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Moshfegh CM, Elkhatib SK, Watson GF, Drake J, Taylor ZN, Reed EC, Lauten TH, Clopp AJ, Vladimirov VI, Case AJ. S100a9 Protects Against the Effects of Repeated Social Defeat Stress. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY GLOBAL OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 3:919-929. [PMID: 37881565 PMCID: PMC10593888 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsgos.2022.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Posttraumatic stress disorder, a consequence of psychological trauma, is associated with increased inflammation and an elevated risk of developing comorbid inflammatory diseases. However, the mechanistic link between this mental health disorder and inflammation remains elusive. We previously found that S100a8 and S100a9 messenger RNA, genes that encode the protein calprotectin, were significantly upregulated in T lymphocytes and positively correlated with inflammatory gene expression and the mitochondrial redox environment in these cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that genetic deletion of calprotectin would attenuate the inflammatory and redox phenotype displayed after psychological trauma. Methods We used a preclinical mouse model of posttraumatic stress disorder known as repeated social defeat stress (RSDS) combined with pharmacological and genetic manipulation of S100a9 (which functionally eliminates calprotectin). A total of 186 animals (93 control, 93 RSDS) were used in these studies. Results Unexpectedly, we observed worsening of behavioral pathology, inflammation, and the mitochondrial redox environment in mice after RSDS compared with wild-type animals. Furthermore, loss of calprotectin significantly enhanced the metabolic demand on T lymphocytes, suggesting that this protein may play an undescribed role in mitochondrial regulation. This was further supported by single-cell RNA sequencing analysis demonstrating that RSDS and loss of S100a9 primarily altered genes associated with mitochondrial function and oxidative phosphorylation. Conclusions These data demonstrate that the loss of calprotectin potentiates the RSDS-induced phenotype, which suggests that its observed upregulation after psychological trauma may provide previously unexplored protective functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M. Moshfegh
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Safwan K. Elkhatib
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Gabrielle F. Watson
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - John Drake
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
| | - Zachary N. Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
| | - Emily C. Reed
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
| | - Tatlock H. Lauten
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
| | - Amelia J. Clopp
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
| | - Vladimir I. Vladimirov
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Phoenix, Arizona
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Adam J. Case
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University, Bryan, Texas
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Nguyen KD, Amerio A, Aguglia A, Magnani L, Parise A, Conio B, Serafini G, Amore M, Costanza A. Microglia and Other Cellular Mediators of Immunological Dysfunction in Schizophrenia: A Narrative Synthesis of Clinical Findings. Cells 2023; 12:2099. [PMID: 37626909 PMCID: PMC10453550 DOI: 10.3390/cells12162099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric condition that may involve immune system dysregulation. Since most putative disease mechanisms in schizophrenia have been derived from genetic association studies and fluid-based molecular analyses, this review aims to summarize the emerging evidence on clinical correlates to immune system dysfunction in this psychiatric disorder. We conclude this review by attempting to develop a unifying hypothesis regarding the relative contributions of microglia and various immune cell populations to the development of schizophrenia. This may provide important translational insights that can become useful for addressing the multifaceted clinical presentation of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khoa D. Nguyen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA;
- Tranquis Therapeutics, Palo Alto, CA 94065, USA
| | - Andrea Amerio
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy; (A.A.); (A.A.); (B.C.); (G.S.); (M.A.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Andrea Aguglia
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy; (A.A.); (A.A.); (B.C.); (G.S.); (M.A.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Luca Magnani
- Department of Psychiatry, San Maurizio Hospital of Bolzano, 39100 Bolzano, Italy;
| | - Alberto Parise
- Geriatric-Rehabilitation Department, University Hospital of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy;
| | - Benedetta Conio
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy; (A.A.); (A.A.); (B.C.); (G.S.); (M.A.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Gianluca Serafini
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy; (A.A.); (A.A.); (B.C.); (G.S.); (M.A.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Mario Amore
- Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy; (A.A.); (A.A.); (B.C.); (G.S.); (M.A.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessandra Costanza
- Department of Psychiatry, Adult Psychiatry Service, University Hospitals of Geneva (HUG), 1207 Geneva, Switzerland
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Italian Switzerland (USI), 6900 Lugano, Switzerland
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva (UNIGE), 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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3
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Iordache MM, Belu AM, Vlad SE, Aivaz KA, Dumitru A, Tocia C, Dumitru E. Calprotectin, Biomarker of Depression in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease? MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1240. [PMID: 37512053 PMCID: PMC10383955 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59071240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Calprotectin is a marker for intestinal inflammation. Recent research suggests a link between inflammation and depression. This study assessed the association between the levels of calprotectin in patients from South-Eastern Europe and the severity of depression, anxiety, and quality of life. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 30 confirmed patients with Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) who were assessed using clinical interviews for determining the severities of mental disorders (i.e., depression severity-PHQ-9, anxiety-GAD-7) and the quality of life (EQ-5D). Stool samples were collected from all participants for measuring their levels of calprotectin. Results: The level of calprotectin is correlated with PHQ-9 (ρ = 0.416, p = 0.022) and EQ-5D (ρ = -0.304, p = 0.033) but not with GAD 7 (ρ = 0.059, p = 0.379). Calprotectin levels in patients with mild, moderate, and moderately severe depression were significantly higher than in patients with minimal depression (198 µg/g vs. 66,9 µg/g, p = 0.04). Calprotectin level was corelated with the following depressive symptoms: autolytic ideation (ρ = 0.557, p = 0.001), fatigue (ρ = 0.514, p = 0.002), slow movement (ρ = 0.490, p = 0.003), and sleep disorders (ρ = 0.403, p = 0.014). Calprotectin was an independent predictor of depression with an odds ratio of 1.01 (95%: 1.002-1.03, p < 0.01). An ROC analysis showed that a level of calprotectin of 131 µg/g or higher has a sensitivity of 82%, a specificity of 61%, and an accuracy of 70% for predicting depression. In this study, no significant correlations were found between calprotectin level and anxiety. Conclusions: Calprotectin levels are associated with the severity of depression, and checking for a calprotectin level of 131 µg/g or higher may be a potential accessible screening test for depression in patients with inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miorita Melina Iordache
- Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Alley, 900470 Constanta, Romania
- Prof. Alexandru Obregia Psychiatry Hospital, 10 Berceni Str., 041914 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Anca Mihaela Belu
- Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Alley, 900470 Constanta, Romania
- "St. Apostol Andrew" Emergency County Hospital, 145 Tomis Blvd., 900591 Constanta, Romania
| | - Sabina E Vlad
- Center for Research and Development of the Morphological and Genetic Studies of Malignant Pathology-CEDMOG, "Ovidius" University of Constanta, 900591 Constanta, Romania
| | - Kamer Ainur Aivaz
- Faculty of Economics, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Street, 900470 Constanta, Romania
| | - Andrei Dumitru
- Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Alley, 900470 Constanta, Romania
- "St. Apostol Andrew" Emergency County Hospital, 145 Tomis Blvd., 900591 Constanta, Romania
| | - Cristina Tocia
- Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Alley, 900470 Constanta, Romania
- "St. Apostol Andrew" Emergency County Hospital, 145 Tomis Blvd., 900591 Constanta, Romania
| | - Eugen Dumitru
- Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Alley, 900470 Constanta, Romania
- "St. Apostol Andrew" Emergency County Hospital, 145 Tomis Blvd., 900591 Constanta, Romania
- Center for Research and Development of the Morphological and Genetic Studies of Malignant Pathology-CEDMOG, "Ovidius" University of Constanta, 900591 Constanta, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, 3 Ilfov Street, 050045 Bucharest, Romania
