Bidirectional exchange of biogenic volatiles with vegetation: emission sources, reactions, breakdown and deposition

Differential responses and mechanisms of monoterpene emissions from broad-leaved and coniferous species under elevated ozone scenarios

Although ozone (O3) pollution affects plant growth and monoterpene (MT) emissions, the responses of MT emission rates to elevated O3 and the related mechanisms are not entirely understood. To gain an insight into these effects and mechanisms, we evaluated physiological (leaf MT synthesis ability, including precursor availability and enzyme kinetics) and physicochemical limiting factors (e.g. leaf thickness of the lower and upper epidermis, palisade and spongy tissue, and size of resin ducts and stomatal aperture) affecting MT emissions simultaneously from two broad-leaved and two coniferous species after one growing season of field experiment. The effects of elevated O3 on MT emissions and the related mechanisms differed between plant functional types. Specifically, long-term moderate O3 exposure significantly reduced MT emissions in broad-leaved species, primarily attributed to a systematic decrease in MT synthesis ability, including reductions in all MT precursors, geranyl diphosphate content, and MT synthase protein levels. In contrast, the same O3 exposure significantly enhanced MT emissions in coniferous species. However, the change in MT emissions in coniferous species was not due to modifications in leaf MT synthesis ability but rather because of alterations in leaf anatomical structure characteristics, particularly the size of resin ducts and stomatal aperture. These findings provide an important understanding of the mechanisms driving MT emissions from different tree functional groups and can enlighten the estimation of MT emissions in the context of O3 pollution scenarios as well as the development of MT emission algorithms.

Leaf-Level Bidirectional Exchange of Formaldehyde on Deciduous and Evergreen Tree Saplings

Gas-phase formaldehyde (HCHO) is formed in high yield from the oxidation of many volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and is commonly used as a constraint when testing the performance of VOC oxidation mechanisms in models. However, prior to using HCHO as a model constraint for VOC oxidation in forested regions, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of its foliar exchange. Therefore, a controlled laboratory setup was designed to measure the emission and dry deposition of HCHO at the leaf-level to red oak (Quercus rubra) and Leyland cypress (Cupressus × leylandii) tree saplings. The results show that HCHO has a compensation point (CP) that rises exponentially with temperature (22-35 °C) with a mean range of 0.3-0.9 ppbv. The HCHO CP results are also found to be independent of the studied tree species and 40-70% relative humidity. Given that HCHO mixing ratios in forests during the daytime are usually greater than 1 ppbv, the magnitude of the CP suggests that trees generally act as a net sink of HCHO. Additionally, the results show that HCHO foliar exchange is stomatally controlled and better matches a reactivity factor (f0) of 0 as opposed to 1 in conventional dry deposition parametrizations. At 30 °C, daytime HCHO dry deposition fluxes are reduced by upward of 50% when using f0 = 0 and a nonzero HCHO CP, although deposition remains the dominant canopy sink of HCHO. A reduced deposition sink also implies the increased importance of the gas-phase photolysis of HCHO as a source of HO2.

Comparison between Spatially Resolved Airborne Flux Measurements and Emission Inventories of Volatile Organic Compounds in Los Angeles

Los Angeles is a major hotspot for ozone and particulate matter air pollution in the United States. Ozone and PM2.5 in this region have not improved substantially for the past decade, despite a reduction in vehicular emissions of their precursors, NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This reduction in "traditional" sources has made the current emission mixture of air pollutant precursors more uncertain. To map and quantify emissions of a wide range of VOCs in this urban area, we performed airborne eddy covariance measurements with wavelet analysis. VOC fluxes measured include tracers for source categories, such as traffic, vegetation, and volatile chemical products (VCPs). Mass fluxes were dominated by oxygenated VOCs, with ethanol contributing ∼29% of the total. In terms of OH reactivity and aerosol formation potential, terpenoids contributed more than half. Observed fluxes were compared with two commonly used emission inventories: the California Air Resources Board inventory and the combination of the Biogenic Emission Inventory System with the Fuel-based Inventory of Vehicle Emissions combined with Volatile Chemical Products (FIVE-VCP). The comparison shows mismatches regarding the amount, spatial distribution, and weekend effects of observed VOC emissions with the inventories. The agreement was best for typical transportation related VOCs, while discrepancies were larger for biogenic and VCP-related VOCs.

Environmental Factors Affecting Monoterpene Emissions from Terrestrial Vegetation

Monoterpenes are volatile organic compounds that play important roles in atmospheric chemistry, plant physiology, communication, and defense. This review compiles the monoterpene emission flux data reported for different regions and plant species and highlights the role of abiotic environmental factors in controlling the emissions of biogenic monoterpenes and their emission fluxes for terrestrial plant species (including seasonal variations). Previous studies have demonstrated the role and importance of ambient air temperature and light in controlling monoterpene emissions, likely contributing to higher monoterpene emissions during the summer season in temperate regions. In addition to light and temperature dependence, other important environmental variables such as carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), soil moisture, and nutrient availability are also known to influence monoterpene emissions rates, but the information available is still limited. Throughout the paper, we identify knowledge gaps and provide recommendations for future studies.

Insights into the Effects of Violating Statistical Assumptions for Dimensionality Reduction for Chemical "-omics" Data with Multiple Explanatory Variables

Biological volatilome analysis is inherently complex due to the considerable number of compounds (i.e., dimensions) and differences in peak areas by orders of magnitude, between and within compounds found within datasets. Traditional volatilome analysis relies on dimensionality reduction techniques which aid in the selection of compounds that are considered relevant to respective research questions prior to further analysis. Currently, compounds of interest are identified using either supervised or unsupervised statistical methods which assume the data residuals are normally distributed and exhibit linearity. However, biological data often violate the statistical assumptions of these models related to normality and the presence of multiple explanatory variables which are innate to biological samples. In an attempt to address deviations from normality, volatilome data can be log transformed. However, whether the effects of each assessed variable are additive or multiplicative should be considered prior to transformation, as this will impact the effect of each variable on the data. If assumptions of normality and variable effects are not investigated prior to dimensionality reduction, ineffective or erroneous compound dimensionality reduction can impact downstream analyses. It is the aim of this manuscript to assess the impact of single and multivariable statistical models with and without the log transformation to volatilome dimensionality reduction prior to any supervised or unsupervised classification analysis. As a proof of concept, Shingleback lizard (Tiliqua rugosa) volatilomes were collected across their species distribution and from captivity and were assessed. Shingleback volatilomes are suspected to be influenced by multiple explanatory variables related to habitat (Bioregion), sex, parasite presence, total body volume, and captive status. This work determined that the exclusion of relevant multiple explanatory variables from analysis overestimates the effect of Bioregion and the identification of significant compounds. The log transformation increased the number of compounds that were identified as significant, as did analyses that assumed that residuals were normally distributed. Among the methods considered in this work, the most conservative form of dimensionality reduction was achieved through analyzing untransformed data using Monte Carlo tests with multiple explanatory variables.

Dynamic environmental interactions shaped by vegetative plant volatiles

Covering: up to November 2022Plants shape terrestrial ecosystems through physical and chemical interactions. Plant-derived volatile organic compounds in particular influence the behavior and performance of other organisms. In this review, we discuss how vegetative plant volatiles derived from leaves, stems and roots are produced and released into the environment, how their production and release is modified by abiotic and biotic factors, and how they influence other organisms. Vegetative plant volatiles are derived from different biosynthesis and degradation pathways and are released via distinct routes. Both biosynthesis and release are regulated by other organisms as well as abiotic factors. In turn, vegetative plant volatiles modify the physiology and the behavior of a wide range of organisms, from microbes to mammals. Several concepts and frameworks can help to explain and predict the evolution and ecology of vegetative plant volatile emission patterns of specific pathways: multifunctionality of specialized metabolites, chemical communication displays and the information arms race, and volatile physiochemistry. We discuss how these frameworks can be leveraged to understand the evolution and expression patterns of vegetative plant volatiles. The multifaceted roles of vegetative plant volatiles provide fertile grounds to understand ecosystem dynamics and harness their power for sustainable agriculture.

