The elusive predisposition to mycoheterotrophy in Ericaceae

Effects of fungicide treatments on mycorrhizal communities and carbon acquisition in the mixotrophic Pyrola japonica (Ericaceae)

Pyrola japonica, a member of the family Ericaceae, is a mixotroph that grows on forest floors and obtains carbon (C) from both its photosynthesis and its mycorrhizal fungi. Its mycorrhizal community is dominated by Russulaceae. However, the mechanism of its C acquisition and its flexibility are not well understood. Our aim was to assess the impact of disturbance of the mycorrhizal fungal communities on C acquisition by P. japonica. We repeatedly applied a fungicide (Benomyl) to soils around P. japonica plants in a broad-leaved forest of central Japan, in order to disturb fungal associates near roots. After fungicide treatment, P. japonica roots were collected and subjected to barcoding by next-generation sequencing, focusing on the ITS2 region. The rate of mycorrhizal formation and α-diversity did not significantly change upon fungicide treatments. Irrespective of the treatments, Russulaceae represented more than 80% of the taxa. Leaves and seeds of the plants were analysed for 13C stable isotope ratios that reflect fungal C gain. Leaf and seed δ13C values with the fungicide treatment were significantly lower than those with the other treatments. Thus the fungicide did not affect mycorrhizal communities in the roots, but disturbed mycorrhizal fungal pathways via extraradical hyphae, and resulted in a more photosynthetic behaviour of P. japonica for leaves and seeds.

Mycoheterotrophy in the wood-wide web

The prevalence and potential functions of common mycorrhizal networks, or the 'wood-wide web', resulting from the simultaneous interaction of mycorrhizal fungi and roots of different neighbouring plants have been increasingly capturing the interest of science and society, sometimes leading to hyperbole and misinterpretation. Several recent reviews conclude that popular claims regarding the widespread nature of these networks in forests and their role in the transfer of resources and information between plants lack evidence. Here we argue that mycoheterotrophic plants associated with ectomycorrhizal or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi require resource transfer through common mycorrhizal networks and thus are natural evidence for the occurrence and function of these networks, offering a largely overlooked window into this methodologically challenging underground phenomenon. The wide evolutionary and geographic distribution of mycoheterotrophs and their interactions with a broad phylogenetic range of mycorrhizal fungi indicate that common mycorrhizal networks are prevalent, particularly in forests, and result in net carbon transfer among diverse plants through shared mycorrhizal fungi. On the basis of the available scientific evidence, we propose a continuum of carbon transfer options within common mycorrhizal networks, and we discuss how knowledge on the biology of mycoheterotrophic plants can be instrumental for the study of mycorrhizal-mediated transfers between plants.

Mycorrhizas in South American Ericaceae

Mycorrhizal symbioses (mycorrhizas) of Ericaceae, including ericoid mycorrhiza (ErM), have been mainly studied in the Northern Hemisphere, although the highest diversity of ericaceous plants is located in the Southern Hemisphere, where several regions remain largely unexplored. One of them is South America, which harbors a remarkably high diversity of Ericaceae (691 species and 33 genera) in a wide range of environmental conditions, and a specific mycorrhizal type called cavendishioid. In this review, we compile all available information on mycorrhizas of Ericaceae in South America. We report data on the mycorrhizal type and fungal diversity in 17 and 11 ericaceous genera, respectively. We show that South American Ericaceae exhibit a high diversity of habitats and life forms and that some species from typical ErM subfamilies may also host arbuscular mycorrhiza. Also, a possible geographical pattern in South American ErM fungal communities is suggested, with Sebacinales being the dominant mycorrhizal partners of the Andean clade species from tropical mountains, while archetypal ErM fungi are common partners in southern South America species. The gathered information challenges some common assumptions about ErM and suggests that focusing on understudied regions would improve our understanding of the evolution of mycorrhizal associations in this intriguing family.

