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Wu X, Moyne AL, Ramos TDM, Harris LJ, DiCaprio E. Impact of irrigation water quality on human norovirus surrogate survival during leafy green production. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1128579. [PMID: 37077630 PMCID: PMC10106680 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1128579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Introduction The impact of water quality on the survival of human norovirus (NoV) was determined in irrigation water field run-off (tail water) and well water from a representative Central Coast vegetable production site in the Salinas Valley, California. Methods Tail water, well water, and ultrapure water samples were inoculated separately with two surrogate viruses for human NoV-Tulane virus (TV) and murine norovirus (MNV)-to achieve a titer of 1×105 plaque forming units (PFU)/ml. Samples were stored at 11, 19, and 24°C for 28 days. Additionally, inoculated water was applied to soil collected from a vegetable production site in the Salinas Valley or to the surface of growing romaine lettuce leaves, and virus infectivity was evaluated for 28 days in a growth chamber. Results Virus survival was similar for water stored at 11, 19, and 24°C and there was no difference in infectivity based on water quality. After 28 days, a maximum 1.5 log reduction was observed for both TV and MNV. TV decreased by 1.97-2.26 log and MNV decreased by 1.28- 1.48 logs after 28 days in soil; infectivity was not influenced by water type. Infectious TV and MNV were recovered from lettuce surfaces for up to 7 and 10 days after inoculation, respectively. Across the experiments there was no significant impact of water quality on the stability of the human NoV surrogates. Discussion Overall, the human NoV surrogates were highly stable in water with a less than 1.5 log reduction over 28 days and no difference observed based on the water quality. In soil, the titer of TV declined by approximately 2 logs over 28 days, while MNV declined by 1 log during the same time interval, suggesting surrogate-specific inactivation dynamics in the soil tested in this study. A 5-log reduction in MNV (day 10 post inoculation) and TV (day 14 post inoculation) was observed on lettuce leaves, and the inactivation kinetics were not significantly impacted by the quality of water used. These results suggest that human NoV would be highly stable in water, and the quality of the water (e.g., nutrient content, salinity, and turbidity) does not significantly impact viral infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Wu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Anne-laure Moyne
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Western Center for Food Safety, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Thais De Melo Ramos
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Linda J. Harris
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Western Center for Food Safety, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Erin DiCaprio
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Erin DiCaprio,
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Lanrewaju AA, Enitan-Folami AM, Sabiu S, Edokpayi JN, Swalaha FM. Global public health implications of human exposure to viral contaminated water. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:981896. [PMID: 36110296 PMCID: PMC9468673 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.981896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses are common waterborne pathogens found in environmental water bodies contaminated with either raw or partially treated sewage discharge. Examples of these viruses include adenovirus, rotavirus, noroviruses, and other caliciviruses and enteroviruses like coxsackievirus and polioviruses. They have been linked with gastroenteritis, while some enteric viruses have also been implicated in more severe infections such as encephalitis, meningitis, hepatitis (hepatitis A and E viruses), cancer (polyomavirus), and myocarditis (enteroviruses). Therefore, this review presents information on the occurrence of enteric viruses of public health importance, diseases associated with human exposure to enteric viruses, assessment of their presence in contaminated water, and their removal in water and wastewater sources. In order to prevent illnesses associated with human exposure to viral contaminated water, we suggest the regular viral monitoring of treated wastewater before discharging it into the environment. Furthermore, we highlight the need for more research to focus on the development of more holistic disinfection methods that will inactivate waterborne viruses in municipal wastewater discharges, as this is highly needed to curtail the public health effects of human exposure to contaminated water. Moreover, such a method must be devoid of disinfection by-products that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Saheed Sabiu
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
| | - Joshua Nosa Edokpayi
- Water and Environmental Management Research Group, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Feroz Mahomed Swalaha
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
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Abbasi A, Kafil HS, Ozma MA, Sangtarash N, Sabahi S. Can food matrices be considered as a potential carrier for COVID-19? LE INFEZIONI IN MEDICINA 2022; 30:59-72. [PMID: 35350257 PMCID: PMC8929742 DOI: 10.53854/liim-3001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Humanity is currently facing a life-threatening challenge from the infectious and epidemic disease SARS-CoV-2. To date, the various modes of transmission of the virus have not been fully elucidated. In this regard, there is a possibility of transmission of the virus through food products. The COVID-19 pandemic disease, like those associated with SARS and MERS, is transmitted mainly through the respiratory tract and airborne aerosol particles, but the presence of fragments of the genetic virus (RNA) in the feces of numerous patients proposes that their fecal-oral pathway may be expanded. In addition, people with gastrointestinal disorders such as atrophic gastritis and metaplasia may be susceptible to COVID-19 infection. Accordingly, food may act as a potential carrier of COVID-19 due to environmental or cross-contamination. According to the available evidence, the spread and possibility of transmission of COVID-19 contamination from humans to food products are possible. Beyond that, there is some evidence that some food sources of animal origin, such as pigs and rabbits, can be contaminated by COVID-19. Therefore, the transmission of the virus through some meat products may be conceivable. Due to the rapid release rate of COVID-19 and its stability in various milieus, especially food manufacturing circumstances, it may enter the matrix during different stages of traditional or industrial food processing. Therefore, preventive measures are recommended to be utilized in the food manufacturing sector. The present study explored the risk of different food matrices, including dairy products, bread, meat and meat products, vegetables, fruits, and processed foods, as potential carriers for the transmission of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Abbasi
- Student Research Committee, Department of Food Science and Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition Science and Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Samadi Kafil
- Drug Applied Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mahdi Asghari Ozma
- Drug Applied Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Narges Sangtarash
- Department of Nutrition, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Sahar Sabahi
- Department of Nutrition, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
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Shojaie P, Mashak Z, Koohdar V. Molecular Detection of Norwalk Virus in Carp Fish and Shrimp Ponds in Khuzestan Province, Iran by RT-PCR Method. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENTERIC PATHOGENS 2021. [DOI: 10.34172/ijep.2021.02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Norwalk virus is one of the most common causes of viral gastroenteritis. The aquatic products are potential sources of contamination with this virus. Objectives: The main objective of the study was to investigate the presence of the Norwalk virus in different aquatic animals in Khuzestan provinces, Iran. Materials and Methods: A total of 40 pieces of fish (silver carp, common carp, big head, and grass carp species) and 10 pieces of shrimps were caught from ponds, and the samples were transferred to the laboratory in ice bags. After the separation of the intestine, the content of the intestine was extracted using two sterile filters. Then, the supernatant was used for reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using Calicivirus-specific primers (p289/ p290). Then, Norwalk virus-specific primers (NVp36/NVp35) were detected in Calicivirus positive samples. Results: The results showed 8% (4 samples) and 6% (3 samples) of the samples were infected with Calicivirus (p289/p290 genes) and Norwalk virus (NVp36/NVp35 genes), respectively. Calicivirus positive samples included 2 common carp, 1 silver carp, and 1 shrimp. Norwalk virus-positive samples included 2 common carp and 1 shrimp. In other words, the highest prevalence of virus was observed in aquatic fish feeding from the bottom of the pool. Due to the fact that this species is bred with other species and considering that this virus lives in the gastrointestinal tract, the ingestion of feces of other infected organisms can lead to the increase of this virus in the digestive system of carp. Conclusion: Therefore, due to the importance of Norwalk as a zoonotic agent and the possibility of human infection through consumption of aquatic products, preventive measures such as not using animal manure for fertilization and preventing the growth of phytoplankton in aquaculture ponds and cooking meat properly are suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parisa Shojaie
- Department of Food Hygiene, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
| | - Zohreh Mashak
- Clinical care and Heath promotion Research Center, Karaj branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
| | - Valliolah Koohdar
- Department of Food Hygiene, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
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La Rosa G, Mancini P, Bonanno Ferraro G, Iaconelli M, Veneri C, Paradiso R, De Medici D, Vicenza T, Proroga YTR, Di Maro O, Ciccaglione AR, Bruni R, Equestre M, Taffon S, Costantino A, Della Rotonda M, Suffredini E. Hepatitis A Virus Strains Circulating in the Campania Region (2015-2018) Assessed through Bivalve Biomonitoring and Environmental Surveillance. Viruses 2020; 13:v13010016. [PMID: 33374859 PMCID: PMC7824067 DOI: 10.3390/v13010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The genetic diversity of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) circulating in the Campania Region in years 2015–2018 was investigated through the monitoring of sentinel bivalve shellfish and water matrices. Overall, 463 water samples (71 sewage samples, 353 coastal discharge waters, and 39 seawaters samples), and 746 bivalve shellfish samples were analyzed. Positivity for HAV was detected in 20/71 sewage samples, 14/353 coastal discharge waters, 5/39 seawaters, and 102/746 bivalve shellfish. Sixty-one of the positive samples were successfully sequenced and were characterized as genotype IA (n = 50) and IB (n = 11). The prevalent strain circulating in 2015 in both bivalves and waters was the IA strain responsible for the outbreak occurring around the same time in the Naples area. This variant was no longer identified in subsequent years (2017–2018) when, instead, appeared two of the IA variants of the multistate outbreak affecting men who have sex with men (MSM), VRD_521_2016, and RIVM-HAV16–090, with the former prevailing in both shellfish and water environments. HAV IB isolates were detected over the years in shellfish and in water matrices, but not in clinical samples, suggesting that this genotype had been circulating silently. An integrated surveillance system (environment/food/clinical cases) can be a useful tool to monitor changes in viral variants in the population, as well as an early warning system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina La Rosa
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Pamela Mancini
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Giusy Bonanno Ferraro
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Marcello Iaconelli
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Carolina Veneri
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Rosa Paradiso
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (G.L.R.); (P.M.); (G.B.F.); (M.I.); (C.V.); (R.P.)
