nutrition Study collected data from 1215 children and their families. The children report their dietary behavior (using CoCu- Questionnaire), especially their participation in school lunch and their breakfast habits, through a paper questionnaire. Furthermore, attention performance was assessed using a validated test (FAIR-2) at school. Data on physical activity, media consumption, family eating habits and socio-economic status (SES) were collected from parents using questionnaires. Associations between attention and influencing factors were estimated using hierarchical linear regression. Analyses were adjusted for age, SES, and school type.

RESULTS

Attending upper secondary schools (ßadj= 23.6, p < 0.001) and having a higher SES (ß= 1.28, p < 0.001) was associated with higher attention performance. Children doing leisure-time sports (ßadj= 4.18, p = 0.046) or reading books for at least one hour/weekday showed better attention performance (ßadj= 3.8, p = 0.040). Attention performance was also better in children having no electronic devices in the bedroom (ßadj= 13.0, p = 0.005) and in children whose parents limited their children's Internet access (ßadj= 5.2, p = 0.012). We did not find any association between nutritional habits and attention performance.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that fostering modifiable habits such as reading and physical activity could enhance attention performance. These findings have substantial implications for the development of prevention and intervention programs that aim to improve attention in schoolchildren. It is important to note, however, that social status as a hardly modifiable factor also impacts attention performance. Therefore, interventions should address personal habits in a systemic approach considering the child's social status.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study is retrospectively registered with the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00017317, registration: 05-29-2019).

Rates of family history of autism and ADHD varies with recruitment approach and socio-economic status

Family history (FH) of autism and ADHD is not often considered during the recruitment process of developmental studies, despite high recurrence rates. We looked at the rate of autism or ADHD amongst family members of young children (9 to 46 months) in three UK-based samples (N = 1055) recruited using different methods. The rate of FH-autism or FH-ADHD was 3%-9% for diagnosed cases. The rate was highest in the sample recruited through an online participant pool, which also consisted of the most socio-economically diverse families. Lower parental education and family income were associated with higher rates of FH-ADHD and lower parental education with increased FH-autism. Thus, recruitment strategies have a meaningful impact on neurodiversity and the conclusions and generalizations that can be drawn. Specifically, recruitment using crowdsourcing websites could create a sample that is more representative of the wider population, compared to those recruited through university-related volunteer databases and social media.

Maternal education prospectively predicts child neurocognitive function: An environmental influences on child health outcomes study

A large body of research has established a relation between maternal education and children's neurocognitive functions, such as executive function and language. However, most studies have focused on early childhood and relatively few studies have examined associations with changes in maternal education over time. Consequently, it remains unclear if early maternal education is longitudinally related to neurocognitive functions in children, adolescents, and young adults. In addition, the associations between changes in maternal education across development and more broadly defined neurocognitive outcomes remain relatively untested. The current study leveraged a large multicohort sample to examine the longitudinal relations between perinatal maternal education and changes in maternal education during development with children's, adolescents', and young adults' neurocognitive functions (N = 2,688; Mage = 10.32 years; SDage = 4.26; range = 3-20 years). Moreover, we examined the differential effects of perinatal maternal education and changes in maternal education across development on executive function and language performance. Perinatal maternal education was positively associated with children's later overall neurocognitive function. This longitudinal relation was stronger for language than executive function. In addition, increases in maternal education were related to improved language performance but were not associated with executive functioning performance. Our findings support perinatal maternal education as an important predictor of neurocognitive outcomes later in development. Moreover, our results suggest that examining how maternal education changes across development can provide important insights that can help inform policies and interventions designed to foster neurocognitive development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Socioeconomic Inequalities Affect Brain Responses of Infants Growing Up in Germany

Developmental changes in functional neural networks are sensitive to environmental influences. This EEG study investigated how infant brain responses relate to the social context that their families live in. Event-related potentials of 255 healthy, awake infants between six and fourteen months were measured during a passive auditory oddball paradigm. Infants were presented with 200 standard tones and 48 randomly distributed deviants. All infants are part of a longitudinal study focusing on families with socioeconomic and/or cultural challenges (Bremen Initiative to Foster Early Childhood Development; BRISE; Germany). As part of their familial socioeconomic status (SES), parental level of education and infant's migration background were assessed with questionnaires. For 30.6% of the infants both parents had a low level of education (≤10 years of schooling) and for 43.1% of the infants at least one parent was born abroad. The N2-P3a complex is associated with unintentional directing of attention to deviant stimuli and was analysed in frontocentral brain regions. Age was utilised as a control variable. Our results show that tone deviations in infants trigger an immature N2-P3a complex. Contrary to studies with older children or adults, the N2 amplitude was more positive for deviants than for standards. This may be related to an immature superposition of the N2 with the P3a. For infants whose parents had no high-school degree and were born abroad, this tendency was increased, indicating that facing multiple challenges as a young family impacts on the infant's early neural development. As such, attending to unexpected stimulus changes may be important for early learning processes. Variations of the infant N2-P3a complex may, thus, relate to early changes in attentional capacity and learning experiences due to familial challenges. This points towards the importance of early prevention programs.

The Role of SES in Preadolescence: Understandings and Group Evaluations based on Income, Education, and Occupation

Socioeconomic status (SES) predicts many facets of preadolescents' life opportunities, yet little is known about how children perceive SES and whether it plays a role in their group evaluations. This study examined preadolescents' socioeconomic understandings and biases (investigated presenting fictitious peers varying in SES), while separating the three SES-indicators income, education and occupation. Five classes (Grade 4-6) with 89 students (Mage = 10.44, SD = 0.93; 40% female) participated. Overall, preadolescents understood that the SES indicators income, education and occupation are related to each other. At the same time, they differentiated between the indicators in their group evaluations; they showed a positive bias for peers with high-educated parents, whereas for occupation and income there was no clear overall bias. This shows that differences between SES indicators are meaningful for children, which emphasizes the importance to distinguish between specific SES-indicators when studying the role of SES for preadolescents' social life.