Mitochondrial genomic data are effective at placing mycoheterotrophic lineages in plant phylogeny

Fully mycoheterotrophic plants can be difficult to place in plant phylogeny due to elevated substitution rates associated with photosynthesis loss. This potentially limits the effectiveness of downstream analyses of mycoheterotrophy that depend on accurate phylogenetic inference. Although mitochondrial genomic data sets are rarely used in plant phylogenetics, theory predicts that they should be resilient to long-branch artefacts, thanks to their generally slow evolution, coupled with limited rate elevation in heterotrophs. We examined the utility of mitochondrial genomes for resolving contentious higher-order placements of mycoheterotrophic lineages in two test cases: monocots (focusing on Dioscoreales) and Ericaceae. We find Thismiaceae to be distantly related to Burmanniaceae in the monocot order Dioscoreales, conflicting with current classification schemes based on few gene data sets. We confirm that the unusual Afrothismia is related to Taccaceae-Thismiaceae, with a corresponding independent loss of photosynthesis. In Ericaceae we recovered the first well supported relationships among its five major lineages: mycoheterotrophic Ericaceae are not monophyletic, as pyroloids are inferred to be sister to core Ericaceae, and monotropoids to arbutoids. Genes recovered from mitochondrial genomes collectively resolved previously ambiguous mycoheterotroph higher-order relationships. We propose that mitochondrial genomic data should be considered in standardised gene panels for inferring overall plant phylogeny.

The functional role of ericoid mycorrhizal plants and fungi on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in forests

Ericoid mycorrhizal (ErM) shrubs commonly occur in forest understories and could therefore alter arbuscular (AM) and/or ectomycorrhizal (EcM) tree effects on soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics. Specifically, ErM fungi have extensive organic matter decay capabilities, and ErM plant and fungal tissues have high concentrations of secondary compounds that can form persistent complexes in the soil. Together, these traits could contribute to organic matter accumulation and inorganic nutrient limitation. These effects could also differ in AM- vs EcM-dominated stands at multiple scales within and among forest biomes by, for instance, altering fungal guild interactions. Most work on ErM effects in forests has been conducted in boreal forests dominated by EcM trees. However, ErM plants occur in c. 96, 69 and 29% of boreal, temperate and tropical forests, respectively. Within tropical montane forests, the effects of ErM plants could be particularly pronounced because their traits are more distinct from AM than EcM trees. Because ErM fungi can function as free-living saprotrophs, they could also be more resilient to forest disturbances than obligate symbionts. Further consideration of ErM effects within and among forest biomes could improve our understanding of how cooccurring mycorrhizal types interact to collectively affect soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics under changing conditions.

Advanced research tools for fungal diversity and its impact on forest ecosystem

Fungi are dominant ecological participants in the forest ecosystems, which play a major role in recycling organic matter and channeling nutrients across trophic levels. Fungal populations are shaped by plant communities and environmental parameters, and in turn, fungal communities also impact the forest ecosystem through intrinsic participation of different fungal guilds. Mycorrhizal fungi result in conservation and stability of forest ecosystem, while pathogenic fungi can bring change in forest ecosystem, by replacing the dominant plant species with new or exotic plant species. Saprotrophic fungi, being ecological regulators in the forest ecosystem, convert dead tree logs into reusable constituents and complete the ecological cycles of nitrogen and carbon. However, fungal communities have not been studied in-depth with respect to functional, spatiotemporal, or environmental parameters. Previously, fungal diversity and its role in shaping the forest ecosystem were studied by traditional and laborious cultural methods, which were unable to achieve real-time results and draw a conclusive picture of fungal communities. This review highlights the latest advances in biological methods such as next-generation sequencing and meta'omics for observing fungal diversity in the forest ecosystem, the role of different fungal groups in shaping forest ecosystem, forest productivity, and nutrient cycling at global scales.

Mycorrhizal communities of two closely related species, Pyrola subaphylla and P. japonica, with contrasting degrees of mycoheterotrophy in a sympatric habitat