| | - Dario De Medici
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.V.)
| | - Teresa Vicenza
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.V.)
| | - Yolande Therese Rose Proroga
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Portici, Italy; (Y.T.R.P.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Orlandina Di Maro
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, 80055 Portici, Italy; (Y.T.R.P.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Anna Rita Ciccaglione
- Department of Infectious Diseases, NRL for Human Viral Hepatitis, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.R.C.); (R.B.); (M.E.); (S.T.); (A.C.)
| | - Roberto Bruni
- Department of Infectious Diseases, NRL for Human Viral Hepatitis, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.R.C.); (R.B.); (M.E.); (S.T.); (A.C.)
| | - Michele Equestre
- Department of Infectious Diseases, NRL for Human Viral Hepatitis, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.R.C.); (R.B.); (M.E.); (S.T.); (A.C.)
| | - Stefania Taffon
- Department of Infectious Diseases, NRL for Human Viral Hepatitis, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.R.C.); (R.B.); (M.E.); (S.T.); (A.C.)
| | - Angela Costantino
- Department of Infectious Diseases, NRL for Human Viral Hepatitis, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.R.C.); (R.B.); (M.E.); (S.T.); (A.C.)
| | - Maurizio Della Rotonda
- Executive Task Force Prevention and Veterinary Public Health, Region Campania, 80132 Naples, Italy;
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (D.D.M.); (T.V.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-06-4990-2477
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Zwart H. Emerging viral threats and the simultaneity of the non-simultaneous: zooming out in times of Corona. MEDICINE, HEALTH CARE, AND PHILOSOPHY 2020; 23:589-602. [PMID: 32737743 PMCID: PMC7394271 DOI: 10.1007/s11019-020-09970-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper addresses global bioethical challenges entailed in emerging viral diseases, focussing on their socio-cultural dimension and seeing them as symptomatic of the current era of globalisation. Emerging viral threats exemplify the extent to which humans evolved into a global species, with a pervasive and irreversible impact on the planetary ecosystem. To effectively address these disruptive threats, an attitude of preparedness seems called for, not only on the viroscientific, but also on bioethical, regulatory and governance levels. This paper analyses the global bioethical challenges of emerging viral threats from a dialectical materialist (Marxist) perspective, focussing on three collisions: (1) the collision of expanding networks of globalisation with local husbandry practices; (2) the collision of global networks of mobility with disrupted ecosystems; and (3) the collision of viroscience as a globalised research field with existing regulatory frameworks. These collisions emerge in a force field defined by the simultaneity of the non-simultaneous. Evidence-based health policies invoke discontent as they reflect the normative logic of a globalised knowledge regime. The development of a global bioethics or macro-ethics requires us to envision these collisions not primarily as issues of benefits and risks, but first and foremost as normative tensions closely entangled with broader socio-economic and socio-cultural developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hub Zwart
- Dean Erasmus School of Philosophy, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Bayle Building/Room J5-65/Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, 3062 PA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Thompson JR, Nancharaiah YV, Gu X, Lee WL, Rajal VB, Haines MB, Girones R, Ng LC, Alm EJ, Wuertz S. Making waves: Wastewater surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 for population-based health management. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 184:116181. [PMID: 32707307 PMCID: PMC7357518 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, clinical data remain the gold standard for disease surveillance and tracking. However, such data are limited due to factors such as reporting bias and inability to track asymptomatic disease carriers. Disease agents are excreted in the urine and feces of infected individuals regardless of disease symptom severity. Wastewater surveillance - that is, monitoring disease via human effluent - represents a valuable complement to clinical approaches. Because wastewater is relatively inexpensive and easy to collect and can be monitored at different levels of population aggregation as needed, wastewater surveillance can offer a real-time, cost-effective view of a community's health that is independent of biases associated with case-reporting. For SARS-CoV-2 and other disease-causing agents we envision an aggregate wastewater-monitoring system at the level of a wastewater treatment plant and exploratory or confirmatory monitoring of the sewerage system at the neighborhood scale to identify or confirm clusters of infection or assess impact of control measures where transmission has been established. Implementation will require constructing a framework with collaborating government agencies, public or private utilities, and civil society organizations for appropriate use of data collected from wastewater, identification of an appropriate scale of sample collection and aggregation to balance privacy concerns and risk of stigmatization with public health preservation, and consideration of the social implications of wastewater surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle R Thompson
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore; Asian School of the Environment, NTU, Singapore; Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore.
| | - Yarlagadda V Nancharaiah
- Biofouling and Biofilm Processes, Water and Steam Chemistry Division, Chemistry Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Kalpakkam 603102, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, BARC Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Trombay, Mumbai 400 094, India
| | - Xiaoqiong Gu
- Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore; Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wei Lin Lee
- Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore; Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Verónica B Rajal
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore; Instituto de Investigaciones para la Industria Química (INIQUI), CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Salta (UNSa), Av. Bolivia 5150, Salta 4400, Argentina; Facultad de Ingeniería, UNSa, Salta, Argentina
| | - Monamie B Haines
- Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore; School of Social Sciences, Sociology Division, NTU, Singapore
| | - Rosina Girones
- Section of Microbiology, Virology and Biotechnology, Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Diagonal, 643, 08028-Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lee Ching Ng
- Environmental Health Institute, National Environment Agency, Singapore
| | - Eric J Alm
- Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore; Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Center for Microbiome Informatics and Therapeutics, Departments of Biological Engineering and Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States; Biobot Analytics, Cambridge MA, United States
| | - Stefan Wuertz
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore; Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, NTU, Singapore.