Early childhood trauma exposure and neurocognitive and emotional processes: Associations in young children in a partial hospital program

Early childhood trauma has been linked to neurocognitive and emotional processing deficits in older children, yet much less is known about these associations in young children. Early childhood is an important developmental period in which to examine relations between trauma and executive functioning/emotion reactivity, given that these capacities are rapidly developing and are potential transdiagnostic factors implicated in the development of psychopathology. This cross-sectional study examined associations between cumulative trauma, interpersonal trauma, and components of executive functioning, episodic memory, and emotion reactivity, conceptualized using the RDoC framework and assessed with observational and performance-based measures, in a sample of 90 children (ages 4-7) admitted to a partial hospital program. Children who had experienced two or more categories of trauma had lower scores in episodic memory, global cognition, and inhibitory control as measured in a relational (but not computerized) task, when compared to children with less or no trauma. Interpersonal trauma was similarly associated with global cognition and relational inhibitory control. Family contextual factors did not moderate associations. Findings support examining inhibitory control in both relationally significant and decontextualized paradigms in early childhood, and underscore the importance of investigating multiple neurocognitive and emotional processes simultaneously to identify potential targets for early intervention.

Metacognition as a mediator of the relation between family SES and language and mathematical abilities in preschoolers

The effect of family socioeconomic status (SES) on academic achievement in literacy and numeracy has been extensively studied with educational inequalities already witnessed in preschoolers. This is presumably explained by the effect of family SES on cognitive and socioemotional abilities associated with academic achievement. Metacognition which refers to knowledge and regulation skills involving reflexivity about one's own cognitive processes is one of these abilities. However, most of the studies investigating the association between metacognition and academic achievement have focused on school-aged students and studies with younger students are only emerging. Meanwhile, the association between family SES and metacognition abilities has surprisingly received little attention regardless of participants' age. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between family SES, metacognition, language and mathematical abilities in preschoolers aged 5 to 6. We provide the first evidence that the effect of family SES on preschoolers' language and mathematical abilities is mediated by the effect of family SES on their metacognitive abilities. The implications for future research, education and policies aiming at reducing educational inequalities are discussed.

[Formula: see text] Environmental predictors of children's executive functioning development

Executive functioning (EF) abilities develop through childhood, but this development can be impacted by various psychosocial environmental influences. Using longitudinal data from the Health Outcome and Measures of the Environment (HOME) Study, a prospective pregnancy and birth cohort study, we examined if psychosocial environmental factors were significant predictors of EF development. Study participants comprised 271 children and their primary caregivers (98.5% mothers) followed from birth to age 12. We identified four distinct EF developmental trajectory groups comprising a consistently impaired group (13.3%), a descending impairment group (27.7%), an ascending impairment group (9.95%), and a consistently not impaired group (49.1%). Higher levels of maternal ADHD and relational frustration appear to be risk factors for increased EF difficulty over time, while higher family income may serve as a protective factor delaying predisposed EF impairment. Important intervention targets might include teaching positive and effective parenting strategies to mothers whose children are at risk for EF dysfunction.

Executive functioning in antisocial behavior: A multi-level systematic meta-analysis

Neurobiological information - including executive functioning - is increasingly relevant for forensic clinical practice, as well as for the criminal justice system. Previous meta-analyses report that antisocial populations show impaired performance on executive functioning tasks, but these meta-analyses are outdated, have limitations in their methodological approach, and are therefore in need of an update. The current multi-level meta-analysis including 133 studies (2008-2023) confirms impaired performance in executive functioning (d=.42), but studies are heterogeneous. Several moderator analyses showed that neuropsychological test used, type of executive function component, and control group characteristics moderated the overall effect. Specifically, matching psychiatric problems in the non-antisocial control group eliminated any differences in executive functioning between groups. No moderation effects were found for assessment quality, hot or cold executive functions, and various population characteristics. These results could indicate that the assessment of executive functioning in antisocial populations may be less relevant for recidivism risk assessment than thought, although this should first be assessed in prospective longitudinal studies. Executive functioning could potentially be used to identify or screen for individuals with certain treatment needs or be used as a responsivity factor, especially in disorders which are often underdiagnosed in criminal justice settings.

If Opportunity Knocks: Understanding Contextual Factors' Influence on Cognitive Systems

Central to the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework is the idea that RDoC constructs, which vary dimensionally by individual, are heavily influenced by contextual factors. Perhaps chief among these contextual factors is structural opportunity - the quality of resources available to a child as they grow. The aim of this study is to understand the impact of access to opportunity during childhood on three central RDoC cognitive systems constructs: language, visual perception, and attention. These constructs were measured using clinical data from psychological evaluations of youth ages 4-18 years (N = 16,523; Mage = 10.57, 62.3% male, 55.3% White). Structural opportunity was measured using the geocoded Child Opportunity Index 2.0 (COI), a composite score reflecting 29 weighted indicators of access to the types of neighborhood conditions that help children thrive. Findings indicate that, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors, greater access to opportunity is associated with significantly stronger cognitive skills across all three constructs. However, opportunity uniquely explains the largest proportion of the variance in language skills (8.4%), compared to 5.8% of the variance in visual processing skills and less than 2% of the variance in attention. Further, a moderating effect of age was found on the relation between COI and language skills, suggesting that the longer children remain exposed to lower levels of opportunity, the lower their language skills tend to be. Understanding how opportunity impacts cognitive development allows clinicians to offer better tailored recommendations to support children with cognitive systems deficits, and will support policy recommendations around access to opportunity.

Impact of low birth weight on academic attainment during adolescence: A comprehensive retrospective cohort study using linked data

BACKGROUND

This study addresses a critical knowledge gap by exploring the intricate relationship between low birth weight (LBW) and the heightened risk of suboptimal academic achievement during adolescence through a comprehensive retrospective cohort design.

METHODS

In this registry-based cohort study, meticulously linked health and curriculum-based test data for individuals born in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, between 2003 and 2005 were employed. Birth weight data were carefully sourced from the NSW perinatal data collection (PDC). The educational performance of offspring was thoroughly evaluated using the National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) during grade 9, approximately at 14 years of age.

RESULTS

After rigorous adjustments for potential confounders, findings revealed a compelling narrative: LBW adolescents demonstrated an elevated susceptibility to not meeting national minimum standards across all domains, encompassing spelling [OR, 1.59 (95%CI 1.48-1.69)], writing [OR, 1.51 (95%CI 1.41-1.61)], reading [OR, 1.38 (95%CI 1.29-1.48)], and numeracy [OR, 1.52 (95%CI 1.40-1.63)]. Notably, LBW boys exhibited a more pronounced inclination towards diminished academic performance compared to their female counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive retrospective cohort study, based on linked data, unequivocally establishes LBW as significantly associated with an increased vulnerability to substandard educational achievement during adolescence. Particularly robust effects were observed in females across all outcomes. Aimed at investigating whether LBW serves as a predictive factor for later academic difficulties, this study underscores the imperative for the adoption and fortification of preventative and early intervention strategies to curtail the prevalence of LBW-associated academic underachievement in later adolescence.