Mycoheterotrophic plants typically form associations with a narrow range of mycorrhizal fungi. Consequently, mycorrhizal specialization is often considered to be an important step in mycoheterotrophic evolution. However, it remains unclear whether such specialization is likely to occur in plants of the genus Pyrola, which are generally associated with fungi in multiple ectomycorrhizal families. Here, we investigated the mycorrhizal communities of a nearly fully mycoheterotrophic Pyrola species (Pyrola subaphylla), a closely related partially mycoheterotrophic Pyrola species (Pyrola japonica), and a co-occurring autotrophic ectomycorrhizal tree, Quercus crispula, which is their potential carbon source, in a cool-temperate Japanese forest. High-throughput DNA sequencing revealed that numerous common ectomycorrhizal OTUs interact with the two Pyrola species and Q. crispula, thereby providing an opportunity to exploit a certain amount of carbon from common mycorrhizal networks. In addition, not only P. japonica but also P. subaphylla exhibited exceptionally high alpha mycobiont diversity, with 52 ectomycorrhizal OTUs belonging to 12 families being identified as P. subaphylla mycobionts and 69 ectomycorrhizal OTUs in 18 families being detected as P. japonica mycobionts. Nonetheless, the beta mycobiont diversity of P. subaphylla and P. japonica individuals was significantly lower than that of Q. crispula. Moreover, the beta mycobiont diversity of P. subaphylla was found to be significantly lower than that of P. japonica. Therefore, despite their seemingly broad mycorrhizal interactions, the two Pyrola species (particularly P. subaphylla) showed consistent fungal associations, suggesting that mycorrhizal specialization may have developed during the course of mycoheterotrophic evolution within the genus Pyrola.

Communities of mycorrhizal fungi in different trophic types of Asiatic Pyrola japonica sensu lato (Ericaceae)

Mixotrophic plants obtain carbon by their own photosynthetic activity and from their root-associated mycorrhizal fungi. Mixotrophy is deemed a pre-adaptation for evolution of mycoheterotrophic nutrition, where plants fully depend on fungi and lose their photosynthetic activity. The aim of this study was to clarify mycorrhizal dependency and heterotrophy level in various phenotypes of mixotrophic Pyrola japonica (Ericaceae), encompassing green individuals, rare achlorophyllous variants (albinos) and a form with minute leaves, P. japonica f. subaphylla. These three phenotypes were collected in two Japanese forests. Phylogenetic analysis of both plants and mycorrhizal fungi was conducted based on DNA barcoding. Enrichment in ¹³C among organs (leaves, stems and roots) of the phenotypes with reference plants and fungal fruitbodies were compared by measuring stable carbon isotopic ratio. All plants were placed in the same clade, with f. subaphylla as a separate subclade. Leaf ¹³C abundances of albinos were congruent with a fully mycoheterotrophic nutrition, suggesting that green P. japonica leaves are 36.8% heterotrophic, while rhizomes are 74.0% heterotrophic. There were no significant differences in δ¹³C values among organs in both albino P. japonica and P. japonica f. subaphylla, suggesting full and high mycoheterotrophic nutrition, respectively. Among 55 molecular operational taxonomic units (OTUs) detected as symbionts, the genus Russula was the most abundant in each phenotype and its dominance was significantly higher in albino P. japonica and P. japonica f. subaphylla. Russula spp. detected in P. japonica f. subaphylla showed higher dissimilarity with other phenotypes. These results suggest that P. japonica sensu lato is prone to evolve mycoheterotrophic variants, in a process that changes its mycorrhizal preferences, especially towards the genus Russula for which this species has a marked preference.

Cheating in arbuscular mycorrhizal mutualism: a network and phylogenetic analysis of mycoheterotrophy

Although mutualistic interactions are widespread and essential in ecosystem functioning, the emergence of uncooperative cheaters threatens their stability, unless there are some physiological or ecological mechanisms limiting interactions with cheaters. In this framework, we investigated the patterns of specialization and phylogenetic distribution of mycoheterotrophic cheaters vs noncheating autotrophic plants and their respective fungi, in a global arbuscular mycorrhizal network with> 25 000 interactions. We show that mycoheterotrophy evolved repeatedly among vascular plants, suggesting low phylogenetic constraints for plants. However, mycoheterotrophic plants are significantly more specialized than autotrophic plants, and they tend to be associated with specialized and closely related fungi. These results raise new hypotheses about the mechanisms (e.g. sanctions, or habitat filtering) that actually limit the interaction of mycoheterotrophic plants and their associated fungi with the rest of the autotrophic plants. Beyond mycorrhizal symbiosis, this unprecedented comparison of mycoheterotrophic vs autotrophic plants provides a network and phylogenetic framework to assess the presence of constraints upon cheating emergences in mutualisms.