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Zhdanov VP, Jackman JA. Analysis of the initiation of viral infection under flow conditions with applications to transmission in feed. Biosystems 2020; 196:104184. [PMID: 32531420 PMCID: PMC7282798 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2020.104184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
While kinetic models are widely used to describe viral infection at various levels, most of them are focused on temporal aspects and understanding of corresponding spatio-temporal aspects remains limited. In this work, our attention is focused on the initial stage of infection of immobile cells by virus particles ("virions") under flow conditions with diffusion. A practical example of this scenario occurs when humans or animals consume food from virion-containing sources. Mathematically, such situations can be described by using a model constructed in analogy with those employed in chemical engineering for analysis of the function of a plug-flow reactor with dispersion. As in the temporal case, the corresponding spatio-temporal model predicts either the transition to a steady state or exponential growth of the populations of virions and infected cells. The spatial distributions of these species are similar in both of these regimes. In particular, the maximums of the populations are shifted to the upper boundary of the infected region. The results illustrating these conclusions were obtained analytically and by employing numerical calculations without and with the dependence of the kinetic parameters on the coordinate. The model proposed has also been used in order to illustrate the effect of antiviral feed additives on feedborne infection towards curbing disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Zhdanov
- Section of Biological Physics, Department of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, S-41296 Göteborg, Sweden; Boreskov Institute of Catalysis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
| | - Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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Yao L, Li F, Qu M, Guo Y, Jiang Y, Wang L, Zhai Y. Development and Evaluation of a Novel Armored RNA Technology Using Bacteriophage Qβ. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2019; 11:383-392. [PMID: 31435846 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-019-09400-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Foodborne viruses are a global threat to food safety. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most commonly used method to detect viral RNA in food. Armored RNA (AR) prepared using the MS2 phage system is a successful positive control for detecting foodborne viruses and is an important quality control process when using real-time RT-PCR. In this study, we report a novel technology for preparing AR using bacteriophage Qβ and compare its stability with AR prepared using the MS2 phage system for packaging norovirus detection target RNA. AR could be successfully and efficiently produced using the developed bacteriophage Qβ system. Two types of AR-AR-QNoV prepared using the Qβ system and AR-MNoV prepared using the MS2 system-were stored at different temperatures for different durations. After incubating at - 20 °C for 360 days, the copy numbers of AR-QNoV and AR-MNoV decreased by 8.9% and 35.9%, respectively. After incubating at 4 °C for 60 days, the copy numbers of AR-QNoV and AR-MNoV decreased by 12.0% and 38.9%, respectively. After incubating at 45 °C, the copy numbers of AR-QNoV decreased by 71.8% after 5 days, whereas those of AR-MNoV decreased by 92.9% after only 4 days. After 5 days, AR-MNoV could not be detected using real-time RT-PCR. There was a significant difference in copy numbers decrease rate between AR-QNoV and AR-MNoV at three different temperatures (P < 0.05 ). Therefore, AR prepared using the new bacteriophage Qβ system is more stable than the traditional AR, making the developed strategy a good candidate for AR preparation and quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Yao
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengling Li
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Qu
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingying Guo
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanhua Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lianzhu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuxiu Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Aquatic Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
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Park H, Jung S, Shin H, Ha SD, Park TJ, Park JP, Seo DJ, Choi C. Localization and persistence of hepatitis A virus in artificially contaminated oysters. Int J Food Microbiol 2019; 299:58-63. [PMID: 30954876 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Bivalve molluscan shellfish, such as oysters, clams, and cockles, are well-recognized as vectors that concentrate foodborne pathogens by filter feeding. The objective of this study was to investigate the distribution and persistence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in experimentally contaminated oysters that were either fed or not fed with algae. Oysters were experimentally contaminated with HAV and maintained in depuration conditions. qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and in situ hybridization (ISH) were performed on oyster samples collected at 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days post-inoculation. When HAV-contaminated oysters were depurated for 7 days, HAV was detected in 91.1-97.8% of the digestive glands and gills. While the high viral load in the digestive glands in oysters did not change significantly regardless of algae-feeding, the viral load of the gills gradually decreased in both groups during the depuration. HAV antigen and RNA were detected in the digestive diverticula and connective tissues by both IHC and ISH. HAV was detected in the stomach, intestine, and gills by only ISH. The distribution of HAV in various oyster tissues may explain the persistence of contamination in oysters during the depuration process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunkyung Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Soontag Jung
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Hansaem Shin
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Do Ha
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Jung Park
- Department of Chemistry, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Pil Park
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 38610, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Joo Seo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Gwangju University, Gwangju 61743, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsun Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Dawley C, Gibson KE. Virus–Bacteria Interactions: Implications for Prevention and Control of Human Enteric Viruses from Environment to Host. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2019; 16:81-89. [DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2018.2543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cailin Dawley
- Department of Food Science, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
| | - Kristen E. Gibson
- Department of Food Science, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
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12
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Tanaka T, Nogariya O, Shionoiri N, Maeda Y, Arakaki A. Integrated molecular analysis of the inactivation of a non-enveloped virus, feline calicivirus, by UV-C radiation. J Biosci Bioeng 2018; 126:63-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2018.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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13
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Abstract
Microbial pollution is a serious food safety issue because it can lead to a wide range of foodborne diseases. A great number of foodborne diseases and outbreaks are reported in which contamination of fresh produce and animal products occurs from polluted sources with pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa and such outbreaks are reviewed and the sources are revealed. Investigations of foodborne outbreaks involved meat production and fresh produce, namely, that occurred at the early stages of the food chain have shown certain sources of contamination. Domesticated food animals, as well as wild animals, flies and rodents can serve as a source of contamination of nearby produce-growing fields and can lead to human infection through direct contact at farms and, mostly, mail order hatcheries. The most of the fresh produce associated outbreaks have followed wildlife intrusion into growing fields or fecal contamination from nearly animal production facilities that likely led to produce contamination, polluted water used for irrigation and improper manure. Preventive measures, as part of implemented good agricultural practice systems are described. Controlling and minimizing pre-harvest contamination may be one of the key aspects of food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bintsis
- Department of Agricultural Technology, TEI of West Macedonia, Florina, Greece
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14
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Ghadirzad S, Yavarmanesh M, Habibi Najafi MB. Survival of male-specific coliphage (MS2) as a surrogate for enteric viruses in the production process of traditional ice cream. J Food Saf 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Ghadirzad
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
| | - Masoud Yavarmanesh
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
| | - Mohammad B. Habibi Najafi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture; Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
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15
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Hartard C, Leclerc M, Rivet R, Maul A, Loutreul J, Banas S, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. F-Specific RNA Bacteriophages, Especially Members of Subgroup II, Should Be Reconsidered as Good Indicators of Viral Pollution of Oysters. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e01866-17. [PMID: 29079627 PMCID: PMC5734038 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01866-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks linked to oyster consumption. In this study, we investigated the potential of F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPH) as indicators of viral contamination in oysters by focusing especially on FRNAPH subgroup II (FRNAPH-II). These viral indicators have been neglected because their behavior is sometimes different from that of NoV in shellfish, especially during the depuration processes usually performed before marketing. However, a significant bias needs to be taken into account. This bias is that, in the absence of routine culture methods, NoV is targeted by genome detection, while the presence of FRNAPH is usually investigated by isolation of infectious particles. In this study, by targeting both viruses using genome detection, a significant correlation between the presence of FRNAPH-II and that of NoV in shellfish collected from various European harvesting areas impacted by fecal pollution was observed. Moreover, during their depuration, while the long period of persistence of NoV was confirmed, a similar or even longer period of persistence of the FRNAPH-II genome, which was over 30 days, was observed. Such a striking genome persistence calls into question the relevance of molecular methods for assessing viral hazards. Targeting the same virus (i.e., FRNAPH-II) by culture and genome detection in specimens from harvesting areas as well as during depuration, we concluded that the presence of genomes in shellfish does not provide any information on the presence of the corresponding infectious particles. In view of these results, infectious FRNAPH detection should be reconsidered as a valuable indicator in oysters, and its potential for use in assessing viral hazard needs to be investigated.IMPORTANCE This work brings new data about the behavior of viruses in shellfish, as well as about the relevance of molecular methods for their detection and evaluation of the viral hazard. First, a strong correlation between the presence of F-specific RNA bacteriophages of subgroup II (FRNAPH-II) and that of norovirus (NoV) in shellfish impacted by fecal contamination has been observed when both viruses are detected using molecular approaches. Second, when reverse transcription-PCR and culture are used to detect FRNAPH-II in shellfish, it appears that the genomes of the viruses present a longer period of persistence than infectious virus, and thus, virus genome detection fails to give information about the concomitant presence of infectious viruses. Finally, this study shows that FRNAPH persist at least as long as NoV does. These data are major arguments to reconsider the potential of FRNAPH as indicators of shellfish viral quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Hartard