Distinct Constellations of Common Risk Factors Differentially Relate to Executive-Function Ability in Children

Executive functioning (EF) has been shown to relate to academic achievement and well-being. Independent bodies of work have aimed to understand what environmental or personal attributes influence EF ability. However, most research has not considered how constellations of risk factors create distinct patterns of influence on EF ability. The current study tested a sample of children aged 9 to 10 years from the United States (N = 10,323, 48.06% female, Mage = 9.9 years, age range = 8.9-11.08 years) using a latent profile analysis (LPA) to detect subgroups that varied in their combinations of various risk factors. Six distinct groups of risk factors for children emerged, which in turn related to different average EF abilities. We found that family socioeconomic measures related to a subgroup having above- or below-average EF ability, but we also found an effect on EF across different risk factors. These results inform our understanding of individual variations in EF ability and highlight the idea that EF interventions should consider risk holistically.

Interplay of socioeconomic status, cognition, and school performance in the ABCD sample

Coming from a disadvantaged background can have negative impact on an individual's educational trajectory. Some people however seem unaffected and cope well with the demands and challenges posed by school education, despite growing up in adverse conditions, a phenomenon termed academic resilience. While it is uncertain which underlying factors make some people more likely to circumvent unfavorable odds than others, both socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive ability have robustly been linked to school performance. The objective of the present work is to investigate if individual cognitive abilities and SES interact in their effect on grades. For this purpose, we analyzed SES, cognitive, and school performance data from 5001 participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Ordinal logistic regression models suggest similar patterns of associations between three SES measures (parental education, income-to-needs ratio, and neighborhood deprivation) and grades at two timepoints, with no evidence for interaction effects between SES and time. Parental education and income-to-needs ratio were associated with grades at both timepoints, irrespective of whether cognitive abilities were modeled or not. Neighborhood deprivation, in contrast, was only a statistically significant predictor of reported grades when cognitive abilities were not factored in. Cognitive abilities interacted with parental education level, meaning that they could be a safeguard against effects of SES on school performance.

Using the Indonesian Computer-Based Game Prototype as a Computer-Based Game Inventory for Executive Function in Children and Adolescents: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Concurrent Validity Study

Executive function influences children's learning abilities and organizes their cognitive processes, behaviors, and emotions. This cross-sectional study examined whether an Indonesian Computer-Based Game (ICbG) prototype could be used as a Computer-Based Game Inventory for Executive Function (CGIEF) in children and adolescents. The study was conducted with 200 children, adolescents, and their parents. The parents completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning (BRIEF) questionnaire, and the children and adolescents completed the CGIEF. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed using LISREL Version 8.80. The construct of CGIEF was valid/fit with normal theory-weighted least squares = 15.75 (p > .05). SEM analysis showed that the theoretical construct of the CGIEF was a valid predictor of executive function. The critical t value of the pathway was 2.45, and normal theory-weighted least squares was 5.74 (p > .05). The construct reliability (CR) for CGIEF was 0.91. Concurrent validity was assessed using the Bland-Altman plot, and the coefficient of repeatability (bias/mean) was nearly zero between the t scores of total executive functions of the CGIEF and BRIEF. This preliminary study showed that the CGIEF can be useful as a screening tool for executive dysfunction, metacognitive deficits, and behavioral regulation problems among children and adolescents in clinical samples.

Drivers of the socio-economic disadvantage gap in England: Sequential pathways that include the home learning environment and self-regulation as mediators

BACKGROUND

Socio-economic status (SES) is a powerful predictor of attainment. Research has identified multiple mechanisms that underpin the effect of SES on attainment. For example, self-regulation (processes through which individuals direct and control their attention, emotion and behaviour) has been identified as one mechanism mediating the SES attainment gap. However, previous studies have not directly tested the statistical pathways by which children from lower SES backgrounds develop low self-regulation skills and subsequently poor attainment at the end of primary school. Adding the home learning environment, which is associated with both SES and self-regulation, further fleshes out the longitudinal pathways.

AIMS

We propose and test a new model where the relationship between SES and school attainment is sequentially mediated by the family home learning environment and the child's self-regulation.

SAMPLE

This study uses the Effective Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education data set to study 2311 English children.

METHODS

We measured SES (via socio-economic disadvantage) based on an index of low parental education, occupation and income at age 3+. The home learning environment was measured by the Home Learning Environment Index at age 3+; self-regulation was a teacher report on the Child Social Behaviour Questionnaire at age 4+ and attainment was measured via scores on national assessments of English and Maths at age 11.

RESULTS

Our measure of disadvantage predicted attainment. The home learning environment predicted children's self-regulation skills. The relationship between disadvantage and attainment was sequentially mediated by the home learning environment and self-regulation.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that home learning environment and self-regulation may play a sequential role in perpetuating socio-economic disparities in education.

Parental socioeconomic status weakly predicts specific cognitive and academic skills beyond general cognitive ability

Parental socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of children's neurocognitive development. Several theories propose that specific cognitive skills are particularly vulnerable. However, this can be challenging to test, because cognitive assessments are not pure measures of distinct neurocognitive processes, and scores across different tests are often highly correlated. Aside from one previous study by Tucker-Drob, little research has tested if associations between SES and cognition are explained by differences in general cognitive ability rather than specific cognitive skills. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we tested if parental SES is associated with individual cognitive test scores after controlling for latent general cognitive ability. Data from three large-scale cohorts totalling over 16,360 participants from the UK and USA (ages 6-19) were used. Associations between SES and cognitive test scores are mainly (but not entirely) explained through general cognitive ability. Socioeconomic advantage was associated with particularly strong vocabulary performance, unexplained by general ability. When controlling for general cognitive ability, socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with better executive functions. Better characterizing relationships between cognition and adversity is a crucial first step toward designing interventions to narrow socioeconomic gaps. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Understanding environmental influences on cognitive development is a crucial goal for developmental science-parental socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors. Several theories have proposed that specific cognitive skills, such as language or certain executive functions, are particularly susceptible to socioeconomic adversity. Using structural equation modelling, we tested whether SES predicts specific cognitive and academic tests after controlling for latent general cognitive ability across three large-scale cohorts. SES moderately predicted latent general cognitive ability, but associations with specific cognitive skills were mainly small, with a few exceptions.