Evidence for newly discovered albino mutants in a pyroloid: implication for the nutritional mode in the genus Pyrola

PREMISE

Difficulties in comparing extremely divergent features in fully mycoheterotrophic plants with those in closely related chlorophyllous plants have complicated attempts to reveal the evolutionary patterns and processes of fully mycoheterotrophic plants. Albino mutants of partially mycoheterotrophic plants, generally observed in Orchidaceae, have provided an ideal model for investigating the evolution of mycoheterotrophy within similar genetic backgrounds. In 2018, we found a putative albino population of Pyrola (Ericaceae). Here we aimed to reveal the identity of the albino pyroloid and confirm its fully mycoheterotrophic status.

METHODS

To reveal the putative albino pyroloid's identity, we examined its morphology and sequenced its chloroplast DNA. In addition, we assessed the trophic status of the putative albino pyroloid by analyzing chlorophyll fluorescence, chlorophyll concentration, and natural 13 C and 15 N abundances.

RESULTS

We identified albino individuals as P. japonica-otherwise a partially mycoheterotrophic species. We confirmed their albino status by their considerably lower chlorophyll fluorescence and concentrations than those of sympatrically occurring chlorophyllous plants. 13 C abundance in the albino individuals was significantly higher than in the green individuals of P. japonica.

CONCLUSIONS

This first report of albino mutants from partially mycoheterotrophic species in angiosperms other than orchids will play a valuable role in further studies focused on mycoheterotrophy. For instance, their δ13 C and δ15 N values represent a reference for fully mycoheterotrophic plants in Pyrola. Our findings also indicate the strong dependence of some leafy Pyrola species on fungal C during their entire life cycle.

Isotopic evidence of arbuscular mycorrhizal cheating in a grassland gentian species

All orchids and pyroloids are mycoheterotrophic at least in the early stage. Many species are predisposed to mycoheterotrophic nutrition even in the adult stage, due to the initial mycoheterotrophy during germination. Although other green plants, such as gentian species, also produce numerous minute seeds, whose germination may depend on fungal associations to meet C demands, physiological evidence for partial mycoheterotrophy in the adult stage is lacking for most candidate taxa. Here, we compared the natural abundances of ¹³C and ¹⁵N isotopes in the AM-associated gentian species Pterygocalyx volubilis growing in high-light-intensity habitats with those of co-occurring autotrophic C₃ and C₄ plants and AM fungal spores. We found that P. volubilis was significantly enriched in ¹³C compared with the surrounding C₃ plants, which suggests the transfer of some C from the surrounding autotrophic plants through shared AM networks. In addition, the intermediate δ¹⁵N values of P. volubilis, between those of autotrophic plants and AM fungal spores, provide further evidence for partial mycoheterotrophy in P. volubilis. Although it is often considered that light deficiency selects partial mycoheterotrophy, we show that partial mycoheterotrophy in AM-forming plants can evolve even under light-saturated conditions. The fact that there have been relatively few descriptions of partial mycoheterotrophy in AM plants may not necessarily reflect the rarity of such associations. In conclusion, partial mycoheterotrophy in AM plants may be more common than hitherto believed.

Thirteen New Plastid Genomes from Mixotrophic and Autotrophic Species Provide Insights into Heterotrophy Evolution in Neottieae Orchids

Mixotrophic species use both organic and mineral carbon sources. Some mixotrophic plants combine photosynthesis and a nutrition called mycoheterotrophy, where carbon is obtained from fungi forming mycorrhizal symbiosis with their roots. These species can lose photosynthetic abilities and evolve full mycoheterotrophy. Besides morphological changes, the latter transition is associated with a deep alteration of the plastid genome. Photosynthesis-related genes are lost first, followed by housekeeping genes, eventually resulting in a highly reduced genome. Whether relaxation of selective constraints already occurs for the plastid genome of mixotrophic species, which remain photosynthetic, is unclear. This is partly due to the difficulty of comparing plastid genomes of autotrophic, mixotrophic, and mycoheterotrophic species in a narrow phylogenetic framework. We address this question in the orchid tribe Neottieae, where this large assortment of nutrition types occurs. We sequenced 13 new plastid genomes, including 9 mixotrophic species and covering all 6 Neottieae genera. We investigated selective pressure on plastid genes in each nutrition type and conducted a phylogenetic inference of the group. Surprisingly, photosynthesis-related genes did not experience selection relaxation in mixotrophic species compared with autotrophic relatives. Conversely, we observed evidence for selection intensification for some plastid genes. Photosynthesis is thus still under purifying selection, maybe because of its role in fruit formation and thus reproductive success. Phylogenetic analysis resolved most relationships, but short branches at the base of the tree suggest an evolutionary radiation at the beginning of Neottieae history, which, we hypothesize, may be linked to mixotrophy emergence.