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Kositsyn YM, de Abreu MS, Kolesnikova TO, Lagunin AA, Poroikov VV, Harutyunyan HS, Yenkoyan KB, Kalueff AV. Towards Novel Potential Molecular Targets for Antidepressant and Antipsychotic Pharmacotherapies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119482. [PMID: 37298431 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression and schizophrenia are two highly prevalent and severely debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders. Both conventional antidepressant and antipsychotic pharmacotherapies are often inefficient clinically, causing multiple side effects and serious patient compliance problems. Collectively, this calls for the development of novel drug targets for treating depressed and schizophrenic patients. Here, we discuss recent translational advances, research tools and approaches, aiming to facilitate innovative drug discovery in this field. Providing a comprehensive overview of current antidepressants and antipsychotic drugs, we also outline potential novel molecular targets for treating depression and schizophrenia. We also critically evaluate multiple translational challenges and summarize various open questions, in order to foster further integrative cross-discipline research into antidepressant and antipsychotic drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuriy M Kositsyn
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory 354340, Russia
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening, Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Pesochny 197758, Russia
| | - Murilo S de Abreu
- Neuroscience Group, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow 115184, Russia
| | - Tatiana O Kolesnikova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory 354340, Russia
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Vivarium, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620049, Russia
| | - Alexey A Lagunin
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow 119121, Russia
- Department of Bioinformatics, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Vladimir V Poroikov
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow 119121, Russia
| | - Hasmik S Harutyunyan
- Neuroscience Laboratory, COBRAIN Center, Yerevan State Medical University Named after M. Heratsi, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
- Department of Biochemistry, Yerevan State Medical University Named after M. Heratsi, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
| | - Konstantin B Yenkoyan
- Neuroscience Laboratory, COBRAIN Center, Yerevan State Medical University Named after M. Heratsi, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
- Department of Biochemistry, Yerevan State Medical University Named after M. Heratsi, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
| | - Allan V Kalueff
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Centre, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg 197341, Russia
- Neurobiology Program, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius Federal Territory 354340, Russia
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Laboratory of Preclinical Bioscreening, Granov Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, Pesochny 197758, Russia
- Neuroscience Group, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow 115184, Russia
- Vivarium, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620049, Russia
- Neuroscience Laboratory, COBRAIN Center, Yerevan State Medical University Named after M. Heratsi, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
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5
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Mawson ER, Morris BJ. A consideration of the increased risk of schizophrenia due to prenatal maternal stress, and the possible role of microglia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2023; 125:110773. [PMID: 37116354 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is caused by interaction of a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Of the latter, prenatal exposure to maternal stress is reportedly associated with elevated disease risk. The main orchestrators of inflammatory processes within the brain are microglia, and aberrant microglial activation/function has been proposed to contribute to the aetiology of schizophrenia. Here, we evaluate the epidemiological and preclinical evidence connecting prenatal stress to schizophrenia risk, and consider the possible mediating role of microglia in the prenatal stress-schizophrenia relationship. Epidemiological findings are rather consistent in supporting the association, albeit they are mitigated by effects of sex and gestational timing, while the evidence for microglial activation is more variable. Rodent models of prenatal stress generally report lasting effects on offspring neurobiology. However, many uncertainties remain as to the mechanisms underlying the influence of maternal stress on the developing foetal brain. Future studies should aim to characterise the exact processes mediating this aspect of schizophrenia risk, as well as focussing on how prenatal stress may interact with other risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor R Mawson
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Brian J Morris
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
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6
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Ai YW, Du Y, Chen L, Liu SH, Liu QS, Cheng Y. Brain Inflammatory Marker Abnormalities in Major Psychiatric Diseases: a Systematic Review of Postmortem Brain Studies. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:2116-2134. [PMID: 36600081 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03199-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder (BD), and major depressive disorder (MDD) are common neuropsychiatric disorders that lead to neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis. It is possible to further explore the connection between inflammation in the brain and SCZ, BD, and MDD. Therefore, we systematically reviewed PubMed and Web of Science on brain inflammatory markers measured in SCZ, BD, and MDD postmortem brains. Out of 2166 studies yielded by the search, 46 studies met the inclusion criteria in SCZ, BD, and MDD postmortem brains. The results were variable across inflammatory markers. For example, 26 studies were included to measure the differential expression between SCZ and control subjects. Similarly, seven of the included studies measured the differential expression of inflammatory markers in patients with BD. The heterogeneity from the included studies is not clear at present, which may be caused by several factors, including the measured brain region, disease stage, brain source, medication, and other factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang-Wen Ai
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Du
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Shu-Han Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Qing-Shan Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China.
| | - Yong Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, Center on Translational Neuroscience, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China. .,Institute of National Security, Minzu University of China, Haidian District, 27 Zhongguancun South St, 100081, Beijing, China.
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7
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Brisch R, Wojtylak S, Saniotis A, Steiner J, Gos T, Kumaratilake J, Henneberg M, Wolf R. The role of microglia in neuropsychiatric disorders and suicide. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2022; 272:929-945. [PMID: 34595576 PMCID: PMC9388452 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-021-01334-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
This narrative review examines the possible role of microglial cells, first, in neuroinflammation and, second, in schizophrenia, depression, and suicide. Recent research on the interactions between microglia, astrocytes and neurons and their involvement in pathophysiological processes of neuropsychiatric disorders is presented. This review focuses on results from postmortem, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies, and animal models of schizophrenia and depression. Third, the effects of antipsychotic and antidepressant drug therapy, and of electroconvulsive therapy on microglial cells are explored and the upcoming development of therapeutic drugs targeting microglia is described. Finally, there is a discussion on the role of microglia in the evolutionary progression of human lineage. This view may contribute to a new understanding of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Brisch
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Szymon Wojtylak
- Department of Pathomorphology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Arthur Saniotis
- Department of Anthropology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Pharmacy, Knowledge University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | - Johann Steiner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Tomasz Gos
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jaliya Kumaratilake
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit, Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Maciej Henneberg
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit, Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Wolf
- Department of Nursing and Health, Hochschule Fulda, University of Applied Sciences, Fulda, Germany.