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - M Leclerc
- Actalia, Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France
| | - R Rivet
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - A Maul
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Environnements Continentaux (LIEC), UMR 7360, Metz, France
| | - J Loutreul
- Actalia, Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France
| | - S Banas
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - N Boudaud
- Actalia, Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France
| | - C Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Nancy, France
- Institut Jean Barriol, Université de Lorraine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France
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16
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King T, Cole M, Farber JM, Eisenbrand G, Zabaras D, Fox EM, Hill JP. Food safety for food security: Relationship between global megatrends and developments in food safety. Trends Food Sci Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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17
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Brié A, Boudaud N, Mssihid A, Loutreul J, Bertrand I, Gantzer C. Inactivation of murine norovirus and hepatitis A virus on fresh raspberries by gaseous ozone treatment. Food Microbiol 2017; 70:1-6. [PMID: 29173615 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Raspberries are vulnerable products for which industrial treatment solutions ensuring both food safety and sensory quality are not easily applicable. Raspberries have been associated with numerous foodborne outbreaks in recent decades. Ozone has been proven effective as a drinking water treatment against pathogenic microorganisms. Nevertheless, to date, little information is available regarding the effect of gaseous ozone on viruses in food matrices. A comparison of the effect of gaseous ozone on murine norovirus (MNV-1) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) adsorbed on fresh raspberries was performed. Infectious MNV-1 was highly inactivated (>3.3 log10) by ozone (3 ppm, 1 min). The raspberry matrix seems to enhance inactivation by ozone compared to water. The same treatment was observed to have little effect on HAV even for the highest dose under the tested conditions (5 ppm, 3 min). Ozone treatment (5 ppm, 3 min) did not affect the appearance of raspberries even after three days post-treatment. No ozone effect was observed on the genomes detected by RT-PCR on both tested viruses, irrespective of the matrix or tested doses used. Gaseous ozone could therefore be a good candidate for human norovirus inactivation on raspberries but new conditions are needed for it to have significant effects on HAV inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- ACTALIA, Food Safety Department, Saint Lô, F-50000, France; Université de Lorraine, LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France; CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | | | | | - Julie Loutreul
- ACTALIA, Food Safety Department, Saint Lô, F-50000, France
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Université de Lorraine, LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France; CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, LCPME (Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, Nancy, France; CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.
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18
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Abstract
Fresh fish and seafood are highly perishable, and microbiological spoilage is one of the important factors that limit their shelf life and safety. Fresh seafood can be contaminated at any point from rearing or harvesting to processing to transport or due to cross-contamination by consumer mishandling at home. With the increase in the demand for fish and seafood, aquaculture production is increasing, which could lead to new risks that will need to be addressed in the future to control foodborne pathogens.
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19
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Abstract
Since the 1950s food safety hazards have been categorized simply as (micro) biological, chemical or physical hazards with no clear differentiation between those that cause acute and chronic harm. Indeed international risk assessment methods, including hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) use these criteria. However, the spectrum of food related illness continues to grow now encompassing food allergy and intolerance, obesity, type 2 diabetes, stroke, heart disease, cancer as well as food poisoning, foodborne illness and food contamination. Therefore over a half-century later is this the time to redefine the spectrum of what constitutes food related illness? This paper considers whether such "redefinition" of food related intoxicating and infectious agents would provide more targeted policy instruments and lead to better risk assessment and thus mitigation of such risk within the food supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Manning
- a Royal Agricultural University, School of Agriculture, Food and the Environment , Cirencester , United Kingdom
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20
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Terio V, Bottaro M, Pavoni E, Losio MN, Serraino A, Giacometti F, Martella V, Mottola A, Di Pinto A, Tantillo G. Occurrence of hepatitis A and E and norovirus GI and GII in ready-to-eat vegetables in Italy. Int J Food Microbiol 2017; 249:61-65. [PMID: 28319799 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Fresh vegetables and their ready-to-eat (RTE) salads have become increasingly recognized as potential vehicles for foodborne diseases. The EU Reg. 1441/2007 establishes microbiological criteria for bacterial pathogens for products placed on the market during their shelf-life (i.e. Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes) for pre-cut fruits and vegetables (RTE) whilst it does not address the problem of contamination by enteric viruses. In this study we investigated the contamination by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV) and norovirus (NoV) in 911 ready-to-eat vegetable samples taken from products at retail in Apulia and in Lombardia. The vegetable samples were tested using validated real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) assays, ISO standardized virological methods and ISO culturing methods for bacteriological analysis. The total prevalence of HAV and HEV was 1.9% (18/911) and 0.6% (6/911), respectively. None of the samples analysed in this study was positive for NoV, Salmonella spp. or Listeria monocytogenes. The detection of HAV and HEV in RTE salads highlights a risk to consumers and the need to improve production hygiene. Appropriate implementation of hygiene procedures is required at all the steps of the RTE vegetable production chain and this should include monitoring of emerging viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Terio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy.
| | - M Bottaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - E Pavoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via Bianchi no. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - M N Losio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via Bianchi no. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy
| | - A Serraino
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - F Giacometti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Ozzano Emilia, BO, Italy
| | - V Martella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - A Mottola
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - A Di Pinto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
| | - G Tantillo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEV), University of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, km 3, 70010 Valenzano, Bari, Italy
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21
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Stein R, Chirilã M. Routes of Transmission in the Food Chain. FOODBORNE DISEASES 2017. [PMCID: PMC7148622 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385007-2.00003-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
More than 250 different foodborne diseases have been described to date, annually affecting about one-third of the world's population. The incidence of foodborne diseases has been underreported and underestimated, and the asymptomatic presentation of some of the illnesses, worldwide heterogeneities in reporting, and the alternative transmission routes of certain pathogens are among the factors that contribute to this. Globalization, centralization of the food supply, transportation of food products progressively farther from their places of origin, and the multitude of steps where contamination may occur have made it increasingly challenging to investigate foodborne and waterborne outbreaks. Certain foodborne pathogens may be transmitted directly from animals to humans, while others are transmitted through vectors, such as insects, or through food handlers, contaminated food products or food-processing surfaces, or transfer from sponges, cloths, or utensils. Additionally, the airborne route may contribute to the transmission of certain foodborne pathogens. Complicating epidemiological investigations, multiple transmission routes have been described for some foodborne pathogens. Two types of transmission barriers, primary and secondary, have been described for foodborne pathogens, each of them providing opportunities for preventing and controlling outbreaks. Primary barriers, the most effective sites of prophylactic intervention, prevent pathogen entry into the environment, while secondary barriers prevent the multiplication and dissemination of pathogens that have already entered the environment. Understanding pathogen dynamics, monitoring transmission, and implementing preventive measures are complicated by the phenomenon of superspreading, which refers to the concept that, at the level of populations, a minority of hosts is responsible for the majority of transmission events.