Effects of soil drought and nitrogen deposition on BVOC emissions and their O3 and SOA formation for Pinus thunbergii

Soil drought and nitrogen (N) deposition can influence the biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions and thereby their ozone (O₃) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation. This study addressed their single and combined effects on BVOC emissions of Pinus thunbergii by laboratory simulation experiments. The results showed that light drought (LD, 50% soil volumetric water content (VWC)) stimulated isoprene, monoterpene, sesquiterpene, and total BVOC emissions, while moderate drought (MD, 30% and 40% VWC) and severe drought (SD, 10% and 20% VWC) inhibited their emissions (except for sesquiterpene in 20% VWC). N deposition decreased other VOC emissions and increased isoprene and sesquiterpene emissions. Total BVOCs and monoterpene were stimulated in low N deposition (LN, 2 g N/(m²·yr)) and inhibited in moderate (MN, 5 g N/(m²·yr)) and high N deposition (HN, 10 g N/(m²·yr)). Under combined treatment of soil drought and N deposition, total BVOC, monoterpene, and other VOC emissions were inhibited, sesquiterpene had no significant change, and isoprene emission was inhibited in MD combined treatment but promoted in SD. The O₃ formation potential (OFP) and SOA formation potential (SOAP) from the changed BVOC emissions were calculated, OFP and SOAP of BVOC emissions and their compositions varied significantly among the treatments. Our study provided theoretical basis for assessing the impact of climate change and atmospheric pollution on BVOC emissions and their contribution to the formation of secondary atmospheric pollution.

Elevated ozone inhibits isoprene emission of a diploid and a triploid genotype of Populus tomentosa by different mechanisms

Ozone (O3) pollution affects plant growth and isoprene (ISO) emission. However, the response mechanism of isoprene emission rate (ISOrate) to elevated O3 (EO3) remains poorly understood. ISOrate was investigated in two genotypes (diploid and triploid) of Chinese white poplar (Populus tomentosa Carr.) exposed to EO3 in an open top chamber system. The triploid genotype had higher photosynthetic rate (A) and stomatal conductance (gs) than the diploid one. EO3 significantly decreased A, gs, and ISOrate of middle and lower leaves in both genotypes. In the diploid genotype, the reduction of ISOrate was caused by a systematic decrease related to ISO synthesis capacity, as indicated by decreased contents of the isoprene precursor dimethylallyl diphosphate and decreased isoprene synthase protein and activity. On the other hand, the negative effect of O3 on ISOrate of the triploid genotype did not result from inhibited ISO synthesis capacity, but from increased ISO oxidative loss within the leaf. Our findings will be useful for breeding poplar genotypes with high yield and lower ISOrate, depending on local atmospheric volatile organic compound/NOx ratio, to cope with both the rising O3 concentrations and increasing biomass demand. They can also inform the incorporation of O3 effects into process-based models of isoprene emission.

Stress-Induced Volatile Emissions and Signalling in Inter-Plant Communication

The sessile plant has developed mechanisms to survive the "rough and tumble" of its natural surroundings, aided by its evolved innate immune system. Precise perception and rapid response to stress stimuli confer a fitness edge to the plant against its competitors, guaranteeing greater chances of survival and productivity. Plants can "eavesdrop" on volatile chemical cues from their stressed neighbours and have adapted to use these airborne signals to prepare for impending danger without having to experience the actual stress themselves. The role of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in plant-plant communication has gained significant attention over the past decade, particularly with regard to the potential of VOCs to prime non-stressed plants for more robust defence responses to future stress challenges. The ecological relevance of such interactions under various environmental stresses has been much debated, and there is a nascent understanding of the mechanisms involved. This review discusses the significance of VOC-mediated inter-plant interactions under both biotic and abiotic stresses and highlights the potential to manipulate outcomes in agricultural systems for sustainable crop protection via enhanced defence. The need to integrate physiological, biochemical, and molecular approaches in understanding the underlying mechanisms and signalling pathways involved in volatile signalling is emphasised.

Volatile-Mediated Induced and Passively Acquired Resistance in Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)

Plants produce a diversity of secondary metabolites including volatile organic compounds. Some species show discrete variation in these volatile compounds such that individuals within a population can be grouped into distinct chemotypes. A few studies reported that volatile-mediated induced resistance is more effective between plants belonging to the same chemotype and that chemotypes are heritable. The authors concluded that the ability of plants to differentially respond to cues from related individuals that share the same chemotype is a form of kin recognition. These studies assumed plants were actively responding but did not test the mechanism of resistance. A similar result was possible through the passive adsorption and reemission of repellent or toxic VOCs by plants exposed to damage-induced plant volatiles (DIPVs). Here we conducted exposure experiments with five chemotypes of sagebrush in growth chambers; undamaged receiver plants were exposed to either filtered air or DIPVs from mechanically wounded branches. Receiver plants exposed to DIPVs experienced less herbivore damage, which was correlated with increased expression of genes involved in plant defense as well as increased emission of repellent VOCs. Plants belonging to two of the five chemotypes exhibited stronger resistance when exposed to DIPVs from plants of the same chemotypes compared to when DIPVs were from plants of a different chemotype. Moreover, some plants passively absorbed DIPVs and reemitted them, potentially conferring associational resistance. These findings support previous work demonstrating that sagebrush plants actively responded to alarm cues and that the strength of their response was dependent on the chemotypes of the plants involved. This study provides further support for kin recognition in plants but also identified volatile-mediated associational resistance as a passively acquired additional defense mechanism in sagebrush.

Particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon uptake in relation to leaf surface functional traits in Mediterranean evergreens: Potentials for air phytoremediation

We explored relationships between particulate matter (PM) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) leaf concentrations, uptake rates and leaf surface functional traits in four Mediterranean evergreen trees (Chamaerops humilis, Citrus × aurantium, Magnolia grandiflora, and Quercus ilex) during a dry month. Pollutant leaf concentration at different dates and uptake rate were correlated. We quantified PM by gravimetric analysis, PAHs were extracted from intact and dewaxed leaves and analyzed by GC-MS, and cuticle thickness, number and surface of stomata (N_s and S_S) and trichomes (N_t and S_t) were determined by optical microscopy. Infrared spectroscopy was used to investigate the leaves surfaces composition and assess esterification index (E). Studied species were characterized by unique combinations of functional traits and pollutant uptake capacities. PM₁₀ uptake scaled positively with S_S, S_t and upper cuticle thickness (T_c,u) across species. PM_2.5 uptake scaled positively with T_c,u, and thicker cuticles were also associated with greater shares of uptake of hydrophobic PM fractions. Uptakes of different fractions of PAH were generally weakly related to different leaf functional traits, except for some correlations with E and S_S. We conclude that both plant surface morphological and chemical leaf traits influence PM and PAH retention, unveiling their potential role in air phytoremediation.