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8
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Zhu Y, Webster MJ, Murphy CE, Middleton FA, Massa PT, Liu C, Dai R, Weickert CS. Distinct Phenotypes of Inflammation Associated Macrophages and Microglia in the Prefrontal Cortex Schizophrenia Compared to Controls. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:858989. [PMID: 35844224 PMCID: PMC9279891 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.858989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 40% of people with schizophrenia are classified as having "high inflammation." This subgroup has worse neuropathology than patients with "low inflammation." Thus, one would expect the resident microglia and possibly monocyte-derived macrophages infiltrating from the periphery to be "activated" in those with schizophrenia with elevated neuroinflammation. To test whether microglia and/or macrophages are associated with increased inflammatory signaling in schizophrenia, we measured microglia- and macrophage-associated transcripts in the postmortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of 69 controls and 72 people with schizophrenia. Both groups were stratified by neuroinflammatory status based on cortical mRNA levels of cytokines and SERPINA3. We found microglial mRNAs levels were either unchanged (IBA1 and Hexb, p > 0.20) or decreased (CD11c, <62% p < 0.001) in high inflammation schizophrenia compared to controls. Conversely, macrophage CD163 mRNA levels were increased in patients, substantially so in the high inflammation schizophrenia subgroup compared to low inflammation subgroup (>250%, p < 0.0001). In contrast, high inflammation controls did not have elevated CD163 mRNA compared to low inflammation controls (p > 0.05). The pro-inflammatory macrophage marker (CD64 mRNA) was elevated (>160%, all p < 0.05) and more related to CD163 mRNA in the high inflammation schizophrenia subgroup compared to high inflammation controls, while anti-inflammatory macrophage and cytokine markers (CD206 and IL-10 mRNAs) were either unchanged or decreased in schizophrenia. Finally, macrophage recruitment chemokine CCL2 mRNA was increased in schizophrenia (>200%, p < 0.0001) and CCL2 mRNA levels positively correlated with CD163 mRNA (r = 0.46, p < 0.0001). Collectively, our findings support the co-existence of quiescent microglia and increased pro-inflammatory macrophages in the cortex of people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunting Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Maree J. Webster
- Stanley Medical Research Institute, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Caitlin E. Murphy
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Frank A. Middleton
- Department of Neuroscience, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Paul T. Massa
- Department of Neurology and Microbiology and Immunology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Chunyu Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Rujia Dai
- Department of Psychiatry, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
| | - Cyndi Shannon Weickert
- Department of Neuroscience, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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9
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MAEKAWA T, SUGIMOTO M, KUME S, OHTA T. Pathophysiological features in the brains of female Spontaneously Diabetic Torii (SDT) fatty rats. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:330-337. [PMID: 35082197 PMCID: PMC8983279 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) and obesity are associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and psychiatric disorders such as major depression. In this study, we investigated pathophysiological changes in the brains of female Spontaneously Diabetic Torii (SDT) fatty rats with diabetes and obesity. Brains of Sprague-Dawley (SD), SDT and SDT fatty rats were collected at 58 weeks of age. The parietal cortical thickness was measured and the number of pyramidal cells in the hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 and 3 (CA1 and CA3) and the number of granule cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) regions were counted. The area of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) positivity in CA1, CA3 and DG regions were measured. The parietal cortical thickness and the number of cells in CA3 and DG regions of SDT and SDT fatty rats did not show obvious changes. On the other hand, in the CA1 region, the number of cells in SDT rats and SDT fatty rats was significantly lower than that in SD rats, and that in SDT fatty rats was significantly lower than that in SDT rats. The GFAP-positive area in SDT fatty rats was significantly reduced compared to that in SD rats only in the DG region. Preliminarily result showed that the expression of S100a9, an inflammation-related gene, was increased in the brains of SDT fatty rats. These results suggest that female SDT fatty rat may exhibit central nervous system diseases due to obesity and DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya MAEKAWA
- Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Miki SUGIMOTO
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shinichi KUME
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takeshi OHTA
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Functional Anatomy, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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10
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Hunter M, Spiller KJ, Dominique MA, Xu H, Hunter FW, Fang TC, Canter RG, Roberts CJ, Ransohoff RM, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY. Microglial transcriptome analysis in the rNLS8 mouse model of TDP-43 proteinopathy reveals discrete expression profiles associated with neurodegenerative progression and recovery. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2021; 9:140. [PMID: 34412701 PMCID: PMC8377972 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-021-01239-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The microglial reaction is a hallmark of neurodegenerative conditions, and elements thereof may exert differential effects on disease progression, either worsening or ameliorating severity. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a syndrome characterized by cytoplasmic aggregation of TDP-43 protein and atrophy of motor neurons in the cortex and spinal cord, the transcriptomic signatures of microglia during disease progression are incompletely understood. Here, we performed longitudinal RNAseq analysis of cortical and spinal cord microglia from rNLS8 mice, in which doxycycline-regulatable expression of human TDP-43 (hTDP-43) in the cytoplasm of neurons recapitulates many features of ALS. Transgene suppression in rNLS8 mice leads to functional, anatomical and electrophysiological resolution that is dependent on a microglial reaction that is concurrent with recovery rather than disease onset. We identified basal differences between the gene expression profiles of microglia dependent on localization in spinal cord or cortex. Microglia subjected to chronic hTDP-43 overexpression demonstrated transcriptomic changes in both locations. We noted strong upregulation of Apoe, Axl, Cd63, Clec7a, Csf1, Cst7, Igf1, Itgax, Lgals3, Lilrb4, Lpl and Spp1 during late disease and recovery. Importantly, we identified a distinct suite of differentially expressed genes associated with each phase of disease progression and recovery. Differentially expressed genes were associated with chemotaxis, phagocytosis, inflammation, and production of neuroprotective factors. These data provide new insights into the microglial reaction in TDP-43 proteinopathy. Genes differentially expressed during progression and recovery may provide insight into a unique instance in which the microglial reaction promotes functional recovery after neuronal insult.
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Snijders GJLJ, van Zuiden W, Sneeboer MAM, Berdenis van Berlekom A, van der Geest AT, Schnieder T, MacIntyre DJ, Hol EM, Kahn RS, de Witte LD. A loss of mature microglial markers without immune activation in schizophrenia. Glia 2021; 69:1251-1267. [PMID: 33410555 PMCID: PMC7986895 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microglia, the immune cells of the brain, are important for neurodevelopment and have been hypothesized to play a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia (SCZ). Although previous postmortem studies pointed toward presence of microglial activation, this view has been challenged by more recent hypothesis-driven and hypothesis-free analyses. The aim of the present study is to further understand the observed microglial changes in SCZ. We first performed a detailed meta-analysis on studies that analyzed microglial cell density, microglial morphology, and expression of microglial-specific markers. We then further explored findings from the temporal cortex by performing immunostainings and qPCRs on an additional dataset. A random effect meta-analysis showed that the density of microglial cells was unaltered in SCZ (ES: 0.144 95% CI: 0.102 to 0.390, p = .250), and clear changes in microglial morphology were also absent. The expression of several microglial specific genes, such as CX3CR1, CSF1R, IRF8, OLR1, and TMEM119 was decreased in SCZ (ES: -0.417 95% CI: -0.417 to -0.546, p < .0001), consistent with genome-wide transcriptome meta-analysis results. These results indicate a change in microglial phenotype rather than density, which was validated with the use of TMEM119/Iba1 immunostainings on temporal cortex of a separate cohort. Changes in microglial gene expression were overlapping between SCZ and other psychiatric disorders, but largely opposite from changes reported in Alzheimer's disease. This distinct microglial phenotype provides a crucial molecular hallmark for future research into the role of microglia in SCZ and other psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijsje J. L. J. Snijders
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Brain Center Rudolf MagnusUniversity Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University (BCRM‐UMCU‐UU)UtrechtThe Netherlands
- Department of PsychiatryIcahn School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | | | | | - Amber Berdenis van Berlekom
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Brain Center Rudolf MagnusUniversity Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University (BCRM‐UMCU‐UU)UtrechtThe Netherlands
- Department of Translational Neuroscience (BCRM‐UMCU‐UU)UtrechtThe Netherlands
| | | | | | - Donald J. MacIntyre
- Division of Psychiatry, Centre for Clinical Brain SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Elly M. Hol
- Department of Translational Neuroscience (BCRM‐UMCU‐UU)UtrechtThe Netherlands
- Neuroimmunology, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, An Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and SciencesAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - René S. Kahn
- Department of PsychiatryIcahn School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), James J Peters VA Medical CenterBronxNew YorkUSA
| | - Lot D. de Witte
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, Utrecht University, Brain Center Rudolf MagnusUniversity Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University (BCRM‐UMCU‐UU)UtrechtThe Netherlands
- Department of PsychiatryIcahn School of MedicineNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), James J Peters VA Medical CenterBronxNew YorkUSA
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12
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Postmortem evidence of brain inflammatory markers in bipolar disorder: a systematic review. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:94-113. [PMID: 31249382 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0448-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic affective disorder with extreme mood swings that include mania or hypomania and depression. Though the exact mechanism of BD is unknown, neuroinflammation is one of the numerous investigated etiopathophysiological causes of BD. This article presents a systematic review of the data regarding brain inflammation evaluating microglia, astrocytes, cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and other inflammatory markers in postmortem BD brain samples. This systematic review was performed according to PRISMA recommendations, and relevant studies were identified by searching the PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, LILACS, IBECS, and Web of Science databases for peer-reviewed journal articles published by March 2019. Quality of included studies appraised using the QUADAS-2 tool. Among the 1814 articles included in the primary screening, 51 articles measured inflammatory markers in postmortem BD brain samples. A number of studies have shown evidence of inflammation in BD postmortem brain samples. However, an absolute statement cannot be concluded whether neuroinflammation is present in BD due to the large number of studies did not evaluate the presence of infiltrating peripheral immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma, cytokines levels, and microglia activation in the same postmortem brain sample. For example, out of 15 studies that evaluated microglia cells markers, 8 studies found no effect of BD on these cells. Similarly, 17 out of 51 studies evaluating astrocytes markers, 9 studies did not find any effect of BD on astrocyte cells, whereas 8 studies found a decrease and 2 studies presented both increase and decrease in different brain regions. In addition, multiple factors account for the variability across the studies, including postmortem interval, brain area studied, age at diagnosis, undergoing treatment, and others. Future analyses should rectify these potential sources of heterogeneity and reach a consensus regarding the inflammatory markers in postmortem BD brain samples.