Elucidating mechanisms linking mothers' and fathers' mind-mindedness in infancy with children's self-regulation at early preschool age

Extensive research has examined factors that contribute to individual differences in children's self-regulation (SR), a key social-emotional competence crucial to adjustment and mental health. Those differences become salient and measurable at late toddler age. In the CAPS (N = 200 community families), we examined mothers' and fathers' appropriate mind-mindedness (MM)-the ability to view the child as a psychological agent and correctly interpret his or her mental states-as a predictor of children's SR. MM was observed in parent-child interactions at 8 months, and SR was observed as the capacity for deliberate delay in standard tasks at 3 years. Reflecting a family system perspective, processes both within and across mother-child and father-child relationships were examined in one model. Parent-child mutual responsiveness, observed during interactions at 16 months, was modeled as a mediator of the paths from MM to SR. Fathers' MM had a significant, direct positive effect on SR; in addition, it enhanced mutual responsiveness in both father-child and mother-child dyads and promoted child SR through enhanced mother-child mutual responsiveness. The findings elucidate relatively poorly understood mechanisms linking parental MM in infancy with SR at early preschool age, highlight similarities and differences in the processes unfolding in mother-child and father-child relationships, and emphasize interparental dynamics in socialization.

Characterizing the role of impulsivity in costly, reactive aggression using a novel paradigm

A lack of self-control has long been theorized to predict an individual's likelihood to engage in antisocial behaviors. However, existing definitions of self-control encompass multiple psychological constructs and lab-based measures of aggression have not allowed for the examination of aggression upon provocation where self-control is needed most. We introduce two versions of a novel paradigm, the Retaliate or Carry-on: Reactive AGgression Experiment (RC-RAGE) to fill this methodological gap. Using large online samples of US adults (N = 354 and N = 366), we evaluate to what extent dispositional impulsivity, self-control, aggression, and state anger contribute to aggression upon provocation when there is a financial cost involved. Results showed that costly retaliation on this task was related to trait aggression and being in an angry emotional state, but not related to social desirability. Importantly, we show that the tendency to act impulsively is a better predictor of costly retaliation than other forms of self-control, such as the ability to delay gratification, resist temptation, or plan ahead. As a browser-based task, the RC-RAGE provides a tool for the future investigation of reactive aggression in a variety of experimental settings.

Cognitive stimulation as a mechanism linking socioeconomic status and neural function supporting working memory: a longitudinal fMRI study

Childhood experiences of low socioeconomic status are associated with alterations in neural function in the frontoparietal network and ventral visual stream, which may drive differences in working memory. However, the specific features of low socioeconomic status environments that contribute to these disparities remain poorly understood. Here, we examined experiences of cognitive deprivation (i.e. decreased variety and complexity of experience), as opposed to experiences of threat (i.e. violence exposure), as a potential mechanism through which family income contributes to alterations in neural activation during working memory. As part of a longitudinal study, 148 youth between aged 10 and 13 years completed a visuospatial working memory fMRI task. Early childhood low income, chronicity of low income in early childhood, and current income-to-needs were associated with task-related activation in the ventral visual stream and frontoparietal network. The association of family income with decreased activation in the lateral occipital cortex and intraparietal sulcus during working memory was mediated by experiences of cognitive deprivation. Surprisingly, however, family income and deprivation were not significantly related to working memory performance, and only deprivation was associated with academic achievement in this sample. Taken together, these findings suggest that early life low income and associated cognitive deprivation are important factors in neural function supporting working memory.

Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: Disentangling the indirect role of executive functions and intelligence

Research in children points to aerobic fitness as a source of individual differences in academic achievement. By examining the indirect effects of executive functions (EF) and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, the present study provides novel insight about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. 218 children (8-10 years) completed the following assessments: (i) a VO2max test to assess aerobic fitness; (ii) four tasks tapping components of EF (i.e., inhibition and cognitive flexibility); (iii) sub-tests of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test to assess fluid and crystallized intelligence; and (iv) sub-tests of arithmetic, spelling, and reading achievement (WRAT 3rd edition). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine the indirect role of EF and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and sub-domains of academic achievement. Covariate analyses included age, pubertal timing, and socio-economic status. Preliminary analysis via linear regression showed a direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement, whereas no effect was observed on spelling and reading achievement. Importantly, multiple mediation SEM revealed the direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement disappeared after accounting for the indirect effects of EF, whereas intelligence did not contribute significantly on this complex mediation process. Moreover, among EF components, cognitive flexibility, was the main driver of the relationship between aerobic fitness and arithmetic achievement. Unpacking which components of EF and intelligence affect the link between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, holds the promise of better understanding the heterogeneity still present in the literature.

Household Income and Early Adolescents' Executive Function: The Different Roles of Perceived Discrimination and Shift-and-Persist

Household income predicts early adolescents' cognitive development. However, the mechanism underlying this association and protective factors are unclear. This study assessed one-year longitudinal data to examine whether perceived discrimination mediated the association between household income and executive function and the moderating role of shift-and-persist. 344 early adolescents in rural China were included in the study (mean = 10.88 years, SD = 1.32 years, girls: 51.74%). The latent variable model revealed that household income predicted early adolescents' cognitive flexibility and working memory in the subsequent year through perceived discrimination. Shift-and-persist moderated the negative effects of perceived discrimination on cognitive flexibility: perceived discrimination impeded cognitive flexibility only among early adolescents with low shift-and-persist. The findings highlight perceived discrimination in the relation between household income and early adolescents' executive function and underscore the protective role of shift-and-persist.

Risk factors for executive function impairment in adolescence: an analysis of data from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate risk factors associated with impaired attention-related executive functions (EFs) at age 11 and working memory at age 15.

METHODS

Data from participants of the population-based 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort at ages 11 (n=3,582) and 15 (n=1,950) were analyzed. The study measured attentional control, cognitive flexibility, and selective attention using the Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch). Spatial working memory was assessed by the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Logistic regression was employed to explore the relationship between perinatal and childhood exposures and EF impairment.

RESULTS

Low maternal education had a significant negative impact on EFs. At age 11, it was associated with decreased attentional control (OR = 3.04; 95%CI 2.09-4.43), and at age 15, it was linked to impaired spatial working memory (OR = 2.21; 95%CI 1.58-3.09). Additional risk factors included low household income, black or brown maternal skin color, high parity, prematurity, low birth weight, and multiple siblings. Breastfeeding, regardless of duration, was found to be a protective factor against impaired cognitive flexibility (OR = 0.38; 95%CI 0.22-0.65).

CONCLUSION

This study underscores the lasting impact of perinatal exposures on EF development. Policies that mitigate the negative effects of risk factors and promote EF development, especially among vulnerable populations, are needed.