Rapid increase in atmospheric glyoxal and methylglyoxal concentrations in Lhasa, Tibetan Plateau: Potential sources and implications

Glyoxal (Gly) and methylglyoxal (Mgly) are the intermediate products of several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as well as the precursors of brown carbon and may play key roles in photochemical pollution and regional climate change in the Tibetan Plateau (TP). However, their sources and atmospheric behaviors in the TP remain unclear. During the second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research in the summer of 2020, the concentrations of Gly (0.40 ± 0.30 ppbv) and Mgly (0.57 ± 0.16 ppbv) observed in Lhasa, the most densely populated city in the TP, had increased by 20 and 15 times, respectively, compared to those measured a decade previously. Owing to the strong solar radiation, secondary formations are the dominant sources of both Gly (71%) and Mgly (62%) in Lhasa. In addition, primary anthropogenic sources also play important roles by emitting Gly and Mgly directly and providing abundant precursors (e.g., aromatics). During ozone pollution episodes, local anthropogenic sources (industries, vehicles, solvent usage, and combustion activities) contributed up to 41% and 45% in Gly and Mgly levels, respectively. During non-episode periods, anthropogenic emissions originating from the south of Himalayas also have non-negligible contributions. Our results suggest that in the previous decade, anthropogenic emissions have elevated the levels of Gly and Mgly in the TP dramatically. This study has important implications for understanding the impact of human activities on air quality and climate change in this ecologically fragile area.

Bidirectional Exchange of Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds in Subarctic Heath Mesocosms During Autumn Climate Scenarios

Biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) flux dynamics during the subarctic autumn are largely unexplored and have been considered insignificant due to the relatively low biological activity expected during autumn. Here, we exposed subarctic heath ecosystems to predicted future autumn climate scenarios (ambient, warming, and colder, dark conditions), changes in light availability, and flooding, to mimic the more extreme rainfall or snowmelt events expected in the future. We used climate chambers to measure the net ecosystem fluxes and bidirectional exchange of BVOCs from intact heath mesocosms using a dynamic enclosure technique coupled to a proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS). We focused on six BVOCs (methanol, acetic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone, isoprene, and monoterpenes) that were among the most dominant and that were previously identified in arctic tundra ecosystems. Warming increased ecosystem respiration and resulted in either net BVOC release or increased uptake compared to the ambient scenario. None of the targeted BVOCs showed net release in the cold and dark scenario. Acetic acid exhibited significantly lower net uptake in the cold and dark scenario than in the ambient scenario, which suggests reduced microbial activity. Flooding was characterized by net uptake of the targeted BVOCs and overruled any temperature effects conferred by the climate scenarios. Monoterpenes were mainly taken up by the mesocosms and their fluxes were not affected by the climate scenarios or flooding. This study shows that although autumn BVOC fluxes on a subarctic heath are generally low, changes in future climate may strongly modify them.

Leaf uptake of atmospheric monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons depends on plant species and compounds

Large amounts of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) are emitted into the atmosphere, but it is unclear which compounds among MAHs are effectively removed by the above-ground parts of plants. Although fumigation experiments of MAHs at unrealistically high concentrations (~ppmv) have been conducted, experiments with ambient concentrations have scarcely been conducted. In the present study, MAHs, including benzene, toluene, phenol, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol, with concentrations ranging from several to several tens ppbv, were individually fumigated to four plant species, and the uptake was monitored using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. No detectable uptake was observed for benzene and toluene, but phenol, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol were significantly taken up by the plants. The uptake rate normalized to fumigated concentration varied from 3 to 50 mmol m^-2s^-1 during the light period, depending on light intensity and compounds. The difference in uptake capability may be attributed not only to different metabolic activities but also to different values of Henry's law constant, which regulates the partitioning of these compounds into the liquid phase in leaves. The uptake of phenol, benzaldehyde, and benzyl alcohol was affected by stomatal conductance, suggesting that stomatal opening is the main factor regulating the uptake of the three MAHs. This is the first observation that anisole is emitted when phenol is fumigated to Spathiphyllum clevelandii, suggesting that phenol is methylated to anisole within plant leaves. Anisole is more volatile than phenol, meaning that methylation enhances the emission of xenobiotics into the atmosphere by converting them to more volatile compounds. This conversion ratio decreased with an increase in phenol concentration (from 1.3 to 143 ppbv). Considering low reaction rate coefficient of anisole with OH radicals and low conversion ratio from phenol to anisole, it is concluded that plants act to effectively remove oxygenated MAHs from the atmosphere.

Influence of increased nutrient availability on biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions and leaf anatomy of subarctic dwarf shrubs under climate warming and increased cloudiness

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Climate change is subjecting subarctic ecosystems to elevated temperature, increased nutrient availability and reduced light availability (due to increasing cloud cover). This may affect subarctic vegetation by altering the emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) and leaf anatomy. We investigated the effects of increased nutrient availability on BVOC emissions and leaf anatomy of three subarctic dwarf shrub species, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Cassiope tetragona and Betula nana, and if increased nutrient availability modifies the responses to warming and shading.

METHODS

Measurements of BVOCs were performed in situ in long-term field experiments in the Subarctic using a dynamic enclosure system and collection of BVOCs into adsorbent cartridges analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Leaf anatomy was studied using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy.

KEY RESULTS

Increased nutrient availability increased monoterpene emission rates and altered the emission profile of B. nana, and increased sesquiterpene and oxygenated monoterpene emissions of C. tetragona. Increased nutrient availability increased leaf tissue thicknesses of B. nana and C. tetragona, while it caused thinner epidermis and the highest fraction of functional (intact) glandular trichomes for E. hermaphroditum. Increased nutrient availability and warming synergistically increased mesophyll intercellular space of B. nana and glandular trichome density of C. tetragona, while treatments combining increased nutrient availability and shading had an opposite effect in C. tetragona.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased nutrient availability may enhance the protection capacity against biotic and abiotic stresses (especially heat and drought) in subarctic shrubs under future warming conditions as opposed to increased cloudiness, which could lead to decreased resistance. The study emphasizes the importance of changes in nutrient availability in the Subarctic, which can interact with climate warming and increased cloudiness effects.

Volatile-mediated plant-plant interactions: volatile organic compounds as modulators of receiver plant defence, growth, and reproduction

It is firmly established that plants respond to biotic and abiotic stimuli by emitting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These VOCs provide information on the physiological status of the emitter plant and are available for detection by the whole community. In the context of plant-plant interactions, research has focused mostly on the defence-related responses of receiver plants. However, responses may span hormone signalling and both primary and secondary metabolism, and ultimately affect plant fitness. Here we present a synthesis of plant-plant interactions, focusing on the effects of VOC exposure on receiver plants. An overview of the important chemical cues, the uptake and conversion of VOCs, and the adsorption of VOCs to plant surfaces is presented. This is followed by a review of the substantial VOC-induced changes to receiver plants affecting both primary and secondary metabolism and influencing plant growth and reproduction. Further research should consider whole-plant responses for the effective evaluation of the mechanisms and fitness consequences of exposure of the receiver plant to VOCs.

Contrasting nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization effects on soil terpene exchanges in a tropical forest

Production, emission, and absorption of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) in ecosystem soils and associated impacts of nutrient availability are unclear; thus, predictions of effects of global change on source-sink dynamic under increased atmospheric N deposition and nutrition imbalances are limited. Here, we report the dynamics of soil BVOCs under field conditions from two undisturbed tropical rainforests from French Guiana. We analyzed effects of experimental soil applications of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and N + P on soil BVOC exchanges (in particular of total terpenes, monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenes), to determine source and sink dynamics between seasons (dry and wet) and elevations (upper and lower elevations corresponding to top of the hills (30 m high) and bottom of the valley). We identified 45 soil terpenoids compounds emitted to the atmosphere, comprising 26 monoterpenes and 19 sesquiterpenes; of these, it was possible to identify 13 and 7 compounds, respectively. Under ambient conditions, soils acted as sinks of these BVOCs, with greatest soil uptake recorded for sesquiterpenes at upper elevations during the wet season (-282 μg m^-2 h^-1). Fertilization shifted soils from a sink to source, with greatest levels of terpene emissions recorded at upper elevations during the wet season, following the addition of N (monoterpenes: 406 μg m^-2 h^-1) and P (sesquiterpenes: 210 μg m^-2 h^-1). Total soil terpene emission rates were negatively correlated with total atmospheric terpene concentrations. These results indicate likely shifts in tropical soils from sink to source of atmospheric terpenes under projected increases in N deposition under global change, with potential impacts on regional-scale atmospheric chemistry balance and ecosystem function.