In vitro axenic germination and cultivation of mixotrophic Pyroloideae (Ericaceae) and their post-germination ontogenetic development

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Pyroloids, forest sub-shrubs of the Ericaceae family, are an important model for their mixotrophic nutrition, which mixes carbon from photosynthesis and from their mycorrhizal fungi. They have medical uses but are difficult to cultivate ex situ; in particular, their dust seeds contain undifferentiated, few-celled embryos, whose germination is normally fully supported by fungal partners. Their germination and early ontogenesis thus remain elusive.

METHODS

An optimized in vitro cultivation system of five representatives from the subfamily Pyroloideae was developed to study the strength of seed dormancy and the effect of different media and conditions (including light, gibberellins and soluble saccharides) on germination. The obtained plants were analysed for morphological, anatomical and histochemical development.

KEY RESULTS

Thanks to this novel cultivation method, which breaks dormancy and achieved up to 100 % germination, leafy shoots were obtained in vitro for representatives of all pyroloid genera (Moneses, Orthilia, Pyrola and Chimaphila). In all cases, the first post-germination stage is an undifferentiated structure, from which a root meristem later emerges, well before formation of an adventive shoot.

CONCLUSIONS

This cultivation method can be used for further research or for ex situ conservation of pyroloid species. After strong seed dormancy is broken, the tiny globular embryo of pyroloids germinates into an intermediary zone, which is functionally convergent with the protocorm of other plants with dust seeds such as orchids. Like the orchid protocorm, this intermediary zone produces a single meristem: however, unlike orchids, which produce a shoot meristem, pyroloids first generate a root meristem.

The origin and evolution of mycorrhizal symbioses: from palaeomycology to phylogenomics

Contents Summary 1012 I. Introduction 1013 II. The mycorrhizal symbiosis at the dawn and rise of the land flora 1014 III. From early land plants to early trees: the origin of roots and true mycorrhizas 1016 IV. The diversification of the AM symbiosis 1019 V. The ECM symbiosis 1021 VI. The recently evolved ericoid and orchid mycorrhizas 1023 VII. Limits of paleontological vs genetic approaches and perspectives 1023 Acknowledgements 1025 References 1025 SUMMARY: The ability of fungi to form mycorrhizas with plants is one of the most remarkable and enduring adaptations to life on land. The occurrence of mycorrhizas is now well established in c. 85% of extant plants, yet the geological record of these associations is sparse. Fossils preserved under exceptional conditions provide tantalizing glimpses into the evolutionary history of mycorrhizas, showing the extent of their occurrence and aspects of their evolution in extinct plants. The fossil record has important roles to play in establishing a chronology of when key fungal associations evolved and in understanding their importance in ecosystems through time. Together with calibrated phylogenetic trees, these approaches extend our understanding of when and how groups evolved in the context of major environmental change on a global scale. Phylogenomics furthers this understanding into the evolution of different types of mycorrhizal associations, and genomic studies of both plants and fungi are shedding light on how the complex set of symbiotic traits evolved. Here we present a review of the main phases of the evolution of mycorrhizal interactions from palaeontological, phylogenetic and genomic perspectives, with the aim of highlighting the potential of fossil material and a geological perspective in a cross-disciplinary approach.

Comparative morphological analysis of two parallel mycoheterotrophic transitions reveals divergent and convergent traits in the genus Pyrola (Pyroleae, Ericaceae)