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Guneykaya D, Ivanov A, Hernandez DP, Haage V, Wojtas B, Meyer N, Maricos M, Jordan P, Buonfiglioli A, Gielniewski B, Ochocka N, Cömert C, Friedrich C, Artiles LS, Kaminska B, Mertins P, Beule D, Kettenmann H, Wolf SA. Transcriptional and Translational Differences of Microglia from Male and Female Brains. Cell Rep 2019; 24:2773-2783.e6. [PMID: 30184509 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in brain structure and function are of substantial scientific interest because of sex-related susceptibility to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Neuroinflammation is a common denominator of many of these diseases, and thus microglia, as the brain's immunocompetent cells, have come into focus in sex-specific studies. Here, we show differences in the structure, function, and transcriptomic and proteomic profiles in microglia freshly isolated from male and female mouse brains. We show that male microglia are more frequent in specific brain areas, have a higher antigen-presenting capacity, and appear to have a higher potential to respond to stimuli such as ATP, reflected in higher baseline outward and inward currents and higher protein expression of purinergic receptors. Altogether, we provide a comprehensive resource to generate and validate hypotheses regarding brain sex differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilansu Guneykaya
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andranik Ivanov
- Core Unit Bioinformatics, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany; Charité-Universitaetsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Perez Hernandez
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany; Berlin Institute of Health, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Verena Haage
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bartosz Wojtas
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Niklas Meyer
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Meron Maricos
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Jordan
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alice Buonfiglioli
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany; Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Charité-Universitaetsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bartlomiej Gielniewski
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Natalia Ochocka
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Cagla Cömert
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Corinna Friedrich
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lorena Suarez Artiles
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bozena Kaminska
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Philipp Mertins
- Proteomics Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, 13125 Berlin, Germany; Berlin Institute of Health, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dieter Beule
- Core Unit Bioinformatics, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany; Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Helmut Kettenmann
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanne A Wolf
- Cellular Neurocience, Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany; Department of Ophthalmology, Charité-Universitaetsmedizin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
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14
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Enache D, Pariante CM, Mondelli V. Markers of central inflammation in major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies examining cerebrospinal fluid, positron emission tomography and post-mortem brain tissue. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 81:24-40. [PMID: 31195092 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased peripheral inflammation has been consistently reported in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). However, only few studies have explored markers of central (brain) inflammation in patients with MDD. The aim of this study is to systematically review in vivo and post-mortem markers of central inflammation, including studies examining cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), positron emission tomography, and post-mortem brain tissues in subjects suffering with MDD compared with controls. METHODS PubMed and Medline databases were searched up to December 2018. We included studies measuring cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokines and chemokines, positron emission tomography (PET) studies; and post-mortem studies measuring cytokines, chemokines and cell-specific markers of microglia and astrocytes, all in MDD. A meta-analysis was performed only for CSF and PET studies, as studies on post-mortem markers of inflammation had different cell-specific markers and analysed different brain regions. RESULTS A total of 69 studies met the inclusion criteria. CSF levels of IL-6 and TNF-α were higher in patients with MDD compared with controls (standardised mean difference SMD 0.37, 95%CI: 0.17-0.57 and SMD 0.58, 95%CI 0.26-0.90, respectively). CSF levels of IL-6 were increased in suicide attempters regardless of their psychiatric diagnosis. Translocator protein, a PET marker of central inflammation, was elevated in the anterior cingulate cortex and temporal cortex of patients with MDD compared with controls (SMD 0.78, 95%CI: 0.41-1.16 and SMD 0.52, 95%CI: 0.19-0.85 respectively). Abnormalities in CSF and PET inflammatory markers were not correlated with those in peripheral blood. In post-mortem studies, two studies found increased markers of microglia in MDD brains, while four studies found no MDD related changes. Of the studies investigating expression of cell-specific marker for astrocytes, thirteen studies reported a decreased expression of astrocytes specific markers, two studies reported increased expression of astrocytes specific markers, and eleven studies did not detect any difference. Four out of six studies reported decreased markers of oligodendrocytes in the prefrontal cortex. Post-mortem brain levels of tumor necrosis alpha (TNF-α) were also found increased in MDD. CONCLUSIONS Our review suggests the presence of an increase in IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels in CSF and brain parenchyma, in the context of a possible increased microglia activity and reduction of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes markers in MDD. The reduced number of astrocytes may lead to compromised integrity of blood brain barrier with increased monocyte recruitment and infiltration, which is partly supported by post-mortem studies and by PET studies showing an increased TSPO expression in MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Enache
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychological Medicine, London, UK; Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Carmine M Pariante
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychological Medicine, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Valeria Mondelli
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychological Medicine, London, UK; National Institute for Health Research Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK.
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15
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Microglial Activation and Psychotic Disorders: Evidence from Pre-clinical and Clinical Studies. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2019; 44:161-205. [PMID: 30828767 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Clinical and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated an important role of neuroinflammation in the etiology of schizophrenia. While the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood, there are some studies demonstrating an association between maternal immune activation and behavioral changes in adult offspring and identifying early life infection as a trigger for schizophrenia; in addition, inflammatory markers were found to be increased in the schizophrenic post-mortem brain. During maternal immune activation, pro-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, antibodies, and acute-phase proteins are released in the maternal bloodstream, thus increasing the permeability of the placental barrier and the fetal blood-brain barrier, allowing the inflammatory mediators to enter the fetal brain. In the central nervous system (CNS), these pro-inflammatory mediators are able to activate microglial cells that can release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. As a consequence, circulating immune cells may infiltrate the brain, increasing cytokine levels and releasing antibodies that aggravate the neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation may affect processes that are pivotal for normal brain maturation such as myelination, synaptic pruning, and neuronal remodeling. Microglial cell activation and pro-inflammatory mediators have been extensively studied in schizophrenic post-mortem brain samples. Some results of these investigations demonstrated an increase in microglial activation markers, cytokines, and chemokines in post-mortem brain samples from individuals with schizophrenia. In contrast, there are studies that have demonstrated low levels of microglial activation makers in the schizophrenic post-mortem brain. Thus, based on the important role of neuroinflammation as a trigger in the development of schizophrenia, this chapter aims (1) to enumerate evidence of neuroinflammation and microglial activation from pre-clinical schizophrenia models, (2) to show links between schizophrenia and neuroinflammation in clinical studies, and (3) to identify mechanisms by which microglial activation may influence in the development of schizophrenia.