Physical Activity in Polluted Air-Net Benefit or Harm to Cardiovascular Health? A Comprehensive Review

Both exposure to higher levels of polluted air and physical inactivity are crucial risk factors for the development and progression of major noncommunicable diseases and, in particular, of cardiovascular disease. In this context, the World Health Organization estimated 4.2 and 3.2 million global deaths per year in response to ambient air pollution and insufficient physical activity, respectively. While regular physical activity is well known to improve general health, it may also increase the uptake and deposit of air pollutants in the lungs/airways and circulation, due to increased breathing frequency and minute ventilation, thus increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease. Thus, determining the tradeoff between the health benefits of physical activity and the potential harmful effects of increased exposure to air pollution during physical activity has important public health consequences. In the present comprehensive review, we analyzed evidence from human and animal studies on the combined effects of physical activity and air pollution on cardiovascular and other health outcomes. We further report on pathophysiological mechanisms underlying air pollution exposure, as well as the protective effects of physical activity with a focus on oxidative stress and inflammation. Lastly, we provide mitigation strategies and practical recommendations for physical activity in areas with polluted air.

Neighbourhood green and blue spaces and allergic sensitization in children: A longitudinal study based on repeated measures from the Generation XXI cohort

Evidence on the effect of natural environments on atopy in children is limited and inconsistent, disregarding the time-varying and cumulative exposures throughout the life course. To assess critical periods of exposure as well as the effect of longitudinal trajectories of exposure to green and blue spaces on the development of allergic sensitization in children at the age of 10 years. A longitudinal study was conducted involving 730 children enrolled in Generation XXI, a population-based birth cohort from the Porto Metropolitan Area (Portugal). Food and aeroallergens sensitization were evaluated at 10 years of age using Phadiatop Infant, Phadiatop fx1 and fx22 ImmunoCAP (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Uppsala, Sweden). Residential Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and distance to the nearest blue space (sea, river) were assessed using a Geographic Information System. Latent class linear mixed models were fitted to determine longitudinal trajectories of exposure. Associations were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression models and expressed using hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Residing in neighbourhoods surrounded by more vegetation at 10 years, as well as lifetime exposure to a trajectory of higher levels of NDVI, were associated with a lower risk of allergic sensitization [HR (95% CI) = 0.095 (0.011, 0.823) and HR (95% CI) = 0.539 (0.301, 0.965), respectively]. Our findings support a role for both longitudinal, but particularly late-childhood, exposure to green spaces, in the prevention of allergic sensitization in children.

O3 Concentration and Its Relation with BVOC Emissions in a Subtropical Plantation

An empirical model of O3 is developed using the measurements of emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs), O3 concentration, global solar radiation, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and meteorological variables in a subtropical Pinus plantation, China, during 2013–2016. In view of the different structures of isoprene and monoterpenes, two empirical models of O3 concentration are developed, considering PAR absorption and scattering due to gases, liquids and particles (GLPs), as well as PAR attenuation caused by O3 and BVOCs. The estimated O3 is in agreement with the observations, and validation of the O3 empirical model is conducted. O3 concentrations are more sensitive to changes in PAR and water vapor than S/Q (horizontal diffuse to global solar radiation) and BVOC emissions. O3 is positive to changes in isoprene emission at low light and high GLPs, or negative at high light and low GLPs; O3 is negative to changes in monoterpene emissions. O3 are positive with the changes of PAR, water vapor and S/Q. It is suggested to control human-induced high BVOC emissions, regulate plant cutting, and reduce NOx and SO2 emissions more strictly than ever before. There are inverted U-shape interactions between O3 and its driving factors, and S/Q controls their turning points.

Nature-based solutions as tools for air phytoremediation: A review of the current knowledge and gaps

Monitoring of air quality and the application of strategies for its improvement are perceived as key areas for reducing environmental pollution. The research on Nature Based Solutions for the mitigation of pollutant concentrations in the air has increasingly developed in the last twenty years. The purpose of this review is to evaluate whether the current knowledge about Nature-Based Solutions provides a quantitative answer of the real benefits of air phytoremediation. To address this question, the literature on air phytoremediation over the last twenty years was analyzed. Altogether, 52 variables were selected, grouped into six categories, to briefly characterize the contents, methodology and outcome of the peer-reviewed articles. Altogether, 413 plant species found in the analyzed studies were recorded. The results show the trends about the most studied pollutants and on the methodologies mostly applied, in relation to the study outcomes. The analysis demonstrated that particulate matter (PM_x) was the most frequently examined pollutant, most studies on NBS are based on experiments with exposure chambers, and scaling up the results with models has been limited. Although effective reductions in pollutant concentrations have been shown in the majority of studies, there is a strong fragmentation of the approaches, most studies have looked at a single pollutant and detailed information for model parameterization is only available for a few species. Thus, the review highlights that studies of Nature Based Solutions in air phytoremediation require unification of methodologies, and should consider a broader range of pollutants and plant organisms useful for mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in indoor and outdoor human environments.

Protein expression plasticity contributes to heat and drought tolerance of date palm

Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of warming and drought periods around the globe, currently representing a threat to many plant species. Understanding the resistance and resilience of plants to climate change is, therefore, urgently needed. As date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) evolved adaptation mechanisms to a xeric environment and can tolerate large diurnal and seasonal temperature fluctuations, we studied the protein expression changes in leaves, volatile organic compound emissions, and photosynthesis in response to variable growth temperatures and soil water deprivation. Plants were grown under controlled environmental conditions of simulated Saudi Arabian summer and winter climates challenged with drought stress. We show that date palm is able to counteract the harsh conditions of the Arabian Peninsula by adjusting the abundances of proteins related to the photosynthetic machinery, abiotic stress and secondary metabolism. Under summer climate and water deprivation, these adjustments included efficient protein expression response mediated by heat shock proteins and the antioxidant system to counteract reactive oxygen species formation. Proteins related to secondary metabolism were downregulated, except for the P. dactylifera isoprene synthase (PdIspS), which was strongly upregulated in response to summer climate and drought. This study reports, for the first time, the identification and functional characterization of the gene encoding for PdIspS, allowing future analysis of isoprene functions in date palm under extreme environments. Overall, the current study shows that reprogramming of the leaf protein profiles confers the date palm heat- and drought tolerance. We conclude that the protein plasticity of date palm is an important mechanism of molecular adaptation to environmental fluctuations.

Diversification of terpenoid emissions proposes a geographic structure based on climate and pathogen composition in Japanese cedar

Biogenic volatile organic compounds emitted from plants are important constituents of atmospheric chemistry and play a major role in the resistance of plants against various environmental stresses. However, little is known about how abiotic and biotic environments on a geographic scale relate to diversifications of the emission. Here, we present variations of terpenes stored in and emitted from leaves of a single species in a common garden, using genetically differentiated local populations of Japanese cedar, the most dominant and widely distributed tree species in Japan. Furthermore, we determined the composition of fungal communities in 50 locations, based on the presence or absence of 158 fungal species inhabiting the cedar. The results showed that terpenoids, especially those that are emitted, were highly diversified and geographically structured among the 12 populations. The total amount of stored terpenes was negatively affected by warm and less-snow climates. On the other hand, variations in some emitted terpenoid species among the populations were correlated to antagonistic fungal species inhabiting the Japanese cedar. We propose that the diversification of composition and amount of stored and emitted terpenoids in the tree species is not only structured by climate, but also antagonistic fungal communities through biological interactions.