The genus Pyrola includes species with different degree of mycoheterotrophy; some species possess individuals that rely on all carbon through their associations with fungi (full mycoheterotrophy, FM), whereas some species obtain carbon through both fungi and photosynthesis by itself (partial mycoheterotrophy, PM). To investigate how plant functional traits of photosynthesis and reproduction are related to the degree of mycoheterotrophy in the initial stage of the transition from PM to FM, we determined morphological traits in FM (or nearly FM) and PM species in two independent lineages, P. picta and P. japonica complexes. We used herbarium specimens and examined leaf number, leaf area, flower number, and scape length in FM or nearly FM species (P. aphylla and P. subaphylla) and PM species (P. picta s.l. and P. japonica). We found a leaf area reduction in FM (or nearly FM) species in both lineages, suggesting that this is a convergent trait. The number of flowers was not significantly different between FM (or nearly FM) and PM species in both lineages. On the other hand, differences in the variation between FM (or nearly FM) and PM species were found in some traits between the two lineages. The FM (or nearly FM) species in one lineage only possessed rudimentary leaves, whereas that in the other linage possessed a few small, ordinary leaves in addition to those with only rudimentary leaves. The scape length of the FM (or nearly FM) species was significantly longer than that of PM species in one lineage, whereas it was shorter in the other lineage. The different and common variations are divergent and convergent traits, respectively, that could be associated with the transition to FM in Pylora. In addition, shoots of both PM species occasionally lacked ordinary leaves, possibly indicating possession of these shoots is preadaptation for the transition to FM in Pyrola.

Leaf stable isotopes suggest shared ancestry is an important driver of functional diversity

Plant physiological strategies of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) uptake and metabolism are often regarded as outcomes of environmental selection. This is likely true, but the role of evolutionary history may also be important in shaping patterns of functional diversity. Here, we used leaf C and N stable isotope ratios (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) as integrators of physiological processes to assess the relative roles of phylogenetic history and environment in a diverse group of Ericaceae species native to North America. We found strong phylogenetic signal in both leaf δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N, suggesting that close relatives have similar physiological strategies. The signal of phylogeny was generally stronger than that of the local environment. However, within some specialized environments (e.g., wetlands, sandy soils), we found environmental effects and/or niche conservatism. Phylogenetic signal in δ¹³C appears to be most closely related to the constraints on metabolic demand and supply of C, and δ¹⁵N appears to be most strongly related to mycorrhizal associations within the family.

Comparative genomics and transcriptomics depict ericoid mycorrhizal fungi as versatile saprotrophs and plant mutualists

Some soil fungi in the Leotiomycetes form ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM) symbioses with Ericaceae. In the harsh habitats in which they occur, ERM plant survival relies on nutrient mobilization from soil organic matter (SOM) by their fungal partners. The characterization of the fungal genetic machinery underpinning both the symbiotic lifestyle and SOM degradation is needed to understand ERM symbiosis functioning and evolution, and its impact on soil carbon (C) turnover. We sequenced the genomes of the ERM fungi Meliniomyces bicolor, M. variabilis, Oidiodendron maius and Rhizoscyphus ericae, and compared their gene repertoires with those of fungi with different lifestyles (ecto- and orchid mycorrhiza, endophytes, saprotrophs, pathogens). We also identified fungal transcripts induced in symbiosis. The ERM fungal gene contents for polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, lipases, proteases and enzymes involved in secondary metabolism are closer to those of saprotrophs and pathogens than to those of ectomycorrhizal symbionts. The fungal genes most highly upregulated in symbiosis are those coding for fungal and plant cell wall-degrading enzymes (CWDEs), lipases, proteases, transporters and mycorrhiza-induced small secreted proteins (MiSSPs). The ERM fungal gene repertoire reveals a capacity for a dual saprotrophic and biotrophic lifestyle. This may reflect an incomplete transition from saprotrophy to the mycorrhizal habit, or a versatile life strategy similar to fungal endophytes.

Root-associated fungal communities in three Pyroleae species and their mycobiont sharing with surrounding trees in subalpine coniferous forests on Mount Fuji, Japan

Pyroleae species are perennial understory shrubs, many of which are partial mycoheterotrophs. Most fungi colonizing Pyroleae roots are ectomycorrhizal (ECM) and share common mycobionts with their Pyroleae hosts. However, such mycobiont sharing has neither been examined in depth before nor has the interspecific variation in sharing among Pyroleae species. Here, we examined root-associated fungal communities in three co-existing Pyroleae species, including Pyrola alpina, Pyrola incarnata, and Orthilia secunda, with reference to co-existing ECM fungi on the surrounding trees in the same soil blocks in subalpine coniferous forests. We identified 42, 75, and 18 fungal molecular operational taxonomic units in P. alpina, P. incarnata, and O. secunda roots, respectively. Mycobiont sharing with surrounding trees, which was defined as the occurrence of the same mycobiont between Pyroleae and surrounding trees in each soil block, was most frequent among P. incarnata (31 of 44 plants). In P. alpina, sharing was confirmed in 12 of 37 plants, and the fungal community was similar to that of P. incarnata. Mycobiont sharing was least common in O. secunda, found in only 5 of 32 plants. Root-associated fungi of O. secunda were dominated by Wilcoxina species, which were absent from the surrounding ECM roots in the same soil blocks. These results indicate that mycobiont sharing with surrounding trees does not equally occur among Pyroleae plants, some of which may develop independent mycorrhizal associations with ECM fungi, as suggested in O. secunda at our research sites.