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22
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Quijada NM, Fongaro G, Barardi CRM, Hernández M, Rodríguez-Lázaro D. Propidium Monoazide Integrated with qPCR Enables the Detection and Enumeration of Infectious Enteric RNA and DNA Viruses in Clam and Fermented Sausages. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:2008. [PMID: 28018329 PMCID: PMC5156952 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.02008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The increase of foodborne viral outbreaks highlights the need for a rapid and sensitive method for the prediction of viral infectivity in food samples. This study assesses the use of propidium monoazide (PMA) coupled with real-time PCR methods (RT-qPCR or qPCR for RNA or DNA viruses, respectively) in the determination of viral infectivity in complex animal-related food matrices. Clam and Spanish fermented sausage (“chorizo”) samples were spiked with infectious and heat-inactivated human adenovirus-2 (HAdV-2) and mengovirus (vMC0). PMA-qPCR/RT-qPCR discriminated infective virus particles, with significant reductions (>2.7 log10 or 99.7%). Additionally, infectious HAdV-2 and vMC0 were quantified by plaque assay (in plaque forming units, PFU), and compared with those in virus genomes copies (GCs) quantified by PMA-qPCR/RT-qPCR. A consistent correlation (R2 > 0.92) was showed between PFU and GCs along serial 10-fold dilutions in both DNA and RNA virus and in both food matrices. This study shows the use of PMA coupled to qPCR/RT-qPCR as a promising alternative for prediction of viral infectivity in food samples in comparison to more expensive and time-consuming methods and for those viruses that are not able to grow under available cell culture techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narciso M Quijada
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León Valladolid, Spain
| | - Gislaine Fongaro
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Célia R M Barardi
- Laboratório de Virologia Aplicada, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Marta Hernández
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y LeónValladolid, Spain; Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola y Forestal, Tecnología de los Alimentos, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de ValladolidPalencia, Spain
| | - David Rodríguez-Lázaro
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Universidad de Burgos Burgos, Spain
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23
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24
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Melgaço FG, Victoria M, Corrêa AA, Ganime AC, Malta FC, Brandão MLL, de Mello Medeiros V, de Oliveira Rosas C, Bricio SML, Miagostovich MP. Virus recovering from strawberries: Evaluation of a skimmed milk organic flocculation method for assessment of microbiological contamination. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 217:14-9. [PMID: 26476572 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Skimmed milk organic flocculation method was adapted, optimized and compared with polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation and filtration methods for recovering viruses from a strawberry matrix. Spiking experiments with norovirus genogroup II genotype 4 (NoV GII.4) and murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) demonstrated that the organic flocculation method associated with a glycine elution buffer, filter bag and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) showed a recovery percentage of 2.5 and 32 times higher than PEG precipitation and filtration methodologies for NoV recovering. Furthermore, this method was used for investigating NoV and human adenoviruses (HAdVs) in 90 samples of fresh strawberries commercialized in Rio de Janeiro markets. NoV GI and GII were not detected in those samples and MNV-1, used as internal process control (IPC), was recovered in 95.5% (86) of them. HAdVs were detected in 18 (20.0%) samples and characterized by nucleotide sequencing as Human Mastadenovirus specie F and as type specie HAdV-2. Bacterial analysis did not detect Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes, however, 3.3% of fecal coliforms were detected in those samples. These results indicate the organic flocculation method as an alternative for recovering enteric viruses from strawberries, emphasizing a need for virus surveillance in food matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Gil Melgaço
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Matias Victoria
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Regional Norte, CENUR Noroeste, Universidad de la República, Salto, Uruguay.
| | | | - Ana Carolina Ganime
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Fábio Correia Malta
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Macaé, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo Luiz Lima Brandão
- Food Sector, Laboratory of Food and Sanitizing, Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Quality Control in Health, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Valéria de Mello Medeiros
- Food Sector, Laboratory of Food and Sanitizing, Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Quality Control in Health, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Carla de Oliveira Rosas
- Food Sector, Laboratory of Food and Sanitizing, Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Quality Control in Health, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Silvia Maria Lopes Bricio
- Food Sector, Laboratory of Food and Sanitizing, Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Quality Control in Health, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
| | - Marize Pereira Miagostovich
- Laboratory of Comparative and Environmental Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
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25
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Silva HD, Fongaro G, Garcíazapata MTA, Melo ATO, Silveira-Lacerda EP, de Faria KMS, Anunciação CE. High Species C Human Adenovirus Genome Copy Numbers in the Treated Water Supply of a Neotropical Area of the Central-West Region of Brazil. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:286-294. [PMID: 25799963 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-015-9192-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
There is little information about the presence of human adenovirus (HAdV) in drinking water in Neotropical regions. Thus, the present study sought to conduct quantification and molecular characterization of HAdVs detected in treated water samples from an area of the Cerrado ecoregion of Brazil. Between August and November 2012, samples were collected from four treated water reservoirs and their respective sites along the water distribution network of the city of Goiânia, for a total of 80 samples. All samples were concentrated and analyzed by qPCR, and selected samples were sequenced. Overall, 76.6 (10(0)-10(9) GC mL(-1)) and 37.5% (10(1)-10(8) GC mL(-1)) of samples drawn from reservoirs and their distribution sites, respectively, were positive for virus by qPCR. All samples selected for sequencing were characterized as species C human adenovirus. Such high HAdV counts have in treated water samples. This finding merits special attention, particularly from the sanitation authorities, because the high number of GC mL(-1) may be an indicative of risk to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo D Silva
- Laboratório de Diagnóstico Genético e Molecular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas II, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Campus Samambaia, Caixa Postal 131, Goiânia, GO, 74001-970, Brazil
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26
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Ayukekbong JA, Mesumbe HN, Oyero OG, Lindh M, Bergström T. Role of noroviruses as aetiological agents of diarrhoea in developing countries. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1983-1999. [PMID: 26002299 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhoea is considered to be the second leading cause of death due to infections among children < 5 years of age worldwide that may be caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and non-infectious agents. The major causative agents of diarrhoea in developing countries may vary from those in developed countries. Noroviruses are considered to be the most common cause of acute diarrhoea in both children and adults in industrialized countries. On the other hand, there is a lack of comprehensive epidemiological evidence from developing countries that norovirus is a major cause of diarrhoea. In these regions, asymptomatic norovirus infections are very common, and similar detection rates have been observed in patients with diarrhoea and asymptomatic persons. This review summarizes the current knowledge of norovirus infection in developing countries and seeks to position infections with noroviruses among those of other enteropathogens in terms of disease burden in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Ayukepi Ayukekbong
- Section for Clinical Research, Redeem Biomedical System, Buea, Cameroon
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Olufunmilayo G Oyero
- Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Magnus Lindh
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Department of Infectious Diseases/Section of Clinical Virology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Pavoni E, Arcangeli G, Dalzini E, Bertasi B, Terregino C, Montesi F, Manfrin A, Bertoli E, Brutti A, Varisco G, Losio MN. Synergistic effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and marination treatment on the inactivation of hepatitis a virus in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:76-85. [PMID: 25344058 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9167-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked mussels contaminated with hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major cause of infection to humans. The origin of mussels commonly used for the preparation of marinated seafood salads is often unknown, since different producers worldwide undergo a precooking treatment at the original collection site with methods and parameters not always indicated. These treatments could be insufficient for the inactivation of HAV, which is characterized by a high temperature resistance. Both high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and marinade treatments have been shown to affect HAV vitality. In this study, two treatments (HHP and marinating) were combined in order to assess a potential synergistic effect on the virus vitality. A kinetic test was conducted by subjecting the experimentally-contaminated mussels (HAV titre: 10(6)/ml TCID50) to marinating, and to different HHP treatment (4,000; 5,000; and 6,000 bar for 1, 5, and 9 min). Virus post-treatment vitality was assessed by its ability to grow on cell cultures and by quantitative real-time RT-PCR to evaluate virus resistance under such conditions. Marinating treatment alone (final pH 4.3, and NaCl 2 %) did not inactivate the virus. On the other hand, the use of HHP treatment alone on non-marinated HAV-contaminated mussels was effective only above 5,000 bar for 5 min. The results of the present study elucidate the synergistic effect of a combination between marination and HHP treatments on the inactivation of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Pavoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, via Bianchi 7/9, 25124, Brescia, Italy,