Vapor pressure deficit helps explain biogenic volatile organic compound fluxes from the forest floor and canopy of a temperate deciduous forest

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) play critical roles in ecological and earth-system processes. Ecosystem BVOC models rarely include soil and litter fluxes and their accuracy is often challenged by BVOC dynamics during periods of rapid ecosystem change like spring leaf out. We measured BVOC concentrations within the air space of a mixed deciduous forest and used a hybrid Lagrangian/Eulerian canopy transport model to estimate BVOC flux from the forest floor, canopy, and whole ecosystem during spring. Canopy flux measurements were dominated by a large methanol source and small isoprene source during the leaf-out period, consistent with past measurements of leaf ontogeny and theory, and indicative of a BVOC flux situation rarely used in emissions model testing. The contribution of the forest floor to whole-ecosystem BVOC flux is conditional on the compound of interest and is often non-trivial. We created linear models of forest floor, canopy, and whole-ecosystem flux for each study compound and used information criteria-based model selection to find the simplest model with the best fit. Most published BVOC flux models do not include vapor pressure deficit (VPD), but it entered the best canopy, forest floor, and whole-ecosystem BVOC flux model more than any other study variable in the present study. Since VPD is predicted to increase in the future, future studies should investigate how it contributes to BVOC flux through biophysical mechanisms like evaporative demand, leaf temperature and stomatal function.

Transcriptome Profiling of the Potato Exposed to French Marigold Essential Oil with a Special Emphasis on Leaf Starch Metabolism and Defense against Colorado Potato Beetle

Flower strips of French Marigold are commonly used pest repellents in potato fields. However, the effect of French Marigold volatiles on potato metabolism, physiology and induced defense is unknown. Thus, a microarray transcriptome analysis was performed to study the effects of French Marigold essential oil (EO) on laboratory-grown potato. After 8 h of exposure to EO, with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)-detected terpinolene and limonene as dominant compounds, 2796 transcripts were differentially expressed with fold change >2 compared to expression in controls. A slightly higher number of transcripts had suppressed expression (1493 down- vs. 1303 up-regulated). Since transcripts, annotated to different photosynthesis-related processes, were mostly down-regulated, we selected a set of 10 genes involved in the leaf starch metabolism pathway, and validated microarray patterns using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Except for decreased synthesis and induced decomposition of starch granule in leaves, 8 h long EO exposure slightly elevated the accumulation of sucrose compared to glucose and fructose in subjected potato plants. An in vitro feeding bioassay with Colorado potato beetle showed that EO-induced alternations on transcriptional level and in the sugars’ metabolism caused the enhancement of feeding behavior and overall development of the tested larvae. Results of comprehensive analysis of transcriptional responses in potato exposed to French Marigold EO provide a basis for further elucidation of molecular mechanisms underlying eco-physiological interactions in companion planting cropping systems.

Amazonian biogenic volatile organic compounds under global change

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) play important roles at cellular, foliar, ecosystem and atmospheric levels. The Amazonian rainforest represents one of the major global sources of BVOCs, so its study is essential for understanding BVOC dynamics. It also provides insights into the role of such large and biodiverse forest ecosystem in regional and global atmospheric chemistry and climate. We review the current information on Amazonian BVOCs and identify future research priorities exploring biogenic emissions and drivers, ecological interactions, atmospheric impacts, depositional processes and modifications to BVOC dynamics due to changes in climate and land cover. A feedback loop between Amazonian BVOCs and the trends of climate and land-use changes in Amazonia is then constructed. Satellite observations and model simulation time series demonstrate the validity of the proposed loop showing a combined effect of climate change and deforestation on BVOC emission in Amazonia. A decreasing trend of isoprene during the wet season, most likely due to forest biomass loss, and an increasing trend of the sesquiterpene to isoprene ratio during the dry season suggest increasing temperature stress-induced emissions due to climate change.

Deposition of α-pinene oxidation products on plant surfaces affects plant VOC emission and herbivore feeding and oviposition

White cabbage, Brassica oleracea, plants and artificial leaves covered with B. oleracea epicuticular wax were exposed to α-pinene and α-pinene oxidation products formed through the oxidation of α-pinene by ozone (O₃) and hydroxyl (OH) radicals. O₃ and OH-induced oxidation of α-pinene led to the formation of oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) and secondary organic aerosol particles (SOA), referred to together as oxidation products (OP). Exposure of cabbage plants to O₃ and OH-induced α-pinene OP led to the deposition and re-emission of gas-phase OP by exposed cabbage plants. In a series of 2-choice bioassays, the specialist cruciferous herbivore, Plutella xylostella adults deposited less eggs on artificial leaves exposed to α-pinene OP than on control plants exposed to clean filtered air. P. xylostella larvae did not show a specific feeding preference when offered leaves from different exposure treatments. However, the generalist Indian stick insect, Carausius morosus, fed more on control filtered air-exposed plants than on those exposed to α-pinene OP. Taken together, our results show that exposure to α-pinene oxidation products affects VOC emissions of B. oleracea and alters P. xylostella oviposition and C. morosus feeding responses.

Terpenoids are transported in the xylem sap of Norway spruce

Norway spruce is a conifer storing large amounts of terpenoids in resin ducts of various tissues. Parts of the terpenoids stored in needles can be emitted together with de novo synthesized terpenoids. Since previous studies provided hints on xylem transported terpenoids as a third emission source, we tested if terpenoids are transported in xylem sap of Norway spruce. We further aimed at understanding if they might contribute to terpenoid emission from needles. We determined terpenoid content and composition in xylem sap, needles, bark, wood and roots of field grown trees, as well as terpenoid emissions from needles. We found considerable amounts of terpenoids-mainly oxygenated compounds-in xylem sap. The terpenoid concentration in xylem sap was relatively low compared with the content in other tissues, where terpenoids are stored in resin ducts. Importantly, the terpenoid composition in the xylem sap greatly differed from the composition in wood, bark or roots, suggesting that an internal transport of terpenoids takes place at the sites of xylem loading. Four terpenoids were identified in xylem sap and emissions, but not within needle tissue, suggesting that these compounds are likely derived from xylem sap. Our work gives hints that plant internal transport of terpenoids exists within conifers; studies on their functions should be a focus of future research.

Residential greenness, air pollution and psychological well-being among urban residents in Guangzhou, China

China's rapid urbanization has led to an increasing level of exposure to air pollution and a decreasing level of exposure to vegetation among urban populations. Both trends may pose threats to psychological well-being. Previous studies on the interrelationships among greenness, air pollution and psychological well-being rely on exposure measures from remote sensing data, which may fail to accurately capture how people perceive vegetation on the ground. To address this research gap, this study aimed to explore relationships among neighbourhood greenness, air pollution exposure and psychological well-being, using survey data on 1029 adults residing in 35 neighbourhoods in Guangzhou, China. We used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and streetscape greenery (SVG) to assess greenery exposure at the neighbourhood level, and we distinguished between trees (SVG-tree) and grasses (SVG-grass) when generating streetscape greenery exposure metrics. We used two objective (PM_2.5 and NO₂ concentrations) measures and one subjective (perceived air pollution) measure to quantify air pollution exposure. We quantified psychological well-being using the World Health Organization Well-Being Index (WHO-5). Results from multilevel structural equation models (SEM) showed that, for parallel mediation models, while the association between SVG-grass and psychological well-being was completely mediated by perceived air pollution and NO₂, the relationship between SVG-tree and psychological well-being was completely mediated by ambient PM_2.5, NO₂ and perceived air pollution. None of three air pollution indicators mediated the association between psychological well-being and NDVI. For serial mediation models, measures of air pollution did not mediate the relationship between NDVI and psychological well-being. While the linkage between SVG-grass and psychological well-being scores was partially mediated by NO₂-perceived air pollution, SVG-tree was partially mediated by both ambient PM_2.5-perceived air pollution and NO₂-perceived air pollution. Our results suggest that street trees may be more related to lower air pollution levels and better mental health than grasses are.