How do socioeconomic attainment gaps in early mathematical ability arise?

Socioeconomic attainment gaps in mathematical ability are evident before children begin school, and widen over time. Little is known about why early attainment gaps emerge. Two cross-sectional correlational studies were conducted in 2018-2019 with socioeconomically diverse preschoolers, to explore four factors that might explain why attainment gaps arise: working memory, inhibitory control, verbal ability, and frequency of home mathematical activities (N = 304, 54% female; 84% White, 10% Asian, 1% black African, 1% Kurdish, 4% mixed ethnicity). Inhibitory control and verbal ability emerged as indirect factors in the relation between socioeconomic status and mathematical ability, but neither working memory nor home activities did. We discuss the implications this has for future research to understand, and work towards narrowing attainment gaps.

Executive function and underlying brain network distinctions for callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in adolescents

The complexity of executive function (EF) impairments in youth antisocial phenotypes of callous-unemotional (CU) traits and conduct problems (CP) challenge identifying phenotypic specific EF deficits. We can redress these challenges by (1) accounting for EF measurement error and (2) testing distinct functional brain properties accounting for differences in EF. Thus, we employed a latent modeling approach for EFs (inhibition, shifting, fluency, common EF) and extracted connection density from matching contemporary EF brain models with a sample of 112 adolescents (ages 13-17, 42% female). Path analysis indicated CU traits associated with lower inhibition. Inhibition network density positively associated with inhibition, but this association was strengthened by CU and attenuated by CP. Common EF associated with three-way interactions between density*CP by CU for the inhibition and shifting networks. This suggests those higher in CU require their brain to work harder for lower inhibition, whereas those higher in CP have difficulty engaging inhibitory brain responses. Additionally, those with CP interacting with CU show distinct brain patterns for a more general EF capacity. Importantly, modeling cross-network connection density in contemporary EF models to test EF involvement in core impairments in CU and CP may accelerate our understanding of EF in these phenotypes.

Variation in executive function relates to BMI increases in youth who were initially of a healthy weight in the ABCD Study

OBJECTIVE

The study aim was to determine whether (A) differences in executive function (EF) and cognition precede weight gain or (B) weight gain causes changes to EF and cognition.

METHODS

Data were gathered from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (release 4.0; ages 9-12 years old [N = 2794]; 100% had healthy weight at baseline [i.e., 9/10 years old], 12.4% had unhealthy weight by ages 11/12 years). EF and cognition were assessed across several domains (e.g., impulsivity, inhibitory control, processing speed, memory); BMI was calculated from height and weight. Nested random-effects mixed models examined (A) BMI ~ EF × Time (i.e., variation in EF/cognition precedes weight gain) and (B) EF ~ BMI × Time (weight gain causes changes to EF/cognition) and controlled for sex, puberty, and caregiver education; random effects were site and subject.

RESULTS

Variation in impulsivity, memory, learning, and processing speed was associated with greater increases in BMI trajectories from 9 to 12 years old. Weight gain was associated with a decrease in inhibitory control, but no other associations were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Underlying variation in EF and cognition may be important for weight gain, but 2 years of weight gain may not be enough to have clinical implications for EF and cognition beyond inhibitory control. These findings suggest that more attention should be paid to the inclusion of EF programs in obesity prevention efforts.

A canonical trajectory of executive function maturation from adolescence to adulthood

Theories of human neurobehavioral development suggest executive functions mature from childhood through adolescence, underlying adolescent risk-taking and the emergence of psychopathology. Investigations with relatively small datasets or narrow subsets of measures have identified general executive function development, but the specific maturational timing and independence of potential executive function subcomponents remain unknown. Integrating four independent datasets (N = 10,766; 8-35 years old) with twenty-three measures from seventeen tasks, we provide a precise charting, multi-assessment investigation, and replication of executive function development from adolescence to adulthood. Across assessments and datasets, executive functions follow a canonical non-linear trajectory, with rapid and statistically significant development in late childhood to mid-adolescence (10-15 years old), before stabilizing to adult-levels in late adolescence (18-20 years old). Age effects are well captured by domain-general processes that generate reproducible developmental templates across assessments and datasets. Results provide a canonical trajectory of executive function maturation that demarcates the boundaries of adolescence and can be integrated into future studies.

Investigating Ecological Momentary Assessed Physical Activity and Core Executive Functions in 18- to 24-Year-Old Undergraduate Students

Although evidence for young children (<10) and older adults (>64) highlights an association between physical activity (PA) and executive functions (EFs), there is a paucity of research on adolescents aged 18-24 years. Thus, this study examined the associations between PA and EF and the difference in EF between individuals who achieve the moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) guidelines and those who do not. Forty-seven participants engaged in a Stroop task, a reverse Corsi-block test, and a task-switching test, to measure inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, respectively. An ecological momentary assessment (EMA) was used to determine the participant's MVPA and step count, through the "Pathverse" app. Multiple regressions were run to predict the task-switch cost, the Stroop effect, and the backward Corsi span from time spent in MVPA. A two-way ANCOVA examined the effects of achieving the MVPA guidelines on EF. MVPA and step count did not significantly predict EF. There were no significant differences in EF between participants achieving the MVPA guidelines and those that did not. Time spent in MVPA and step count were not significantly associated with working memory, cognitive flexibility, or inhibition in adolescents. Further research is warranted to understand other factors that may significantly affect EF, within and outside an individual's control.

Nonverbal Executive Functioning in Relation to Vocabulary and Morphosyntax in Preschool Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

PURPOSE

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is characterized by persistent and unexplained difficulties in language development. Accumulating evidence shows that children with DLD also present with deficits in other cognitive domains, such as executive functioning (EF). There is an ongoing debate on whether exclusively verbal EF abilities are impaired in children with DLD or whether nonverbal EF is also impaired, and whether these EF impairments are related to their language difficulties. The aims of this study were to (a) compare nonverbal performance of preschoolers with DLD and typically developing (TD) peers, (b) examine how nonverbal EF and language abilities are related, and (c) investigate whether a diagnosis of DLD moderates the relationship between EF and language abilities.

METHOD

A total of 143 children (nDLD = 65, nTD = 78) participated. All children were between 3 and 6.5 years old and were monolingual Dutch. We assessed nonverbal EF with a visual selective attention task, a visuospatial short-term and working memory task, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. Vocabulary and morphosyntax were each measured with two standardized language tests. We created latent variables for EF, vocabulary, and morphosyntax.