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Selvaraj S, Bloomfield PS, Cao B, Veronese M, Turkheimer F, Howes OD. Brain TSPO imaging and gray matter volume in schizophrenia patients and in people at ultra high risk of psychosis: An [ 11C]PBR28 study. Schizophr Res 2018; 195:206-214. [PMID: 28893493 PMCID: PMC6027955 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.08.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Patients with schizophrenia show whole brain and cortical gray matter (GM) volume reductions which are progressive early in their illness. Microglia, the resident immune cells in the CNS, phagocytose neurons and synapses. Some post mortem and in vivo studies in schizophrenia show evidence for elevated microglial activation compared to matched controls. However, it is currently unclear how these results relate to changes in cortical structure. METHODS Fourteen patients with schizophrenia and 14 ultra high risk for psychosis (UHR) subjects alongside two groups of age and genotype matched healthy controls received [11C]PBR28 PET scans to index TSPO expression, a marker of microglial activation and a 3T MRI scan. We investigated the relationship between the volume changes of cortical regions and microglial activation in cortical GM (as indexed by [11C]PBR28 distribution volume ratio (DVR). RESULTS The total cortical GM volume was significantly lower in SCZ than the controls [mean (SD)/cm3: SCZ=448.83 (39.2) and controls=499.6 (59.2) (p=0.02) but not in UHR (mean (SD)=503.06 (57.9) and controls=524.46 (45.3) p=0.3). Regression model fitted the total cortical GM DVR values with the cortical regional volumes in SCZ (r=0.81; p<0.001) and in UHR (r=0.63; p=0.02). We found a significant negative correlation between the TSPO signal and total cortical GM volume in SCZ with the highest absolute correlation coefficient in the right superior-parietal cortex (r=-0.72; p=0.006). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that microglial activity is related to the altered cortical volume seen in schizophrenia. Longitudinal investigations are required to determine whether microglial activation leads to cortical gray matter loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhakar Selvaraj
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA; Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC Clinical Sciences Centre, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Peter S Bloomfield
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC Clinical Sciences Centre, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Bo Cao
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77054, USA
| | - Mattia Veronese
- Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, IoPPN, King's College London, Box PO89, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Federico Turkheimer
- Centre for Neuroimaging Sciences, IoPPN, King's College London, Box PO89, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Oliver D Howes
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC Clinical Sciences Centre, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, W12 0NN, UK; Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
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17
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Radtke FA, Chapman G, Hall J, Syed YA. Modulating Neuroinflammation to Treat Neuropsychiatric Disorders. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:5071786. [PMID: 29181395 PMCID: PMC5664241 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5071786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is recognised as one of the potential mechanisms mediating the onset of a broad range of psychiatric disorders and may contribute to nonresponsiveness to current therapies. Both preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that aberrant inflammatory responses can result in altered behavioral responses and cognitive deficits. In this review, we discuss the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders and ask the question if certain genetic copy-number variants (CNVs) associated with psychiatric disorders might play a role in modulating inflammation. Furthermore, we detail some of the potential treatment strategies for psychiatric disorders that may operate by altering inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska A. Radtke
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute and School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Gareth Chapman
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute and School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Jeremy Hall
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute and School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Yasir A. Syed
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute and School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK
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18
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Bridging Autism Spectrum Disorders and Schizophrenia through inflammation and biomarkers - pre-clinical and clinical investigations. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:179. [PMID: 28870209 PMCID: PMC5584030 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0938-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, evidence supporting a link between inflammation and neuropsychiatric disorders has been mounting. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and schizophrenia share some clinical similarities which we hypothesize might reflect the same biological basis, namely, in terms of inflammation. However, the diagnosis of ASD and schizophrenia relies solely on clinical symptoms, and to date, there is no clinically useful biomarker to diagnose or monitor the course of such illnesses. The focus of this review is the central role that inflammation plays in ASD and schizophrenia. It spans from pre-clinical animal models to clinical research and excludes in vitro studies. Four major areas are covered: (1) microglia, the inflammatory brain resident myeloid cells, (2) biomarkers, including circulating cytokines, oxidative stress markers, and microRNA players, known to influence cellular processes at brain and immune levels, (3) effect of anti-psychotics on biomarkers and other predictors of response, and (4) impact of gender on response to immune activation, biomarkers, and response to anti-psychotic treatments.
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Trépanier MO, Hopperton KE, Mizrahi R, Mechawar N, Bazinet RP. Postmortem evidence of cerebral inflammation in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:1009-26. [PMID: 27271499 PMCID: PMC4960446 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder which has a lifetime prevalence of ~1%. Multiple candidate mechanisms have been proposed in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. One such mechanism is the involvement of neuroinflammation. Clinical studies, including neuroimaging, peripheral biomarkers and randomized control trials, have suggested the presence of neuroinflammation in schizophrenia. Many studies have also measured markers of neuroinflammation in postmortem brain samples from schizophrenia patients. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic search of the literature on neuroinflammation in postmortem brains of schizophrenia patients indexed in MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO. Databases were searched up until 20th March 2016 for articles published on postmortem brains in schizophrenia evaluating microglia, astrocytes, glia, cytokines, the arachidonic cascade, substance P and other markers of neuroinflammation. Two independent reviewers extracted the data. Out of 5385 articles yielded by the search, 119 articles were identified that measured neuroinflammatory markers in schizophrenic postmortem brains. Glial fibrillary acidic protein expression was elevated, lower or unchanged in 6, 6 and 21 studies, respectively, and similar results were obtained for glial cell densities. On the other hand, microglial markers were increased, lower or unchanged in schizophrenia in 11, 3 and 8 studies, respectively. Results were variable across all other markers, but SERPINA3 and IFITM were consistently increased in 4 and 5 studies, respectively. Despite the variability, some studies evaluating neuroinflammation in postmortem brains in schizophrenia suggest an increase in microglial activity and other markers such as SERPINA3 and IFITM. Variability across studies is partially explained by multiple factors including brain region evaluated, source of the brain, diagnosis, age at time of death, age of onset and the presence of suicide victims in the cohort.
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Affiliation(s)
- M O Trépanier
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - K E Hopperton
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - R Mizrahi
- Research Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - N Mechawar
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - R P Bazinet
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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20
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Yirmiya R, Rimmerman N, Reshef R. Depression as a microglial disease. Trends Neurosci 2016; 38:637-658. [PMID: 26442697 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 577] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Despite decades of intensive research, the biological mechanisms that causally underlie depression are still unclear, and therefore the development of novel effective antidepressant treatments is hindered. Recent studies indicate that impairment of the normal structure and function of microglia, caused by either intense inflammatory activation (e.g., following infections, trauma, stroke, short-term stress, autoimmune or neurodegenerative diseases) or by decline and senescence of these cells (e.g., during aging, Alzheimer's disease, or chronic unpredictable stress exposure), can lead to depression and associated impairments in neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Accordingly, some forms of depression can be considered as a microglial disease (microgliopathy), which should be treated by a personalized medical approach using microglial inhibitors or stimulators depending on the microglial status of the depressed patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raz Yirmiya
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91905, Israel.