Outburst of senescence-related VOC emissions from a bioenergy poplar plantation

Leaf senescence is a catabolic process that emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In densely planted monocultures these VOC emissions occur in outbursts that might be relevant for the local air quality since these VOCs are typically oxygenated. The VOC emissions of a high-density poplar (Populus) bioenergy plantation were monitored along with meteorological parameters, CO₂ and H₂O exchanges, canopy greenness, and leaf area index during the second half of the year 2015. The emissions of 25 VOCs peaked at the beginning of September, coinciding with the onset of senescence. Together these VOC emissions amounted to a total of 2.85 mmol m^-2, translated into 98.3 mg C m^-2. The emission peak was mainly composed of oxygenated VOCs as methanol, acetic acid, and lipoxygenase products that are all typical for catabolic processes. So, the senescence process of the poplar plantation was very well reflected in the peak of VOC emissions.

Sequestration of Exogenous Volatiles by Plant Cuticular Waxes as a Mechanism of Passive Associational Resistance: A Proof of Concept

Numerous plant-derived volatile organic compounds (VOCs) induce the expression of resistance-related genes and thereby cause an "associational resistance" in neighbouring plants. However, VOCs can also be sequestered by plant cuticular waxes. In case that they maintain their biological activity, such sequestered VOCs could generate a "passive" associational resistance that is independent of any gene expression in the receiver. As a proof of concept, we used major components of the cuticular wax layers of the tree, Parkinsonia praecox, and conidia of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, a fungal pathogen that has not been reported to infect P. praecox. Wax layers were re-constituted on glass slides and exposed to each of 20 pure VOCs for 1 d and then to ambient air for 1 d or 15 d. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses showed that all 20 VOCs were sequestered by the re-constituted wax layers. Exposure to 18 of the VOCs significantly inhibited the germination of C. lindemuthianum conidia on these wax layers after 1 day of exposure to ambient air. Four of the VOCs: 4Z-heptenol, farnesene, limonene, and 2E-decenal, inhibited germination rates to less than 25% of the controls. After 15 d, all VOCs were still detectable, although at strongly reduced concentrations, and no significant inhibition of conidial germination could be detected anymore. Exogenous VOCs can be sequestered by the components of plant cuticular waxes and maintain their biological activity, at least over a certain time span: an effect that could generate a transient "passive associational resistance" to pathogens.

Exogenous Isoprene Confers Physiological Benefits in a Negligible Isoprene Emitter (Acer monspessulanum L.) Under Water Deficit

Isoprene, the main volatile released by plants, is known to protect the photosynthetic apparatus in isoprene emitters submitted to oxidative pressures caused by environmental constraints. Whether ambient isoprene contributes to protect negligible plant emitters under abiotic stress conditions is less clear, and no study has tested if ambient isoprene is beneficial during drought periods in plant species that naturally release negligible isoprene emissions. This study examines the effect of exogenous isoprene (20 ppbv) on net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and production of H₂O₂ (a reactive oxygen species: ROS) in leaves of Acer monspessulanum (a negligible isoprene emitter) submitted to three watering treatments (optimal, moderate water stress and severe water stress). Results showed that A. monspessulanum exhibited a net photosynthesis increase (+30%) and a relative leaf H₂O₂ decrease when saplings were exposed to an enriched isoprene atmosphere compared to isoprene-free conditions under moderate water deficit. Such physiological improvement under isoprene exposure was not observed under optimal watering or severe water stress. These findings suggest that when negligible isoprene emitters are surrounded by a very high concentration of isoprene in the ambient air, some plant protection mechanism occurs under moderate water deficit probably related to protection against ROS damage eventually impeding photosynthesis drop.

Toward the improvement of total nitrogen deposition budgets in the United States

Frameworks for limiting ecosystem exposure to excess nutrients and acidity require accurate and complete deposition budgets of reactive nitrogen (Nr). While much progress has been made in developing total Nr deposition budgets for the U.S., current budgets remain limited by key data and knowledge gaps. Analysis of National Atmospheric Deposition Program Total Deposition (NADP/TDep) data illustrates several aspects of current Nr deposition that motivate additional research. Averaged across the continental U.S., dry deposition contributes slightly more (55%) to total deposition than wet deposition and is the dominant process (>90%) over broad areas of the Southwest and other arid regions of the West. Lack of dry deposition measurements imposes a reliance on models, resulting in a much higher degree of uncertainty relative to wet deposition which is routinely measured. As nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions continue to decline, reduced forms of inorganic nitrogen (NHx = NH3 + NH4+) now contribute >50% of total Nr deposition over large areas of the U.S. Expanded monitoring and additional process-level research are needed to better understand NHx deposition, its contribution to total Nr deposition budgets, and the processes by which reduced N deposits to ecosystems. Urban and suburban areas are hotspots where routine monitoring of oxidized and reduced Nr deposition is needed. Finally, deposition budgets have incomplete information about the speciation of atmospheric nitrogen; monitoring networks do not capture important forms of Nr such as organic nitrogen. Building on these themes, we detail the state of the science of Nr deposition budgets in the U.S. and highlight research priorities to improve deposition budgets in terms of monitoring and flux measurements, leaf- to regional-scale modeling, source apportionment, and characterization of deposition trends and patterns.

A novel approach for real-time monitoring of leaf wounding responses demonstrates unprecedently fast and high emissions of volatiles from cut leaves

Wounding is a key plant stress that results in a rapid, within seconds to a few minutes, release of ubiquitous stress volatiles and stored volatiles in species with storage structures. Understanding the timing and extent of wound-dependent volatile elicitation is needed to gain an insight into different emission controls, but real-time monitoring of plant emissions through wounding treatments has been hampered by the need to stop the measurements to perform the wounding, slow stabilization of gas flows upon chamber closure and smearing out the signal by large chambers and long sampling lines. We developed a novel leaf cutter that allows to rapidly perform highly precise leaf cuts within the leaf chamber. The cutter was fitted to the standard Walz GFS-3000 portable gas-exchange system leaf chamber and chamber exhaust air for analysis with a proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass-spectrometer (PTR-TOF-MS) was taken right at the leaf chamber outlet. Wounding experiments in four species of contrasting leaf structure demonstrated significant species differences in timing, extent and blend of emitted volatiles, and showed unprecedently high emission rates of several stress volatiles and stored monoterpenes. In light of the rapid rise of release of de novo synthesized and stored volatiles, the results of this study suggest that past studies have underestimated the rate of elicitation and maximum emission rates of wound-dependent volatiles.

Modeling the provision of air-quality regulation ecosystem service provided by urban green spaces using lichens as ecological indicators

The UN Sustainable Development Goals states that urban air pollution must be tackled to create more inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities. Urban green infrastructures can mitigate air pollution, but a crucial step to use this knowledge into urban management is to quantify how much air-quality regulation can green spaces provide and to understand how the provision of this ecosystem service is affected by other environmental factors. Considering the insufficient number of air quality monitoring stations in cities to monitor the wide range of natural and anthropic sources of pollution with high spatial resolution, ecological indicators of air quality are an alternative cost-effective tool. The aim of this work was to model the supply of air-quality regulation based on urban green spaces characteristics and other environmental factors. For that, we sampled lichen diversity in the centroids of 42 urban green spaces in Lisbon, Portugal. Species richness was the best biodiversity metric responding to air pollution, considering its simplicity and its significative response to the air pollutants concentration data measured in the existent air quality monitoring stations. Using that metric, we then created a model to estimate the supply of air quality regulation provided by green spaces in all green spaces of Lisbon based on the response to the following environmental drivers: the urban green spaces size and its vegetation density. We also used the unexplained variance of this model to map the background air pollution. Overall, we suggest that management should target the smallest urban green spaces by increasing green space size or tree density. The use of ecological indicators, very flexible in space, allow the understanding and the modeling of the provision of air-quality regulation by urban green spaces, and how urban green spaces can be managed to improve air quality and thus improve human well-being and cities resilience.