RESULTS

Analyses showed that children with DLD were outperformed by their TD peers on all nonverbal EF tasks. Nonverbal EF abilities were related to morphosyntactic abilities in both groups, whereas a relationship between vocabulary and EF skills was found in the TD group only. These relationships were not significantly moderated by a diagnosis of DLD.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence for nonverbal EF impairments in preschool children with DLD. Moreover, nonverbal EF and morphosyntactic abilities were significantly related in these children. These findings may have implications for intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24121287.

Developmental Correlates of Accelerated Molar Eruption in Early Childhood

Background

Adversity has been linked to accelerated maturation. Molar eruption is a simple and scalable way to identify early maturation, but its developmental correlates remain unexplored. Thus, we examined whether accelerated maturation as indexed by molar eruption is associated with children's mental health or cognitive skills.

Methods

Molar eruption was evaluated from T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in 117 children (63 female; ages 4-7 years). Parents reported on child mental health with the Child Behavior Checklist. Children completed standardized assessments of fluid reasoning, working memory, processing speed, crystallized knowledge, and math performance. Relationships between molar eruption and developmental outcomes were examined using linear models, with age, gender, and stress risk as covariates.

Results

Earlier molar eruption was positively associated with children's externalizing symptoms (false discovery rate-corrected p [pFDR] = .027) but not internalizing symptoms, and the relationship with externalizing symptoms did not hold when controlling for stress risk. Earlier molar eruption was negatively associated with fluid reasoning (pFDR < .001), working memory (pFDR = .033), and crystallized knowledge (pFDR = .001). The association between molar eruption and both reasoning and crystallized knowledge held when controlling for stress risk. Molar eruption also partially mediated associations between stress risk and both reasoning (proportion mediated = 0.273, p = .004) and crystallized knowledge (proportion mediated = 0.126, p = .016).

Conclusions

Accelerated maturation, as reflected in early molar eruption, may have consequences for cognitive development, perhaps because it constrains brain plasticity. Knowing the pace of a child's maturation may provide insight into the impact of a child's stress history on their cognitive development.

Biological, behavioral, and social correlates of executive function in low-income preschoolers: Insights from the perspective of the networks

Behavioral, biological, and social correlates may be related to the association between executive function (EF) and physical activity (PA), when considering such variables as an integrated and non-linear system. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between EF, PA and associated correlates in low-income preschoolers according to a network perspective. Thus, 142 preschoolers of both sexes, age 3-to-5-years-old (51% girls) were analyzed. Light, moderate and vigorous PA, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), body mass index, family income, preterm birth, presence of siblings, presence of other children at home and the child's primary caregiver were assessed. Our results showed that EF was positively associated with age (b = 0.47), child's primary caregivers (b = 0.37), moderate PA (b = 0.30) and CRF (b = 0.25). Negative associations were seen with preterm birth (b = -0.50), vigorous PA (b = -0.34), presence of other children at home (b = -0.25), and sex (b = -0.33). The network's centrality indicators highlighted preterm birth and moderate PA as the most important variables in the network. Future interventions aiming to increase low-income preschoolers' EF should focus on increasing moderate PA, with special attention to preterm children.

Contributions of socioeconomic status and cognition to emotion processes and internalizing psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review

This systematic review evaluated evidence from 25 manuscripts regarding three possible relationships of socioeconomic disadvantage (SESD) and cognition to emotion knowledge (EK), emotion regulation (ER), and internalizing psychopathology (IP) across development; a) independent contributions of disadvantage and cognition; b) cognition mediates relations of disadvantage; or c) cognition moderates' relations of disadvantage. Results support associations between SESD and cognition to emotion that differ by cognitive domain and developmental epoch. For EK, in early and middle childhood language and executive functions contribute to EK independent of SESD, and early childhood executive functions may interact with socioeconomic status (SES) to predict prospective EK. Regarding ER, language contributes to ER independent of SES across development and may mediate associations between SES and ER in adolescence. Regarding IP, SES, language, executive function, and general ability have independent contributions to IP across development; in adolescence executive function may mediate or moderate associations between SES and IP. Findings highlight the need for nuanced and developmentally sensitive research on the contributions of SESD and domains of cognition to emotion.

Association between adolescents' socioeconomic status and working memory updating functioning: Role of parental educational involvement

Family socioeconomic status (SES) is positively associated with executive functioning. This study tested whether parental educational involvement mediates this association. Two hundred and sixty, 12-15-year-old adolescents completed working memory updating (WMU) and general intelligence tasks, and questionnaires on SES and parental educational involvement. SES and WMU ability were positively associated; there was no difference between the fathers and mothers for three types of educational involvement. The mothers' behavioural involvement positively mediated the SES-WM updating association, whereas a negative mediation was observed for the mothers' intellectual involvement. The fathers' educational involvement did not play a significant mediating role. These results might inform interventions targeting educational involvement for enhancing the cognitive development of children from low SES families.

Socioeconomic disadvantage and parental mood/affective problems links negative parenting and executive dysfunction in children born very preterm

Poverty increases the risk of poorer executive function (EF) in children born full-term (FT). Stressors associated with poverty, including variability in parenting behavior, may explain links between poverty and poorer EF, but this remains unclear for children born very preterm (VPT). We examine socioeconomic and parental psychosocial adversity on parenting behavior, and whether these factors independently or jointly influence EF in children born VPT. At age five years, 154 children (VPT = 88, FT = 66) completed parent-child interaction and EF tasks. Parental sensitivity, intrusiveness, cognitive stimulation, and positive and negative regard were coded with the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scale. Socioeconomic adversity spanned maternal demographic stressors, Income-to-Needs ratio, and Area Deprivation Index. Parents completed measures of depression, anxiety, inattention/hyperactivity, parenting stress, and social-communication interaction (SCI) problems. Parental SCI problems were associated with parenting behavior in parents of children born VPT, whereas socioeconomic adversity was significant in parents of FT children. Negative parenting behaviors, but not positive parenting behaviors, were related to child EF. This association was explained by parental depression/anxiety symptoms and socioeconomic adversity. Results persisted after adjustment for parent and child IQ. Findings may inform research on dyadic interventions that embed treatment for parental mood/affective symptoms and SCI problems to improve childhood EF.