A plant growth-promoting symbiosis between Mycena galopus and Vaccinium corymbosum seedlings

Typically, Mycena species are viewed as saprotrophic fungi. However, numerous detections of Mycena spp. in the roots of green plants suggest that a continuum from saprotrophy to biotrophy could exist. In particular, mycenoid species have repeatedly been found in Ericaceae plant roots. Our study asked whether (1) Mycena species are commonly found in the roots of green Ericaceae plants; (2) Mycena sequences are limited to a single group/lineage within the genus; and (3) a Mycena sp. can behave as a beneficial root associate with a typical ericoid mycorrhizal plant (Vaccinium corymbosum), regardless of how much external labile carbon is available. We detected Mycena sequences in roots of all sampled Ericaceae plants. Our Mycena sequences clustered in four different groups distributed across the Mycena genus. Only one group could be assigned with confidence to a named species (M. galopus). Our Mycena sequences clustered with other Mycena sequences detected in roots of ericoid mycorrhizal plant species collected throughout Europe, America, and Australia. An isolate of M. galopus promoted growth of V. corymbosum seedlings in vitro regardless of external carbon supply in the media. Seedlings inoculated with M. galopus grew as well as those inoculated with the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Rhizoscyphus ericae. Surprisingly, this M. galopus isolate colonized Vaccinium roots and formed distinctive peg-like structures. Our results suggest that Mycena species might operate along a saprotroph-symbiotic continuum with a range of ericoid mycorrhizal plant species. We discuss our results in terms of fungal partner recruitment by Ericaceae plants.

On the brink: the highly reduced plastomes of nonphotosynthetic Ericaceae

Ericaceae (the heather family) is a large and diverse group of plants that forms elaborate symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, and includes several nonphotosynthetic lineages. Using an extensive sample of fully mycoheterotrophic (MH) species, we explored inter- and intraspecific variation as well as selective constraints acting on the plastomes of these unusual plants. The plastomes of seven MH genera were analysed in a phylogenetic context with two geographically disparate individuals sequenced for Allotropa, Monotropa, and Pityopus. The plastomes of nonphotosynthetic Ericaceae are highly reduced in size (c. 33-41 kbp) and content, having lost all photosynthesis-related genes, and are reduced to encoding housekeeping genes as well as a protease subunit (clpP)-like and acetyl-CoA carboxylase subunit D (accD)-like open reading frames. Despite an increase in the rate of their nucleotide substitutions, the remaining protein-coding genes are typically under purifying selection in full MHs. We also identified ribosomal proteins under relaxed or neutral selection. These plastomes also exhibit striking structural rearrangements. Intraspecific variation within MH Ericaceae ranges from a few differences (Allotropa) to extensive population divergences (Monotropa, Hypopitys), which indicates that cryptic speciation may be occurring in several lineages. The pattern of gene loss within fully MH Ericaceae plastomes suggests an advanced state of degradation.

Mixotrophy in Pyroleae (Ericaceae) from Estonian boreal forests does not vary with light or tissue age

Background and Aims

In temperate forests, some green plants, namely pyroloids (Pyroleae, Ericaceae) and some orchids, independently evolved a mode of nutrition mixing photosynthates and carbon gained from their mycorrhizal fungi (mixotrophy). Fungal carbon is more enriched in 13C than photosynthates, allowing estimation of the proportion of carbon acquired heterotrophically from fungi in plant biomass. Based on 13C enrichment, mixotrophic orchids have previously been shown to increase shoot autotrophy level over the growth season and with environmental light availability. But little is known about the plasticity of use of photosynthetic versus fungal carbon in pyroloids.