The effect of ozone fumigation on the biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) emitted from Brassica napus above- and below-ground

The emissions of BVOCs from oilseed rape (Brassica napus), both when the plant is exposed to clean air and when it is fumigated with ozone at environmentally-relevant mixing ratios (ca. 135 ppbv), were measured under controlled laboratory conditions. Emissions of BVOCs were recorded from combined leaf and root chambers using a recently developed Selective Reagent Ionisation-Time of Flight-Mass Spectrometer (SRI-ToF-MS) enabling BVOC detection with high time and mass resolution, together with the ability to identify certain molecular functionality. Emissions of BVOCs from below-ground were found to be dominated by sulfur compounds including methanethiol, dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl sulfide, and these emissions did not change following fumigation of the plant with ozone. Emissions from above-ground plant organs exposed to clean air were dominated by methanol, monoterpenes, 4-oxopentanal and methanethiol. Ozone fumigation of the plants caused a rapid decrease in monoterpene and sesquiterpene concentrations in the leaf chamber and increased concentrations of ca. 20 oxygenated species, almost doubling the total carbon lost by the plant leaves as volatiles. The drop in sesquiterpenes concentrations was attributed to ozonolysis occurring to a major extent on the leaf surface. The drop in monoterpene concentrations was attributed to gas phase reactions with OH radicals deriving from ozonolysis reactions. As plant-emitted terpenoids have been shown to play a role in plant-plant and plant-insect signalling, the rapid loss of these species in the air surrounding the plants during photochemical pollution episodes may have a significant impact on plant-plant and plant-insect communications.

Transpiration directly regulates the emissions of water-soluble short-chained OVOCs

Most plant-based emissions of volatile organic compounds are considered mainly temperature dependent. However, certain oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) have high water solubility; thus, also stomatal conductance could regulate their emissions from shoots. Due to their water solubility and sources in stem and roots, it has also been suggested that their emissions could be affected by transport in the xylem sap. Yet further understanding on the role of transport has been lacking until present. We used shoot-scale long-term dynamic flux data from Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris) to analyse the effects of transpiration and transport in xylem sap flow on emissions of 3 water-soluble OVOCs: methanol, acetone, and acetaldehyde. We found a direct effect of transpiration on the shoot emissions of the 3 OVOCs. The emissions were best explained by a regression model that combined linear transpiration and exponential temperature effects. In addition, a structural equation model indicated that stomatal conductance affects emissions mainly indirectly, by regulating transpiration. A part of the temperature's effect is also indirect. The tight coupling of shoot emissions to transpiration clearly evidences that these OVOCs are transported in the xylem sap from their sources in roots and stem to leaves and to ambient air.

Understorey Rhododendron tomentosum and Leaf Trichome Density Affect Mountain Birch VOC Emissions in the Subarctic

Subarctic vegetation is composed of mountain birch [Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii (MB)] forests with shrubs and other species growing in the understorey. The effects of the presence and density of one understorey shrub, Rhododendron tomentosum (RT), on the volatile emissions of MB, were investigated in a Finnish subarctic forest site in early and late growing season. Only MB trees with an RT-understorey emitted the RT-specific sesquiterpenoids, palustrol, ledol and aromadendrene. Myrcene, which is the most abundant RT-monoterpene was also emitted in higher quantities by MB trees with an RT-understorey. The effect of RT understorey density on the recovery of RT compounds from MB branches was evident only during the late season when sampling temperature, as well as RT emissions, were higher. MB sesquiterpene and total emission rates decreased from early season to late season, while monoterpene emission rate increased. Both RT and MB terpenoid emission rates were linked to density of foliar glandular trichomes, which deteriorated over the season on MB leaves and emerged with new leaves in the late season in RT. We show that sesquiterpene and monoterpene compounds emitted by understorey vegetation are adsorbed and re-released by MB, strongly affecting the MB volatile emission profile.

Ozone disrupts adsorption of Rhododendron tomentosum volatiles to neighbouring plant surfaces, but does not disturb herbivore repellency

The perennial evergreen woody shrub, Rhododendron tomentosum, confers associational resistance against herbivory and oviposition on neighbouring plants through passive adsorption of some of its constitutively emitted volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The adsorption process is dependent on transport of VOCs in the air. In polluted atmospheres, the VOCs may be degraded and adsorption impeded. We studied the effect of elevated ozone regimes on the adsorption of R. tomentosum volatiles to white cabbage, Brassica oleracea, and the oviposition of the specialist herbivore Plutella xylostella on the exposed plants. We found evidence for adsorption and re-emission of R. tomentosum volatiles by B. oleracea plants. Ozone changed the blend of R. tomentosum volatiles and reduced the amount of R. tomentosum volatiles recovered from B. oleracea plants. However, plants exposed to R. tomentosum volatiles received fewer P. xylostella eggs than control plants exposed to filtered air irrespective of whether R. tomentosum volatiles mixed with ozone. Ozone disrupts a volatile mediated passive plant-to-plant interaction by degrading some compounds and reducing the quantity available for adsorption by neighbouring plants. The change, however, did not affect the deterrence of oviposition by P. xylostella, suggesting that aromatic companion plants of Brassica crops may confer pest-deterring properties even in ozone-polluted environments.

Terpenoid Emissions of Two Mediterranean Woody Species in Response to Drought Stress

Drought is a major environmental constrain affecting plant performance and survival, particularly in Mediterranean ecosystems. Terpenoids may play a protective role under these conditions, however, observations of drought effects on plant terpenoid emissions are controversial ranging from decreased emissions to unaffected or increased release of terpenoids. In the present study we investigated terpenoid emissions of cork oak (Quercus suber) and gum rockrose (Cistus ladanifer) in response to summer drought stress in 2017. Pre-dawn leaf water potential (ΨPD) decreased from -0.64 to -1.72 MPa in Q. suber and from -1.69 to -4.05 MPa in C. ladanifer, indicating a transition from mild to severe drought along summer. Total terpenoid emissions decreased with drought, but differed significantly between species (p < 0.001) and in response to ΨPD, air temperature and assimilation rates. C. ladanifer emitted a large variety of >75 compounds comprising monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and even diterpenes, which strongly decreased from 1.37 ± 0.23 μg g-1h-1 to 0.40 ± 0.08 μg g-1h-1 (p < 0.001) in response to drought. Total emission rates were positively correlated to air temperature (p < 0.001). C. ladanifer behavior points toward terpenoid leaf storage depletion and reduced substrate availability for terpenoid synthesis with increasing drought, most likely accelerated by high air temperatures. Q. suber emitted mainly monoterpenes and emissions declined significantly from June (0.50 ± 0.08 μg g-1h-1) to August (0.29 ± 0.02 μg g-1h-1) (p < 0.01). Emission rates were weakly correlated with net assimilation rates (R2 = 0.19, p < 0.001), but did not respond strongly to ΨPD and air temperature. Early onset of drought in 2017 most likely reduced plant metabolism in Q. suber, resulting in diminished, but stable terpenoid fluxes. Calculation of standard emission factors (at 30°C) revealed contrasting emission patterns of decreasing, unaffected, or increasing fluxes of single terpenoid compounds. Unaffected or drought-enhanced emissions of compounds such as α-pinene, camphene or manoyl oxide may point toward a specific role of these terpenoids in abiotic stress adaptation. In conclusion, these results suggest a strong negative, but species- and compound-specific effect of severe drought on terpenoid fluxes in Mediterranean ecosystems.