Neighborhood Socio-Economic Status Influences Motor Performance and Inhibitory Control in Kindergarten Children-Findings from the Cross-Sectional Kitafit Study

Numerous studies have examined the role of socio-economic status on physical activity, obesity, and cognitive performance in youth or older adults, but few studies have examined the role of neighborhood socio-economic status (NSES) on motor or cognitive performance in kindergarten children. This study aimed to examine whether lower NSES (measured by the social data atlas) was associated with lower motor and inhibitory control performance in kindergarten children. One hundred twenty-nine preschoolers were recruited from eight kindergartens in low and high NSES areas in Stuttgart, one of Germany's largest metropolitan areas. Motor functioning (Movement Assessment Battery for Children, MABC-2; Manual Dexterity, Aiming and Catching, and Balance) and inhibitory control (Flanker Task, Go/NoGo Task) were assessed in a sample of 3- to 6-year-old children within a cross-sectional study. Children from a low NSES background showed the expected difficulties in inhibitory control and motor performance, as indicated by poorer performance than children from a high NSES background. Sex-specific analysis revealed girls from low NSES areas to have the lowest fine motor control; children with low NSES reach a Developmental Coordination Disorder at-risk status of 13% (boys and girls), in contrast to children with high SES (boys 9.1%, girls 0.0%). Motor performance and inhibitory control correlated positively with regard to the group from a low NSES background. Researchers and practitioners are advised to develop a more nuanced picture of motor and academic achievement in heterogeneous neighborhoods when designing early intervention programs, particularly with regard to sex differences, with the most significant disadvantage to girls with lower NSES.

The longitudinal contributions of child language, negative emotionality, and maternal positive affect on toddler executive functioning development

Executive functions (EF) develop rapidly across early childhood and play a prominent role in promoting adaptive outcomes later in development. Although the existing literature suggests that the development of early EF is sensitive to the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, limited research has examined the joint contributions of multiple child and contextual factors in infancy/toddlerhood. The purpose of our longitudinal study was therefore to identify early environmental, behavioral, biologically-based factors that influence children's EF outcomes in late toddlerhood. Participants included 409 mother-child dyads (209 girls) and the data was collected across children's first three postnatal years. Parent-report measures were used to assess infant negative affectivity (5-months; IBQ-R) and toddler language (age 2; MCDI), and both maternal positive affect (5-months) and toddler frustration (age 2) were coded during mother-child interaction tasks. A battery of behavioral tasks was used to measure child EF in late toddlerhood (age 3). After controlling for maternal education (a proxy for children's socio-economic environment), path analysis indicated that both infant and maternal affect at 5-months directly predicted toddlers' language skills and frustration expression at age 2. Toddler language (but not frustration) also predicted child performance on multiple EF tasks at age 3. Finally, 5-month infant and maternal affect indirectly predicted age 3 EF via age 2 language. Our results identify language as a mechanism through which children's early caregiving environment influences their EF development. Taken together, these findings illustrate the importance of applying a biopsychosocial perspective to the examination of early childhood EF development.

The effects of socioeconomic status on working memory in childhood are partially mediated by intersensory processing of audiovisual events in infancy

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of individual differences in childhood language and cognitive functioning, including executive functions such as working memory. In infancy, intersensory processing-selectively attending to properties of events that are redundantly specified across the senses at the expense of non-redundant, irrelevant properties-also predicts language development. Our recent research demonstrates that individual differences in intersensory processing in infancy predict a variety of language outcomes in childhood, even after controlling for SES. However, relations among intersensory processing and cognitive outcomes such as working memory have not yet been investigated. Thus, the present study examines relations between intersensory processing in infancy and working memory in early childhood, and the role of SES in this relation. Children (N = 101) received the Multisensory Attention Assessment Protocol at 12-months to assess intersensory processing (face-voice and object-sound matching) and received the WPPSI at 36-months to assess working memory. SES was indexed by maternal education, paternal education, and income. A variety of novel findings emerged. 1) Individual differences in intersensory processing at 12-months predicted working memory at 36-months of age even after controlling for SES. 2) Individual differences in SES predicted intersensory processing at 12-months of age. 3) The well-established relation between SES and working memory was partially mediated by intersensory processing. Children from families of higher-SES have better intersensory processing skills at 12-months and this combination of factors predicts greater working memory two years later at 36-months. Together these findings reveal the role of intersensory processing in cognitive functioning.

Socioeconomic status and social anxiety: attentional control as a key missing variable?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The aim was to examine the role of attentional control as a psychological factor involved in socioeconomic status-related mental health differences, and specifically in social anxiety. Based on the literature on socioeconomic status differences in cognitive abilities and attentional control theory, we hypothesized that attentional control would account for the relation between socioeconomic status and social anxiety. We tested this hypothesis in an integrative model also including trait anxiety and subjective socioeconomic status.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

METHOD

Online, 439 French adults were recruited via social media. They completed self-reported measures of attentional control, objective socioeconomic status, subjective socioeconomic status, social anxiety, and trait anxiety.

RESULTS

Using Structural Equation Modelling, findings showed a positive association between objective (but not subjective) socioeconomic status and attentional control, which in turn was related to social anxiety. Exploratory analyses showed that only income, as objective socioeconomic status indicator, was associated with attentional control.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study is the first to support that low socioeconomic status individuals report less attentional control and more social anxiety symptoms. This suggests that attentional control is a psychological factor involved in social anxiety inequalities.

A meta-analysis of the validity of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task in predicting young children's academic performance

The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.

Predicting Effortful Control at 3 Years of Age from Measures of Attention and Home Environment in Infancy: A Machine Learning Approach

Effortful control (EC) is a dimension of temperament that encompass individual differences in self-regulation and the control of reactivity. Much research suggests that EC has a strong foundation on the development of executive attention, but increasing evidence also shows a significant contribution of the rearing environment to individual differences in EC. The aim of the current study was to predict the development of EC at 36 months of age from early attentional and environmental measures taken in infancy using a machine learning approach. A sample of 78 infants participated in a longitudinal study running three waves of data collection at 6, 9, and 36 months of age. Attentional tasks were administered at 6 months of age, with two additional measures (i.e., one attentional measure and another self-restraint measure) being collected at 9 months of age. Parents reported household environment variables during wave 1, and their child's EC at 36 months. A machine-learning algorithm was implemented to identify children with low EC scores at 36 months of age. An "attention only" model showed greater predictive sensitivity than the "environmental only" model. However, a model including both attentional and environmental variables was able to classify the groups (Low-EC vs. Average-to-High EC) with 100% accuracy. Sensitivity analyses indicate that socio-economic variables together with attention control processes at 6 months, and self-restraint capacity at 9 months, are the most important predictors of EC. Results suggest a foundational role of executive attention processes in the development of EC in complex interactions with household environments and provide a new tool to identify early markers of socio-emotional regulation development.