| | - Neta Rimmerman
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91905, Israel
| | - Ronen Reshef
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91905, Israel
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Laskaris LE, Di Biase MA, Everall I, Chana G, Christopoulos A, Skafidas E, Cropley VL, Pantelis C. Microglial activation and progressive brain changes in schizophrenia. Br J Pharmacol 2016; 173:666-80. [PMID: 26455353 PMCID: PMC4742288 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating disorder that typically begins in adolescence and is characterized by perceptual abnormalities, delusions, cognitive and behavioural disturbances and functional impairments. While current treatments can be effective, they are often insufficient to alleviate the full range of symptoms. Schizophrenia is associated with structural brain abnormalities including grey and white matter volume loss and impaired connectivity. Recent findings suggest these abnormalities follow a neuroprogressive course in the earliest stages of the illness, which may be associated with episodes of acute relapse. Neuroinflammation has been proposed as a potential mechanism underlying these brain changes, with evidence of increased density and activation of microglia, immune cells resident in the brain, at various stages of the illness. We review evidence for microglial dysfunction in schizophrenia from both neuroimaging and neuropathological data, with a specific focus on studies examining microglial activation in relation to the pathology of grey and white matter. The studies available indicate that the link between microglial dysfunction and brain change in schizophrenia remains an intriguing hypothesis worthy of further examination. Future studies in schizophrenia should: (i) use multimodal imaging to clarify this association by mapping brain changes longitudinally across illness stages in relation to microglial activation; (ii) clarify the nature of microglial dysfunction with markers specific to activation states and phenotypes; (iii) examine the role of microglia and neurons with reference to their overlapping roles in neuroinflammatory pathways; and (iv) examine the impact of novel immunomodulatory treatments on brain structure in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Laskaris
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Neural Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - M A Di Biase
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - I Everall
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Florey Institute for Neurosciences and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - G Chana
- Centre for Neural Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - A Christopoulos
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - E Skafidas
- Centre for Neural Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, VIC, Australia
- Florey Institute for Neurosciences and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - V L Cropley
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - C Pantelis
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Florey Institute for Neurosciences and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Wang C, Aleksic B, Ozaki N. Glia-related genes and their contribution to schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2015; 69:448-61. [PMID: 25759284 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia, a debilitating disease with 1% prevalence in the general population, is characterized by major neuropsychiatric symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, and deficits in emotional and social behavior. Previous studies have directed their investigations on the mechanism of schizophrenia towards neuronal dysfunction and have defined schizophrenia as a 'neuron-centric' disorder. However, along with the development of genetics and systematic biology approaches in recent years, the crucial role of glial cells in the brain has also been shown to contribute to the etiopathology of schizophrenia. Here, we summarize comprehensive data that support the involvement of glial cells (including oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglial cells) in schizophrenia and list several acknowledged glia-related genes or molecules associated with schizophrenia. Instead of purely an abnormality of neurons in schizophrenia, an additional 'glial perspective' provides us a novel and promising insight into the causal mechanisms and treatment for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyao Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Branko Aleksic
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Norio Ozaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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Hercher C, Chopra V, Beasley CL. Evidence for morphological alterations in prefrontal white matter glia in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2014; 39:376-85. [PMID: 24936776 PMCID: PMC4214872 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.130277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain imaging studies suggest that volume reductions and compromised white matter integrity occur in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (BD). However, the cellular correlates have not yet been identified. To address this issue we assessed oligodendrocyte, astrocyte and microglial populations in postmortem white matter from schizophrenia, BD and nonpsychiatric control samples. METHODS The density, areal fraction and spatial distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-expressing astrocytes and ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (IBA-1)-expressing microglia as well as the density, nuclear size and spatial distribution of Nissl-stained oligodendrocytes were quantified in postmortem white matter adjacent to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) in schizophrenia, BD and control samples (n = 20). In addition, the oligodendrocyte-associated proteins myelin basic protein and 2,3-cyclic-nucleotide 3-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) were quantified in the same samples by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting. RESULTS Oligodendrocyte density (p = 0.012) and CNPase protein levels (p = 0.038) differed between groups, being increased in BD compared with control samples. The GFAP area fraction (p = 0.05) and astrocyte spatial distribution (p = 0.040) also differed between groups, reflecting decreased area fraction and increased cell clustering in both schizophrenia and BD samples. LIMITATIONS Oligodendrocytes were identified using morphological criteria. CONCLUSION This study provides evidence for glial pathology in prefrontal white matter in schizophrenia and BD. Changes in oligodendrocyte and astrocyte populations in white matter in the major psychiatric disorders may reflect disruptions in structural or metabolic support of axons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Clare L. Beasley
- Correspondence to: C.L. Beasley, BC Mental Health and Addictions Research Institute, A3 115-938 West 28 Ave., Vancouver BC V5Z 4H4;
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24
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Myint KSA, Kipar A, Jarman RG, Gibbons RV, Perng GC, Flanagan B, Mongkolsirichaikul D, Van Gessel Y, Solomon T. Neuropathogenesis of Japanese encephalitis in a primate model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2980. [PMID: 25102067 PMCID: PMC4125110 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity for which there is no treatment. In addition to direct viral cytopathology, the inflammatory response is postulated to contribute to the pathogenesis. Our goal was to determine the contribution of bystander effects and inflammatory mediators to neuronal cell death. Methodology/Principal Findings Material from a macaque model was used to characterize the inflammatory response and cytopathic effects of JE virus (JEV). Intranasal JEV infection induced a non-suppurative encephalitis, dominated by perivascular, infiltrates of mostly T cells, alongside endothelial cell activation, vascular damage and blood brain barrier (BBB) leakage; in the adjacent parenchyma there was macrophage infiltration, astrocyte and microglia activation. JEV antigen was mostly in neurons, but there was no correlation between intensity of viral infection and degree of inflammatory response. Apoptotic cell death occurred in both infected and non-infected neurons. Interferon-α, which is a microglial activator, was also expressed by both. Tumour Necrosis Factor-α, inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitrotyrosine were expressed by microglial cells, astrocytes and macrophages. The same cells expressed matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 whilst MMP-9 was expressed by neurons. Conclusions/Significance The results are consistent with JEV inducing neuronal apoptotic death and release of cytokines that initiate microglial activation and release of pro-inflammatory and apoptotic mediators with subsequent apoptotic death of both infected and uninfected neurons. Activation of astrocytes, microglial and endothelial cells likely contributes to inflammatory cell recruitment and BBB breakdown. It appears that neuronal apoptotic death and activation of microglial cells and astrocytes play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of JE. Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of the most important causes of viral encephalitis worldwide, with no specific antiviral treatment available. Despite some recent successes with widespread vaccination, JE will likely remain an important public health problem; because the virus is mosquito-borne and has natural animal hosts, it will never be eradicated. We have little understanding of what determines the severity and outcome of infection. Data from human post mortem studies is very limited because of cultural constraints on autopsies in areas where JE occurs. Circumstantial evidence suggests that in addition to cytopathology caused directly by infection of neurons, there may be bystander cell death of non-infected neurons, caused by an excessive inflammatory response. Our study used archived brain samples from a prior challenge study in a validated macaque model of JE. We stained for the presence of JEV antigen, apoptosis, and pro-inflammatory markers in affected areas, such as the thalamus and brainstem. We show that bystander neuronal cell death is important, and elucidate the inflammatory and apoptotic mechanisms underlying it. Currently there is no proven efficacious therapy for most viral infections of the central nervous system, including JE. Novel strategies for treating such infections are urgently needed. Our findings suggest new anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic therapeutic approaches may be useful in treating this debilitating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khin Saw Aye Myint
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, Thailand
- Brain Infections Group, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, and Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Anja Kipar
- Veterinary Pathology, School of Veterinary Science, and Department of Infection Biology, Institute of Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Richard G. Jarman
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Robert V. Gibbons
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Guey Chuen Perng
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Center of Infectious Disease and Signal Research, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Brian Flanagan
- Infection Immunology, Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Yvonne Van Gessel
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tom Solomon
- Brain Infections Group, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, and Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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25
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Frey BN, Dias RS. Sex hormones and biomarkers of neuroprotection and neurodegeneration: implications for female reproductive events in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2014; 16:48-57. [PMID: 24206266 DOI: 10.1111/bdi.12151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Previous studies have suggested that women with bipolar disorder are at higher risk for mood episodes during periods of intense hormonal fluctuation (e.g., premenstrual, postpartum, perimenopause). There is converging literature showing that estrogen and progesterone can modulate neurotransmitter systems and intracellular signaling pathways known to be affected by mood stabilizing agents. Here, we critically review clinical aspects of reproductive cycle events in women with bipolar disorder and preclinical studies, with a focus on the functional interactions between sex hormones and biomarkers of neuroprotection and neurodegeneration that are thought to be involved in the neurobiology of bipolar disorder: brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation. METHODS A MedLine search using estrogen, progesterone, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation as key words was conducted. RESULTS Data showed that estrogen and progesterone closely interact with brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation pathways. CONCLUSIONS This relationship between sex hormones and the pathways of neuroprotection/neurodegeneration may be relevant to the psychopathological aspects of bipolar disorder in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benicio N Frey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Mood Disorders Program and Women's Health Concerns Clinic, St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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26
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Raison CL, Miller AH. The evolutionary significance of depression in Pathogen Host Defense (PATHOS-D). Mol Psychiatry 2013; 18:15-37. [PMID: 22290120 PMCID: PMC3532038 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2012.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Revised: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Given the manifold ways that depression impairs Darwinian fitness, the persistence in the human genome of risk alleles for the disorder remains a much debated mystery. Evolutionary theories that view depressive symptoms as adaptive fail to provide parsimonious explanations for why even mild depressive symptoms impair fitness-relevant social functioning, whereas theories that suggest that depression is maladaptive fail to account for the high prevalence of depression risk alleles in human populations. These limitations warrant novel explanations for the origin and persistence of depression risk alleles. Accordingly, studies on risk alleles for depression were identified using PubMed and Ovid MEDLINE to examine data supporting the hypothesis that risk alleles for depression originated and have been retained in the human genome because these alleles promote pathogen host defense, which includes an integrated suite of immunological and behavioral responses to infection. Depression risk alleles identified by both candidate gene and genome-wide association study (GWAS) methodologies were found to be regularly associated with immune responses to infection that were likely to enhance survival in the ancestral environment. Moreover, data support the role of specific depressive symptoms in pathogen host defense including hyperthermia, reduced bodily iron stores, conservation/withdrawal behavior, hypervigilance and anorexia. By shifting the adaptive context of depression risk alleles from relations with conspecifics to relations with the microbial world, the Pathogen Host Defense (PATHOS-D) hypothesis provides a novel explanation for how depression can be nonadaptive in the social realm, whereas its risk alleles are nonetheless represented at prevalence rates that bespeak an adaptive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Raison
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724-5137, USA.