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28
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Park SY, Bae SC, Ha SD. Heat inactivation of a norovirus surrogate in cell culture lysate, abalone meat, and abalone viscera. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:58-66. [PMID: 25526718 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9176-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The current study examined the effects of temperature and heat treatment duration on murine norovirus-1 (MNV-1) from both viral cell culture lysate (7-8 log10 PFU) and experimentally contaminated abalone meat and viscera (5-6 log10 PFU) as a model of human norovirus (NoV). MNV-1 titers in cell culture lysate, abalone meat, and abalone viscera were gradually reduced to 1.93-4.55, 1.79-3.00, and 2.26-3.26 log10 PFU/ml, respectively, after treatment at 70 °C for 1-10 min. Treatment at 85 °C for 1-5 min gradually reduced MNV-1 titers in abalone meat to 2.71-4.15 log10 PFU/ml. MNV-1 titers in abalone viscera were gradually reduced to 2.91-3.46 log10 PFU/ml after treatment at 85 °C for 1-3 min. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was found in MNV-1 titers in the abalone meat and viscera among treatment groups (70 °C for 5 min, 70 °C for 3 min, and 85 °C for 1 min). Complete inactivation of MNV-1 in cell culture lysate was determined at 85 °C for ≥1 min and 100 °C for ≥0.5 min. Complete inactivation of MNV-1 in abalone was determined at 100 °C for ≥0.5 min for meat, and 85 °C for 5 min and 100 °C for ≥0.5 min for viscera. At treatments at 70 °C, the Td-values (3 log reduction time) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the cell culture lysate (3.38) than for the abalone meat (6.07) and viscera (10.73). Td = 3 values were not significantly different (P > 0.05) between abalone meat (1.78) and abalone viscera (1.33) at treatments at 85 °C. This study suggests that 100 °C for ≥0.5 min could potentially be used to inactivate NoV in molluscan shellfishes, including viscera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Young Park
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, 72-1 Nae-Ri, Daeduck-Myun, Ansung, Gyeounggi-do, 456-756, Republic of Korea
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29
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Effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival of foodborne viruses during food storage. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:2075-81. [PMID: 25576612 DOI: 10.1128/aem.04093-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Millions of people suffer from foodborne diseases throughout the world every year, and the importance of food safety has grown worldwide in recent years. The aim of this study was to investigate the survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and viral surrogates of human norovirus (HuNoV) (bacteriophage MS2 and murine norovirus [MNV]) in food over time. HAV, MNV, and MS2 were inoculated onto either the digestive gland of oysters or the surface of fresh peppers, and their survival on these food matrices was measured under various temperature (4°C, 15°C, 25°C, and 40°C) and relative humidity (RH) (50% and 70%) conditions. Inoculated viruses were recovered from food samples and quantified by a plaque assay at predetermined time points over 2 weeks (0, 1, 3, 7, 10, and 14 days). Virus survival was influenced primarily by temperature. On peppers at 40°C and at 50% RH, >4- and 6-log reductions of MNV and HAV, respectively, occurred within 1 day. All three viruses survived better on oysters. In addition, HAV survived better at 70% RH than at 50% RH. The survival data for HAV, MS2, and MNV were fit to three different mathematical models (linear, Weibull, and biphasic models). Among them, the biphasic model was optimum in terms of goodness of fit. The results of this study suggest that major foodborne viruses such as HAV and HuNoV can survive over prolonged periods of time with a limited reduction in numbers. Because a persistence of foodborne virus on contaminated foods was observed, precautionary preventive measures should be performed.
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30
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Lou F, Neetoo H, Chen H, Li J. High hydrostatic pressure processing: a promising nonthermal technology to inactivate viruses in high-risk foods. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2015; 6:389-409. [PMID: 25884283 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-072514-104609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Foodborne outbreaks of viral origin have become increasingly a serious public health concern. High-pressure processing (HPP), a nonthermal technology, has come to the forefront for food processing given its minimal effects on food quality. Recent studies have revealed encouraging results for the inactivation of several human viruses by HPP. This review provides comprehensive information on the use of HPP to eliminate viruses in model systems and foods. We address the influences of various parameters, including pressure level, holding time, pH, temperature, and food matrix on the efficacy of pressure inactivation of viruses, as well as insight into the mechanisms for inactivation of enveloped and nonenveloped viruses. HPP is a promising technology for mitigating virus contamination of foods, thus it is essential to identify the optimal parameters for enhancing virus inactivation while ensuring sensory and nutritional quality retention of foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfei Lou
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine
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31
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Boyaci IH, Temiz HT, Geniş HE, Acar Soykut E, Yazgan NN, Güven B, Uysal RS, Bozkurt AG, İlaslan K, Torun O, Dudak Şeker FC. Dispersive and FT-Raman spectroscopic methods in food analysis. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra12463d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Raman spectroscopy is a powerful technique for molecular analysis of food samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail Hakki Boyaci
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Havva Tümay Temiz
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Hüseyin Efe Geniş
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | | | - Nazife Nur Yazgan
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Burcu Güven
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Reyhan Selin Uysal
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Akif Göktuğ Bozkurt
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Kerem İlaslan
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
| | - Ozlem Torun
- Department of Food Engineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- Hacettepe University
- 06800 Ankara
- Turkey
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32
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Park S, Jeong H, Jung J, Kim K, Park S, Kim M, Kim Y, Oh Y, Jung K. Monitoring the Hepatitis A Virus in Oyster from Korea. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.4236/aim.2015.513087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Kamińska S, Kruszewska Ż, Lejbrandt E, Sadkowska-Todys M. Lessons from Norovirus Outbreak in Warsaw, Poland, December 2012. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2014; 6:276-281. [PMID: 25326199 PMCID: PMC4228110 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Efficient foodborne outbreak investigations are important for identification of gaps in food safety and public health practice. This article reports on an investigation of a gastroenteritis outbreak linked to catering food following a Christmas reception at the National Institute of Public Health-National Institute of Hygiene (NIPH-NIH) in Warsaw in December 2012. Of 192 employees eating food at the catering event, 97 (50.5%) developed symptoms. Persons eating dishes with recipes containing frozen carrots were five times more likely to develop gastrointestinal symptoms compared to those who did not eat carrots. Laboratory analysis identified norovirus in stool samples taken from symptomatic persons. Leftover food was not available for testing. The investigators did not collect stool specimens from food handlers and did not conduct trace backs for the suspected food ingredients. This investigation underlines the need for a revision of an existing procedures and importance of their complementation with detailed instructions for the local public health authorities for effective completion of foodborne outbreaks investigations in Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Kamińska
- Department of Epidemiology, National Institute of Public Health-National Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw, Poland.
- European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden.
| | | | | | - Małgorzata Sadkowska-Todys
- Department of Epidemiology, National Institute of Public Health-National Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw, Poland
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Coudray-Meunier C, Fraisse A, Mokhtari C, Martin-Latil S, Roque-Afonso AM, Perelle S. Hepatitis A virus subgenotyping based on RT-qPCR assays. BMC Microbiol 2014; 14:296. [PMID: 25420941 PMCID: PMC4258257 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-014-0296-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the most frequent cause of viral hepatitis worldwide and is recognized as one of the most widespread foodborne pathogens. HAV genotypes and subtypes differ in their geographic distribution and the incidence of HAV infection varies considerably among countries, and is particularly high in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene. Phylogenetic analyses are traditionally used in clinical microbiology for tracing the geographic origin of HAV strains. In food microbiology, this approach is complicated by the low contamination levels of food samples. To date, real-time reverse-transcription PCR has been one of the most promising detection methods due to its sensitivity, specificity and ability to deliver quantitative data in food samples, but it does not provide HAV subtyping information. Results Six subtype-specific RT-qPCR assays were developed for human HAV. The limit of detection of HAV was 50 genome copies/assay for subtype IIB, 500 genome copies assay for IA, IB, IIA and IIIB and 5000 genome copies/assay for IIIA. The specificity of the assays was evaluated by testing reference isolates and in vitro HAV RNA transcripts. No significant cross reactivity was observed. Subtyping results concordant with sequencing analysis were obtained from 34/35 clinical samples. Co-infection with a minor strain of a different subtype was suggested in 5 cases and a recombinant event in one case. Conclusions These RT-qPCR assays may be particularly useful for accurately tracing HAV in low-level contaminated samples such as food matrices but also to allow co-infection identification in human samples.