Executive functioning in preschoolers with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and the impact of congenital heart defects

BACKGROUND

Executive functioning (EF) is an umbrella term for various cognitive functions that play a role in monitoring and planning to effectuate goal-directed behavior. The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), the most common microdeletion syndrome, is associated with a multitude of both somatic and cognitive symptoms, including EF impairments in school-age and adolescence. However, results vary across different EF domains and studies with preschool children are scarce. As EF is critically associated with later psychopathology and adaptive functioning, our first aim was to study EF in preschool children with 22q11DS. Our second aim was to explore the effect of a congenital heart defects (CHD) on EF abilities, as CHD are common in 22q11DS and have been implicated in EF impairment in individuals with CHD without a syndromic origin.

METHODS

All children with 22q11DS (n = 44) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 81) were 3.0 to 6.5 years old and participated in a larger prospective study. We administered tasks measuring visual selective attention, visual working memory, and a task gauging broad EF abilities. The presence of CHD was determined by a pediatric cardiologist based on medical records.

RESULTS

Analyses showed that children with 22q11DS were outperformed by TD peers on the selective attention task and the working memory task. As many children were unable to complete the broad EF task, we did not run statistical analyses, but provide a qualitative description of the results. There were no differences in EF abilities between children with 22q11DS with and without CHDs.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first study measuring EF in a relatively large sample of young children with 22q11DS. Our results show that EF impairments are already present in early childhood in children with 22q11DS. In line with previous studies with older children with 22q11DS, CHDs do not appear to have an effect on EF performance. These findings might have important implications for early intervention and support the improvement of prognostic accuracy.

Association between poverty and children's working memory abilities in developing countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Working memory is critical in cognitive skills, especially among children. Children's ability to count and complete cognitive tasks are strongly associated with working memory abilities. Recent studies indicated that in addition to health factors, socioeconomic status also has a significant impact on children's working memory capacity. Despite these, evidence on the effects of socioeconomic status on working memory from developing countries yielded a somewhat puzzling picture.

Methods

This systematic review and meta-analysis provide a comprehensive summary of the recent evidence concerning the socioeconomic status determinants of children's working memory in developing countries. We searched via Cochrane library, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, and ProQuest. The initial search terms were ["socioeconomic", "socio-economic", "socioeconomic status", "socio-economic status", "income", "poverty", "disadvantaged", "disparity"] AND ["working memory", "short term memory", "short-term memory", "cognitive", "achievement", "performance"] AND ["child^*", "school child^*"]. Odds ratio (for categorical outcome data) or standardized mean differences (for continuous data) and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the data generated.

Results

This meta-analysis included five studies from 4 developing countries with a total of 4,551 subjects. Poverty was associated with a lower working memory score (OR: 3.12; 95% CI: 2.66, 3.65; p < 0.001). Another finding from 2 studies in this meta-analysis was that low mother education was associated with a lower score of working memory (OR: 3.26, 95% CI: 2.86, 3.71; p < 0.001).

Discussion

Poverty and low level of mothers' education were significant risk factors for lowering working memory among children in developing countries.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier: CRD42021270683.

Executive Function in Deaf Native Signing Children

The aim of this study is twofold: To examine if deafness is invariably associated with deficits in executive function (EF) and to investigate the relationship between sign language proficiency and EF in deaf children of deaf parents with early exposure to a sign language. It is also the first study of EF in children acquiring Polish Sign Language. Even though the mothers of the deaf children (N = 20) had lower levels of education compared with the mothers of a hearing control group, the children performed similarly to their hearing peers (N = 20) on a variety of EF task-based assessments. Only in the Go/No-go task were weaker inhibition skills observed in younger deaf children (6-9 years) compared with hearing peers, and this difference was not seen in older children (10-12 years). Hence, deafness does not necessarily impair EF; however, attentional and inhibition abilities may be acquired via a different route in deaf children. Sign language receptive skills predicted EF in deaf children. In conclusion, we highlight the importance of deaf parenting building the scaffolding for EF in deaf children.

Socioeconomic Disparities, Nighttime Bedroom Temperature, and Children's Sleep

We investigated associations between family income-to-needs, nighttime bedroom temperature (NBT), and children's sleep. Using a sample of 46 children (M age = 11.5), we recorded NBT and objective sleep parameters via actigraphy nightly for one week to evaluate within- (night-to-night) and between-person associations. We found consistent evidence for a curvilinear association between NBT and sleep variables at the between-person level, indicating that children who slept in rooms that were "too hot" or "too cold" experienced poorer sleep. Moreover, children in lower income-to-needs families had more extreme NBTs. There was some evidence that family income-to-needs is indirectly related to sleep via NBT, but with interpretational caveats. These findings point to NBT as a potentially modifiable variable, which has implications for practical applications to mitigate effects of socioeconomic disparities on children's sleep.

Executive functioning skills and their environmental predictors among pre-school aged children in South Africa and The Gambia

Executive functions (EFs) in early childhood are predictors of later developmental outcomes and school readiness. Much of the research on EFs and their psychosocial correlates has been conducted in high-income, minority world countries, which represent a small and biased portion of children globally. The aim of this study is to examine EFs among children aged 3-5 years in two African countries, South Africa (SA) and The Gambia (GM), and to explore shared and distinct predictors of EFs in these settings. The SA sample (N = 243, 51.9% female) was recruited from low-income communities within the Cape Town Metropolitan area. In GM, participants (N = 171, 49.7% female) were recruited from the rural West Kiang region. EFs, working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC) and cognitive flexibility (CF), were measured using tablet-based tasks. Associations between EF task performance and indicators of socioeconomic status (household assets, caregiver education) and family enrichment factors (enrichment activities, diversity of caregivers) were assessed. Participants in SA scored higher on all EF tasks, but children in both sites predominantly scored within the expected range for their age. There were no associations between EFs and household or familial variables in SA, except for a trend-level association between caregiver education and CF. Patterns were similar in GM, where there was a trend-level association between WM and enrichment activities but no other relationships. We challenge the postulation that children in low-income settings have poorer EFs, simply due to lower socioeconomic status, but highlight the need to identify predictors of EFs in diverse, global settings. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Assessed Executive Functioning (EF) skills and their psychosocial predictors among pre-school aged children (aged 3-5 years) in two African settings (The Gambia and South Africa). On average, children within each setting performed within the expected range for their age, although children in South Africa had higher scores across tasks. There was little evidence of any association between socioeconomic variables and EFs in either site. Enrichment activities were marginally associated with better working memory in The Gambia, and caregiver education with cognitive flexibility in South Africa, both associations were trend-level significance.