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Takahashi N, Sakurai T. Roles of glial cells in schizophrenia: possible targets for therapeutic approaches. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 53:49-60. [PMID: 23146995 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2012] [Revised: 09/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells consisting of oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, and NG2 positive cells are major cell populations in the central nervous system, number-wise. They function as effectors and modulators of neurodevelopment through a wide variety of neuron-glial cell interactions in brain development and functions. Glial cells can be affected by both genetic and environmental factors, leading to their dysfunctions in supporting neuronal development and functions. These in turn can affect neuronal cells, causing alterations at the circuitry level that manifest as behavioral characteristics associated with schizophrenia in late teens-early twenties. Glial cells are also involved in neuroinflammatory processes, which sometimes have deleterious effects on the normal brain development. If the glial involvement plays significant roles in schizophrenia, the processes involving glial cells can become possible therapeutic targets for schizophrenia. A number of known antipsychotics are shown to have beneficial effects on glial cells, but other drugs targeting glial cell functions may also have therapeutic effects on schizophrenia. The latter can be taken into consideration for future drug development for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagahide Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Japan
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28
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Pérez-Santiago J, Diez-Alarcia R, Callado LF, Zhang JX, Chana G, White CH, Glatt SJ, Tsuang MT, Everall IP, Meana JJ, Woelk CH. A combined analysis of microarray gene expression studies of the human prefrontal cortex identifies genes implicated in schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2012; 46:1464-74. [PMID: 22954356 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Small cohort sizes and modest levels of gene expression changes in brain tissue have plagued the statistical approaches employed in microarray studies investigating the mechanism of schizophrenia. To combat these problems a combined analysis of six prior microarray studies was performed to facilitate the robust statistical analysis of gene expression data from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of 107 patients with schizophrenia and 118 healthy subjects. Multivariate permutation tests identified 144 genes that were differentially expressed between schizophrenia and control groups. Seventy of these genes were identified as differentially expressed in at least one component microarray study but none of these individual studies had the power to identify the remaining 74 genes, demonstrating the utility of a combined approach. Gene ontology terms and biological pathways that were significantly enriched for differentially expressed genes were related to neuronal cell-cell signaling, mesenchymal induction, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, which have all previously been associated with the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia. The differential expression of BAG3, C4B, EGR1, MT1X, NEUROD6, SST and S100A8 was confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR in an independent cohort using postmortem human prefrontal cortex samples. Comparison of gene expression between schizophrenic subjects with and without detectable levels of antipsychotics in their blood suggests that the modulation of MT1X and S100A8 may be the result of drug exposure. In conclusion, this combined analysis has resulted in a statistically robust identification of genes whose dysregulation may contribute to the mechanism of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josué Pérez-Santiago
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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29
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Chaudhry IB, Hallak J, Husain N, Minhas F, Stirling J, Richardson P, Dursun S, Dunn G, Deakin B. Minocycline benefits negative symptoms in early schizophrenia: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial in patients on standard treatment. J Psychopharmacol 2012; 26:1185-93. [PMID: 22526685 DOI: 10.1177/0269881112444941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The onset and early course of schizophrenia is associated with subtle loss of grey matter which may be responsible for the evolution and persistence of symptoms such as apathy, emotional blunting, and social withdrawal. Such 'negative' symptoms are unaffected by current antipsychotic therapies. There is evidence that the antibiotic minocycline has neuroprotective properties. We investigated whether the addition of minocycline to treatment as usual (TAU) for 1 year in early psychosis would reduce negative symptoms compared with placebo. In total, 144 participants within 5 years of first onset in Brazil and Pakistan were randomised to receive TAU plus placebo or minocycline. The primary outcome measures were the negative and positive syndrome ratings using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Some 94 patients completed the trial. The mean improvement in negative symptoms for the minocycline group was 9.2 and in the placebo group 4.7, an adjusted difference of 3.53 (s.e. 1.01) 95% CI: 1.55, 5.51; p < 0.001 in the intention-to-treat population. The effect was present in both countries. The addition of minocycline to TAU early in the course of schizophrenia predominantly improves negative symptoms. Whether this is mediated by neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory or others actions is under investigation.