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35
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Norovirus Quantification in Oysters Crassostrea gigas Collected from Tongyeoung, Korea. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.5657/kfas.2014.0501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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36
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Rotavirus genotypes in sewage treatment plants and in children hospitalized with acute diarrhea in Italy in 2010 and 2011. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 81:241-9. [PMID: 25344240 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02695-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the molecular surveillance network RotaNet-Italy provides useful nationwide data on rotaviruses causing severe acute gastroenteritis in children in Italy, scarce information is available on rotavirus circulation in the general Italian population, including adults with mild or asymptomatic infection. We investigated the genotypes of rotaviruses present in urban wastewaters and compared them with those of viral strains from clinical pediatric cases. During 2010 and 2011, 285 sewage samples from 4 Italian cities were tested by reverse transcription-PCRs (RT-PCRs) specific for rotavirus VP7 and VP4 genes. Rotavirus was detected in 172 (60.4%) samples, 26 of which contained multiple rotavirus G (VP7 gene) genotypes, for a total of 198 G types. Thirty-two samples also contained multiple P (VP4 gene) genotypes, yielding 204 P types in 172 samples. Genotype G1 accounted for 65.6% of rotaviruses typed, followed by genotypes G2 (20.2%), G9 (7.6%), G4 (4.6%), G6 (1.0%), G3 (0.5%), and G26 (0.5%). VP4 genotype P[8] accounted for 75.0% of strains, genotype P[4] accounted for 23.0% of strains, and the uncommon genotypes P[6], P[9], P[14], and P[19] accounted for 2.0% of strains altogether. These rotavirus genotypes were also found in pediatric patients hospitalized in the same areas and years but in different proportions. Specifically, genotypes G2, G9, and P[4] were more prevalent in sewage samples than among samples from patients, which suggests either a larger circulation of the latter strains through the general population not requiring medical care or their greater survival in wastewaters. A high level of nucleotide identity in the G1, G2, and G6 VP7 sequences was observed between strains from the environment and those from patients.
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37
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Park SY, Ha SD. Thermal inactivation of hepatitis A virus in suspension and in dried mussels (Mytilus edulis). Int J Food Sci Technol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.12674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shin Young Park
- School of Food Science and Technology; Chung-Ang University; 72-1 Nae-Ri Daeduck-Myun Ansung Kyunggido 456-756 Korea
| | - Sang-Do Ha
- School of Food Science and Technology; Chung-Ang University; 72-1 Nae-Ri Daeduck-Myun Ansung Kyunggido 456-756 Korea
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38
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Rapid Methods for Quality Assurance of Foods: the Next Decade with Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-Based Food Monitoring. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-014-9915-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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39
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Kou X, Fan H, Wu Q, Xue L, Zhang J. Development and application of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay on rapid and sensitive detection of rotavirus in fecal samples and artificially seeded oysters. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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40
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Intamaso U, Ketkhunthod S. Evaluation of a sensitive reverse transcription PCR-enzymelinked immunosorbent assay for detection of hepatitis A virus in oysters (Saccostrea glomerata) on the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand. J Food Prot 2014; 77:859-63. [PMID: 24780346 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-13-430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) contamination in food can lead to major health problems. We developed a combination reverse transcription (RT) PCR method plus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect HAV in fresh oysters harvested along the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Viral nucleic acid was extracted via the glycine-arginine-polyethylene glycol method followed by RT-PCR amplification with specifically designed primers against HAV and an ELISA to detect the digoxigenin-labeled RT-PCR products. The ELISA in concert with the RT-PCR protocol further increased the detection sensitivity by 100-fold for the HAV genome and 10-fold in artificially contaminated oysters. The overall sensitivity of the RT-PCR in combination with the ELISA was 31.88 pg and 16 PFU/g, respectively. The ELISA increases the specificity of the RT-PCR assay for detecting naturally occurring HAV in oysters. This combined RT-PCR-ELISA approach is a practical and sensitive method for HAV detection and can be utilized in routine screening for HAV in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uraiwan Intamaso
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, 169 Longhard-Bansaen Road, Bangsaen, Chon Buri 20131, Thailand.
| | - Sitthisak Ketkhunthod
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Burapha University, 169 Longhard-Bansaen Road, Bangsaen, Chon Buri 20131, Thailand
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41
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Iritani N, Kaida A, Abe N, Kubo H, Sekiguchi JI, Yamamoto SP, Goto K, Tanaka T, Noda M. Detection and genetic characterization of human enteric viruses in oyster-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks between 2001 and 2012 in Osaka City, Japan. J Med Virol 2014; 86:2019-25. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhiro Iritani
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Atsushi Kaida
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Niichiro Abe
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Hideyuki Kubo
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Jun-Ichiro Sekiguchi
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Seiji P. Yamamoto
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | - Kaoru Goto
- Department of Microbiology; Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences; Tennoji-ku Osaka Japan
| | | | - Mamoru Noda
- Division of Biomedical Food Research; National Institute of Health Sciences; Setagaya-ku Tokyo Japan
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42
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Reported behavior, knowledge and awareness toward the potential for norovirus transmission by food handlers in Dutch catering companies and institutional settings in relation to the prevalence of norovirus. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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43
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Ganesh A, Lin J. Waterborne human pathogenic viruses of public health concern. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2013; 23:544-64. [PMID: 23432800 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2013.769205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the impending impact of waterborne pathogens on human health has become a growing concern. Drinking water and recreational exposure to polluted water have shown to be linked to viral infections, since viruses are shed in extremely high numbers in the faeces and vomit of infected individuals and are routinely introduced into the water environment. All of the identified pathogenic viruses that pose a significant public health threat in the water environment are transmitted via the faecal-oral route. This group, are collectively known as enteric viruses, and their possible health effects include gastroenteritis, paralysis, meningitis, hepatitis, respiratory illness and diarrhoea. This review addresses both past and recent investigations into viral contamination of surface waters, with emphasis on six types of potential waterborne human pathogenic viruses. In addition, the viral associated illnesses are outlined with reference to their pathogenesis and routes of transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atheesha Ganesh
- a Discipline of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences , University of KwaZulu-Natal (Westville) , Durban , South Africa
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44
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Coudray-Meunier C, Fraisse A, Martin-Latil S, Guillier L, Perelle S. Discrimination of infectious hepatitis A virus and rotavirus by combining dyes and surfactants with RT-qPCR. BMC Microbiol 2013; 13:216. [PMID: 24083486 PMCID: PMC3853579 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human enteric viruses are major agents of foodborne diseases. Because of the absence of a reliable cell culture method for most of the enteric viruses involved in outbreaks, real-time reverse transcriptase PCR is now widely used for the detection of RNA viruses in food samples. However this approach detects viral nucleic acids of both infectious and non infectious viruses, which limits the impact of conclusions with regard to public health concern. The aim of the study was to develop a method to discriminate between infectious and non-infectious particles of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and two strains of rotavirus (RV) following thermal inactivation by using intercalating dyes combined with RT-qPCR. RESULTS Once the binding of propidium monoazide (PMA) or ethidium monoazide (EMA) was shown to be effective on the viral ssRNA of HAV and dsRNA of two strains of RV (SA11 and Wa), their use in conjunction with three surfactants (IGEPAL CA-630, Tween 20, Triton X-100) prior to RT-qPCR assays was evaluated to quantify the infectious particles remaining following heat treatment. The most promising conditions were EMA (20 μM) and IGEPAL CA-630 (0.5%) for HAV, EMA (20 μM) for RV (WA) and PMA (50 μM) for RV (SA11). The effectiveness of the pre-treatment RT-qPCR developed for each virus was evaluated with three RT-qPCR assays (A, B, C) during thermal inactivation kinetics (at 37°C, 68 C, 72°C, 80°C) through comparison with data obtained by RT-qPCR and by infectious titration in cell culture. At 37°C, the quantity of virus (RV, HAV) remained constant regardless of the method used. The genomic titers following heat treatment at 68°C to 80°C became similar to the infectious titers only when a pre-treatment RT-qPCR was used. Moreover, the most effective decrease was obtained by RT-qPCR assay A or B for HAV and RT-qPCR assay B or C for RV. CONCLUSIONS We concluded that effectiveness of the pre-treatment RT-qPCR is influenced by the viral target and by the choice of the RT-qPCR assay. Currently, it would be appropriate to further develop this approach under specific conditions of inactivation for the identification of infectious viruses in food and environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Coudray-Meunier