Methods

Plasticity of mixotrophy with leaf age or light level (estimated from canopy openness) was investigated in pyroloids from three Estonian boreal forests. Bulk leaf 13C enrichment of five pyroloid species was compared with that of control autotrophic plants along temporal series (over one growth season) and environmental light gradients (n=405 samples).

Key Results

Mixotrophic 13C enrichment was detected at studied sites for Pyrola chlorantha and Orthilia secunda (except at one site for the latter), but not for Chimaphila umbellata, Pyrola rotundifolia and Moneses uniflora. Enrichment with 13C did not vary over the growth season or between leaves from current and previous years. Finally, although one co-occurring mixotrophic orchid showed 13C depletion with increasing light availability, as expected for mixotrophs, all pyroloids responded identically to autotrophic control plants along light gradients.

Conclusions

A phylogenetic trend previously observed is further supported: mixotrophy is rarely supported by 13C enrichment in the Chimaphila + Moneses clade, whereas it is frequent in the Pyrola + Orthilia clade. Moreover, pyroloid mixotrophy does not respond plastically to ageing or to light level. This contrasts with the usual view of a convergent evolution with orchids, and casts doubt on the way pyroloids use the carbon gained from their mycorrhizal fungi, especially to replace photosynthetic carbon.

Specificity of fungal associations of Pyroleae and Monotropa hypopitys during germination and seedling development

Mycoheterotrophic plants obtain organic carbon from associated mycorrhizal fungi, fully or partially. Angiosperms with this form of nutrition possess exceptionally small 'dust seeds' which after germination develop 'seedlings' that remain subterranean for several years, fully dependent on fungi for supply of carbon. Mycoheterotrophs which as adults have photosynthesis thus develop from full to partial mycoheterotrophy, or autotrophy, during ontogeny. Mycoheterotrophic plants may represent a gradient of variation in a parasitism-mutualism continuum, both among and within species. Previous studies on plant-fungal associations in mycoheterotrophs have focused on either germination or the adult life stages of the plant. Much less is known about the fungal associations during development of the subterranean seedlings. We investigated germination and seedling development and the diversity of fungi associated with germinating seeds and subterranean seedlings (juveniles) in five Monotropoideae (Ericaceae) species, the full mycoheterotroph Monotropa hypopitys and the putatively partial mycoheterotrophs Pyrola chlorantha, P. rotundifolia, Moneses uniflora and Chimaphila umbellata. Seedlings retrieved from seed sowing experiments in the field were used to examine diversity of fungal associates, using pyrosequencing analysis of ITS2 region for fungal identification. The investigated species varied with regard to germination, seedling development and diversity of associated fungi during juvenile ontogeny. Results suggest that fungal host specificity increases during juvenile ontogeny, most pronounced in the fully mycoheterotrophic species, but a narrowing of fungal associates was found also in two partially mycoheterotrophic species. We suggest that variation in specificity of associated fungi during seedling ontogeny in mycoheterotrophs represents ongoing evolution along a parasitism-mutualism continuum.

The Highly Reduced Plastome of Mycoheterotrophic Sciaphila (Triuridaceae) Is Colinear with Its Green Relatives and Is under Strong Purifying Selection

The enigmatic monocot family Triuridaceae provides a potentially useful model system for studying the effects of an ancient loss of photosynthesis on the plant plastid genome, as all of its members are mycoheterotrophic and achlorophyllous. However, few studies have placed the family in a comparative context, and its phylogenetic placement is only partly resolved. It was also unclear whether any taxa in this family have retained a plastid genome. Here, we used genome survey sequencing to retrieve plastid genome data for Sciaphila densiflora (Triuridaceae) and ten autotrophic relatives in the orders Dioscoreales and Pandanales. We recovered a highly reduced plastome for Sciaphila that is nearly colinear with Carludovica palmata, a photosynthetic relative that belongs to its sister group in Pandanales, Cyclanthaceae-Pandanaceae. This phylogenetic placement is well supported and robust to a broad range of analytical assumptions in maximum-likelihood inference, and is congruent with recent findings based on nuclear and mitochondrial evidence. The 28 genes retained in the S. densiflora plastid genome are involved in translation and other nonphotosynthetic functions, and we demonstrate that nearly all of the 18 protein-coding genes are under strong purifying selection. Our study confirms the utility of whole plastid genome data in phylogenetic studies of highly modified heterotrophic plants, even when they have substantially elevated rates of substitution.