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30
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Blank T, Prinz M. Microglia as modulators of cognition and neuropsychiatric disorders. Glia 2012; 61:62-70. [PMID: 22740320 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has become evident recently only that microglia are not only responsible for immunomodulatory functions in the brain but represent vital components of the larger synaptic formation, which also includes pre and postsynaptic neurones as well as astrocytes. Microglia critically contribute to CNS homeostasis by their actions in phagocytosis of cellular debris, release of a variety of cell signaling factors including neurotrophins and extracellular matrix components and direct contact with neurons. The purpose of this review is to summarize our current understanding of the involvement of microglia in cognitive processes and neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and Rett syndrome and to outline their potential signaling mechanisms in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Blank
- Department of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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31
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Sathyasaikumar KV, Stachowski EK, Wonodi I, Roberts RC, Rassoulpour A, McMahon RP, Schwarcz R. Impaired kynurenine pathway metabolism in the prefrontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2011; 37:1147-56. [PMID: 21036897 PMCID: PMC3196941 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbq112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The levels of kynurenic acid (KYNA), an astrocyte-derived metabolite of the branched kynurenine pathway (KP) of tryptophan degradation and antagonist of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, are elevated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of individuals with schizophrenia (SZ). Because endogenous KYNA modulates extracellular glutamate and acetylcholine levels in the PFC, these increases may be pathophysiologically significant. Using brain tissue from SZ patients and matched controls, we now measured the activity of several KP enzymes (kynurenine 3-monooxygenase [KMO], kynureninase, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid dioxygenase [3-HAO], quinolinic acid phosphoribosyltransferase [QPRT], and kynurenine aminotransferase II [KAT II]) in the PFC, ie, Brodmann areas (BA) 9 and 10. Compared with controls, the activities of KMO (in BA 9 and 10) and 3-HAO (in BA 9) were significantly reduced in SZ, though there were no significant differences between patients and controls in kynureninase, QPRT, and KAT II. In the same samples, we also confirmed the increase in the tissue levels of KYNA in SZ. As examined in rats treated chronically with the antipsychotic drug risperidone, the observed biochemical changes were not secondary to medication. A persistent reduction in KMO activity may have a particular bearing on pathology because it may signify a shift of KP metabolism toward enhanced KYNA synthesis. The present results further support the hypothesis that the normalization of cortical KP metabolism may constitute an effective new treatment strategy in SZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Korrapati V. Sathyasaikumar
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Erin K. Stachowski
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Ikwunga Wonodi
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Rosalinda C. Roberts
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,Present address: Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Arash Rassoulpour
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Robert P. McMahon
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, PO Box 21247, Baltimore, MD 21228; tel: 410-402-7635, fax: 410-747-2434, e-mail:
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32
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Dilly S, Liégeois JF. Interaction of clozapine and its nitrenium ion with rat D2 dopamine receptors: in vitro binding and computational study. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2010; 25:163-9. [PMID: 21184252 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-010-9407-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of diazepine analogues like clozapine or olanzapine with D2 receptor was greatly affected by a mixture of HRP/H(2)O(2) known to induce the formation of nitrenium ion. Unlike diazepine derivatives, the oxidative mixture had low impact on the affinity of oxa- and thiazepine derivatives such as loxapine, clothiapine or JL13 for the D2 receptor. Molecular docking simulations revealed a huge difference between the mode of interaction of clozapine nitrenium ion and the parent drug. Electronic and geometric changes of the tricyclic ring system caused by the oxidation appeared to prevent the compound finding the correct binding mode and could therefore explain the difference observed in binding affinities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Dilly
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry and CIRM (B36), University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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Jiang L, Saetre P, Radomska KJ, Jazin E, Lindholm Carlström E. QKI-7 regulates expression of interferon-related genes in human astrocyte glioma cells. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13079. [PMID: 20927331 PMCID: PMC2947523 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human QKI gene, called quaking homolog, KH domain RNA binding (mouse), is a candidate gene for schizophrenia encoding an RNA-binding protein. This gene was shown to be essential for myelination in oligodendrocytes. QKI is also highly expressed in astrocytes, but its function in these cells is not known. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We studied the effect of small interference RNA (siRNA)-mediated QKI depletion on global gene expression in human astrocyte glioma cells. Microarray measurements were confirmed with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The presence of QKI binding sites (QRE) was assessed by a bioinformatic approach. Viability and cell morphology were also studied. The most significant alteration after QKI silencing was the decreased expression of genes involved in interferon (IFN) induction (P = 6.3E-10), including IFIT1, IFIT2, MX1, MX2, G1P2, G1P3, GBP1 and IFIH1. All eight genes were down-regulated after silencing of the splice variant QKI-7, but were not affected by QKI-5 silencing. Interestingly, four of them were up-regulated after treatment with the antipsychotic agent haloperidol that also resulted in increased QKI-7 mRNA levels. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The coordinated expression of QKI-7 splice variant and IFN-related genes supports the idea that this particular splice variant has specific functions in astrocytes. Furthermore, a role of QKI-7 as a regulator of an inflammatory gene pathway in astrocytes is suggested. This hypothesis is well in line with growing experimental evidence on the role of inflammatory components in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Jiang
- Department of Development and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Peter Saetre
- Department of Development and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, HUBIN Project, Karolinska Institute and Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Elena Jazin
- Department of Development and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Hickie IB, Banati R, Stewart CH, Lloyd AR. Are common childhood or adolescent infections risk factors for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders? Med J Aust 2009. [DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2009.tb02369.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian B Hickie
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
| | | | - Claire H Stewart
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Inflammation Research Unit, School of Pathology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW
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Prinzen C, Trümbach D, Wurst W, Endres K, Postina R, Fahrenholz F. Differential gene expression in ADAM10 and mutant ADAM10 transgenic mice. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:66. [PMID: 19196476 PMCID: PMC2647556 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2008] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer disease (AD), cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the α-secretase ADAM10 prevented amyloid plaque formation, and alleviated cognitive deficits. Furthermore, ADAM10 overexpression increased the cortical synaptogenesis. These results suggest that upregulation of ADAM10 in the brain has beneficial effects on AD pathology. Results To assess the influence of ADAM10 on the gene expression profile in the brain, we performed a microarray analysis using RNA isolated from brains of five months old mice overexpressing either the α-secretase ADAM10, or a dominant-negative mutant (dn) of this enzyme. As compared to non-transgenic wild-type mice, in ADAM10 transgenic mice 355 genes, and in dnADAM10 mice 143 genes were found to be differentially expressed. A higher number of genes was differentially regulated in double-transgenic mouse strains additionally expressing the human APP[V717I] mutant. Overexpression of proteolytically active ADAM10 affected several physiological pathways, such as cell communication, nervous system development, neuron projection as well as synaptic transmission. Although ADAM10 has been implicated in Notch and β-catenin signaling, no significant changes in the respective target genes were observed in adult ADAM10 transgenic mice. Real-time RT-PCR confirmed a downregulation of genes coding for the inflammation-associated proteins S100a8 and S100a9 induced by moderate ADAM10 overexpression. Overexpression of the dominant-negative form dnADAM10 led to a significant increase in the expression of the fatty acid-binding protein Fabp7, which also has been found in higher amounts in brains of Down syndrome patients. Conclusion In general, there was only a moderate alteration of gene expression in ADAM10 overexpressing mice. Genes coding for pro-inflammatory or pro-apoptotic proteins were not over-represented among differentially regulated genes. Even a decrease of inflammation markers was observed. These results are further supportive for the strategy to treat AD by increasing the α-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Prinzen
- Johannes Gutenberg-University, Institute of Biochemistry, Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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Turchan-Cholewo J, Dimayuga FO, Ding Q, Keller JN, Hauser KF, Knapp PE, Bruce-Keller AJ. Cell-specific actions of HIV-Tat and morphine on opioid receptor expression in glia. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:2100-10. [PMID: 18338799 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
HIV-1 patients who abuse opiate-based drugs, including heroin and morphine, are at a higher risk of developing HIV dementia. The effects of opiates are mediated predominantly through opioid receptors, which are expressed on glial cells. As HIV-1 infection in the CNS is restricted to glial cells, experiments were designed to measure the cell-specific effects of HIV Tat and morphine exposure on opioid receptor expression in both astrocytes and microglia. Specifically, the cell-type-specific pattern of mu opioid receptor (MOR), delta opioid receptor (DOR), and kappa opioid receptor (KOR) localization (surface vs. intracellular) and expression of opioid receptor mRNA were determined after exposure to morphine in the presence and the absence of Tat in primary cultured microglia and astrocytes. Data show that morphine treatment caused significantly decreased cell surface expression of opioid receptors in microglia but not in astrocytes. However, morphine treatment in the presence of Tat significantly increased intracellular expression of opioid receptors and prevented morphine-induced cell surface opioid receptor down-regulation in microglia. These findings document that cell surface opioid receptor expression is divergently regulated by morphine in microglia compared with in astrocytes, and further suggest that HIV-Tat could exacerbate opioid receptor signaling in microglia by increasing receptor expression and/or altering ligand-induced trafficking of opioid receptors.
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