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Audrey Fraisse
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Sandra Martin-Latil
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Laurent Guillier
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Modelling of Bacterial Behaviour Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
| | - Sylvie Perelle
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
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45
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Coudray C, Merle G, Martin-Latil S, Guillier L, Perelle S. Comparison of two extraction methods for the detection of hepatitis A virus in lettuces using the murine norovirus as a process control. J Virol Methods 2013; 193:96-102. [PMID: 23702026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Enteric viruses are important agents of foodborne diseases. In recent years, raw fruits and vegetables have frequently been involved in foodborne transmission of enteric viruses to humans, particularly noroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV). Although viral contamination can occur at any stage of food processing, primary production is a critical stage in which prevention measures are essential to minimise the risk of infection to consumers. Due to the low infectious doses and low concentrations of enteric viruses in food samples, an efficient and rapid virus concentration method is required for routine control and risk assessment. In this study, the virus concentration reference method proposed by the CEN/TC275/WG6/TAG4 working group for samples of soft fruits and salad vegetables was compared with a method including a filtration step in order to recover hepatitis A virus (HAV) on lettuces. Murine norovirus (MNV-1) was used as a process control and detected simultaneously with HAV in a one-step duplex RT-qPCR following both procedures. The HAV LOD ranged from 10 to 100 PFU/25g of lettuce in the presence or absence of MNV-1, regardless of method used. In conclusion, MNV-1 offers a very reliable and simple way to monitor the quality of the detection procedures. Although it has been found that both methods achieved an identical limit of detection, the method including a filtration step requires less processing and could be proposed as an alternative method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Coudray
- ANSES, Food Safety Laboratory, Food and Water Virology Unit, 23 Avenue du Général de Gaulle, 94706 Maisons-Alfort cedex, France
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Monitoring of seasonality of norovirus and other enteric viruses in Cameroon by real-time PCR: an exploratory study. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 142:1393-402. [PMID: 24047516 DOI: 10.1017/s095026881300232x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the seasonal fluctuation of norovirus and other enteric viruses in Cameroon. Two hundred participants aged between 1 and 69 years were prospectively followed up. Each participant provided monthly faecal samples over a 12-month period. A total of 2484 samples were tested using multiplex real-time PCR assay for the detection of norovirus, rotavirus and enterovirus. The effect of weather variables and risk factors were analysed by Pearson correlation and bivariate analysis. Overall, enterovirus was the most commonly detected virus (21·6% of specimens), followed by norovirus (3·9%) and rotavirus (0·4%). Norovirus and enterovirus were detected throughout the year with a peak of norovirus detection at the beginning of the rainy season and a significant alternation of circulation of norovirus genogroups from one month to the next. Age <5 years and consumption of tap water were risk factors for norovirus infection. Better understanding of factors influencing transmission and seasonality may provide insights into the relationship between physical environment and risk of infection for these viruses.
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47
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New norovirus classified as a recombinant GII.g/GII.1 causes an extended foodborne outbreak at a university hospital in Munich. J Clin Virol 2013; 58:24-30. [PMID: 23849648 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviruses are among the most prevalent causative agents for gastroenteritis worldwide. The low infectious dose, its stability in the environment, and its genetic variability enable the virus to cause outbreaks, especially in health care facilities and other similar settings. Genotype II.4 has been most prevalent over the last years. OBJECTIVES To characterize an extended norovirus outbreak at a university hospital in Munich, Germany, molecularly and epidemiologically. STUDY DESIGN The outbreak affecting more than 100 persons within 3 days was monitored by real time PCR. The rapid onset indicated a food-borne outbreak. Rigorous hygienic measures, including disinfection procedures and closure of wards helped contain the outbreak within 6 days. A 2193 nt sequence covering polymerase (825 nt) and capsid gene (1388 nt) was characterized from 4 specimens derived from different wards and the catering facility. RESULTS Our polymerase sequences were classified GII.g, whereas the capsid belonged to GII.1. Recombination analysis revealed a putative breakpoint at a typical location. Our sequenced region clustered with GIIg/GII.1 sequences first detected in Hungary, Belgium, and the US in 2010. p-Distances on nucleic acid level were 0.18 and 0.21, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Our data establish a novel strain classified as GII.g/GII.1 as the causative agent for an extended outbreak.
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48
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Stals A, Uyttendaele M, Baert L, Van Coillie E. Norovirus transfer between foods and food contact materials. J Food Prot 2013; 76:1202-9. [PMID: 23834795 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-12-392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Human infective noroviruses (NoVs) are a worldwide leading cause of foodborne illness and are frequently spread via infected food handlers preparing and manipulating food products such as deli sandwiches. The objective of the current study was to determine the efficiencies whereby NoV could be transferred between surfaces associated with the preparation of manually prepared foods such as deli sandwiches. Nonfood surfaces included gloves and stainless steel discs, and boiled ham, lettuce, and a sandwich bun were the ingredients of the deli sandwich. Both NoV GII.4 and the murine NoV 1 (MNV-1, a cultivable human NoV surrogate) were included in the presented study. Transfer of NoV GII.4 and MNV-1 between surfaces was performed by pressing an inoculated donor surface against an acceptor surface. To evaluate the effect of subsequent contact, donor surfaces were pressed a second time to an identical acceptor surface. Subsequently, NoV GII.4 and MNV-1 were detected using real-time reverse transcription PCR assays and plaque assays, respectively. Transfer of both viruses from gloves to stainless steel was inefficient, and virus transfer from food products to stainless steel occurred with more variability for NoV GII.4 than for MNV-1. Virus transfer from the stainless steel discs to the gloves was substantially more efficient than from the gloves to the stainless steel. NoV GII.4 and MNV-1 transfer from food products to the gloves occurred with varying efficiencies, although this variation was more evident for NoV GII.4. The MNV-1 inoculum was significantly less efficiently transferred to the acceptor surface at the second contact, which was not the case for NoV GII.4. The obtained transfer efficiency data may provide insights into the transfer of NoV during preparation of foods and can be included in risk assessment models describing the transmission of NoVs in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambroos Stals
- Flanders Government, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research, Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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Protein-Protein Interactions Inferred from Domain-Domain Interactions in Genogroup II Genotype 4 Norovirus Sequences. Int J Genomics 2013; 2013:456356. [PMID: 23738320 PMCID: PMC3659472 DOI: 10.1155/2013/456356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe gastroenteritis and foodborne illness caused by Noroviruses (NoVs) during the winter are a worldwide phenomenon. Vulnerable populations including young children and elderly and immunocompromised people often require hospitalization and may die. However, no efficient vaccine for NoVs exists because of their variable genome sequences. This study investigates the infection processes in protein-protein interactions between hosts and NoVs. Protein-protein interactions were collected from related Pfam NoV domains. The related Pfam domains were accumulated incrementally from the protein domain interaction database. To examine the influence of domain intimacy, the 7 NoV domains were grouped by depth. The number of domain-domain interactions increased exponentially as the depth increased. Many protein-protein interactions were relevant; therefore, cloud techniques were used to analyze data because of their computational capacity. The infection relationship between hosts and NoVs should be used in clinical applications and drug design.
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50
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Pavoni E, Consoli M, Suffredini E, Arcangeli G, Serracca L, Battistini R, Rossini I, Croci L, Losio MN. Noroviruses in Seafood: A 9-Year Monitoring in Italy. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2013; 10:533-9. [DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2012.1399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Pavoni
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marta Consoli
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Laura Serracca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, della Liguria, e della Valle d'Aosta, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Roberta Battistini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, della Liguria, e della Valle d'Aosta, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Irene Rossini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, della Liguria, e della Valle d'Aosta, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Luciana Croci
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Veterinaria e Sicurezza Alimentare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Nadia Losio
- Department of Food Microbiology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
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