Glandular trichomes as a barrier against atmospheric oxidative stress: Relationships with ozone uptake, leaf damage, and emission of LOX products across a diverse set of species

There is a spectacular variability in trichome types and densities and trichome metabolites across species, but the functional implications of this variability in protecting from atmospheric oxidative stresses remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible protective role of glandular and non-glandular trichomes against ozone stress. We investigated the interspecific variation in types and density of trichomes and how these traits were associated with elevated ozone impacts on visible leaf damage, net assimilation rate, stomatal conductance, chlorophyll fluorescence, and emissions of lipoxygenase pathway products in 24 species with widely varying trichome characteristics and taxonomy. Both peltate and capitate glandular trichomes played a critical role in reducing leaf ozone uptake, but no impact of non-glandular trichomes was observed. Across species, the visible ozone damage varied 10.1-fold, reduction in net assimilation rate 3.3-fold, and release of lipoxygenase compounds 14.4-fold, and species with lower glandular trichome density were more sensitive to ozone stress and more vulnerable to ozone damage compared to species with high glandular trichome density. These results demonstrate that leaf surface glandular trichomes constitute a major factor in reducing ozone toxicity and function as a chemical barrier that neutralizes the ozone before it enters the leaf.

Contribution of volatile organic compound fluxes to the ecosystem carbon budget of a poplar short-rotation plantation

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are major precursors of both ozone and secondary organic aerosols (SOA) in the troposphere and represent a non-negligible portion of the carbon fixed by primary producers, but long-term ecosystem-scale measurements of their exchanges with the atmosphere are lacking. In this study, the fluxes of 46 ions corresponding to 36 BVOCs were continuously monitored along with the exchanges of mass (carbon dioxide and water vapor) and energy (sensible and latent heat) for an entire year in a poplar (Populus) short-rotation crop (SRC), using the eddy covariance methodology. BVOC emissions mainly consisted of isoprene, acetic acid, and methanol. Total net BVOC emissions were 19.20 kg C ha^-1 yr^-1, which represented 0.63% of the net ecosystem exchange (NEE), resulting from -23.59 Mg C ha^-1 yr^-1 fixed as CO ₂ and 20.55 Mg C ha^-1 yr^-1 respired as CO ₂ from the ecosystem. Isoprene emissions represented 0.293% of NEE, being emitted at a ratio of 1 : 1709 mol isoprene per mol of CO ₂ fixed. Based on annual ecosystem-scale measurements, this study quantified for the first time that BVOC carbon emissions were lower than previously estimated in other studies (0.5-2% of NEE) on poplar trees. Furthermore, the seasonal and diurnal emission patterns of isoprene, methanol, and other BVOCs provided a better interpretation of the relationships with ecosystem CO ₂ and water vapor fluxes, with air temperature, vapor pressure deficit, and photosynthetic photon flux density.

Differential regulation of volatile emission from Eucalyptus globulus leaves upon single and combined ozone and wounding treatments through recovery and relationships with ozone uptake

Both ozone and wounding constitute two key abiotic stress factors, but their interactive effects on plant constitutive and stress-elicited volatile (VOC) emissions are poorly understood. Furthermore, the information on time-dependent modifications in VOC release during recovery from a combined stress is very limited. We studied the modifications in photosynthetic characteristics and constitutive and stress-induced volatile emissions in response to single and combined applications of acute ozone (4, 5, and 6 ppm) and wounding treatments through recovery (0.5-75 h) in a constitutive isoprene and mono- and sesquiterpene emitter Eucalyptus globulus. Overall, the photosynthetic characteristics were surprisingly resistant to all ozone and wounding treatments. Constitutive isoprene emissions were strongly upregulated by ozone and combined ozone and wounding treatments and remained high through recovery phase, but wounding applied alone reduced isoprene emission. All stress treatments enhanced emissions of lipoxygenase pathway volatiles (LOX), mono- and sesquiterpenes, saturated aldehydes (C7-C10), benzenoids, and geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP) pathway volatiles. Once elicited, GGDP volatile, saturated aldehyde and benzenoid emissions remained high through the recovery period. In contrast, LOX emissions, and total mono- and sesquiterpene emissions decreased through recovery period. However, secondary rises in total sesquiterpene emissions at 75 h and in total monoterpenes at 25-50 h were observed. Overall, acute ozone and wounding treatments synergistically altered gas exchange characteristics and stress volatile emissions. Through the treatments and recovery period, stomatal ozone uptake rate and volatile emission rates were poorly correlated, reflecting possible ozone-scavenging effect of volatiles and thus, reduction of effective ozone dose and elicitation of induced defense by the acute ozone concentrations applied. These results underscore the important role of interactive stresses on both constitutive and induced volatile emission responses.

Green spaces are not all the same for the provision of air purification and climate regulation services: The case of urban parks

The growing human population concentrated in urban areas lead to the increase of road traffic and artificial areas, consequently enhancing air pollution and urban heat island effects, among others. These environmental changes affect citizen's health, causing a high number of premature deaths, with considerable social and economic costs. Nature-based solutions are essential to ameliorate those impacts in urban areas. While the mere presence of urban green spaces is pointed as an overarching solution, the relative importance of specific vegetation structure, composition and management to improve the ecosystem services of air purification and climate regulation are overlooked. This avoids the establishment of optimized planning and management procedures for urban green spaces with high spatial resolution and detail. Our aim was to understand the relative contribution of vegetation structure, composition and management for the provision of ecosystem services of air purification and climate regulation in urban green spaces, in particular the case of urban parks. This work was done in a large urban park with different types of vegetation surrounded by urban areas. As indicators of microclimatic effects and of air pollution levels we selected different metrics: lichen diversity and pollutants accumulation in lichens. Among lichen diversity, functional traits related to nutrient and water requirements were used as surrogates of the capacity of vegetation to filter air pollution and to regulate climate, and provide air purification and climate regulation ecosystem services, respectively. This was also obtained with very high spatial resolution which allows detailed spatial planning for optimization of ecosystem services. We found that vegetation type characterized by a more complex structure (trees, shrubs and herbaceous layers) and by the absence of management (pruning, irrigation and fertilization) had a higher capacity to provide the ecosystems services of air purification and climate regulation. By contrast, lawns, which have a less complex structure and are highly managed, were associated to a lower capacity to provide these services. Tree plantations showed an intermediate effect between the other two types of vegetation. Thus, vegetation structure, composition and management are important to optimize green spaces capacity to purify air and regulate climate. Taking this into account green spaces can be managed at high spatial resolutions to optimize these ecosystem services in urban areas and contribute to improve human well-being.

Passive Adsorption of Volatile Monoterpene in Pest Control: Aided by Proximity and Disrupted by Ozone

Plant volatiles mediate a range of interactions across and within trophic levels, including plant-plant interactions. Volatiles emitted by a plant may trigger physiological responses in neighboring plants or adhere to their surfaces, which, in turn, may affect the responses of the neighboring plant to herbivory. These volatiles are subject to chemical reactions during transport in air currents, especially in a polluted atmosphere. We conducted a field experiment to test for the adsorption of dispenser-released myrcene on the surfaces of cabbage plants and the effects of distance from the dispenser and elevated ozone levels (1.4× ambient) on the process. We also tested the effects of the same treatments on oviposition on cabbage plants by naturally occurring Plutella xylostella. Under low ambient ozone conditions of central Finland, there was evidence for the adsorption and re-release of myrcene by cabbage plants growing at a distance of 50 cm from myrcene dispensers. This effect was absent at elevated ozone levels. The number of eggs deposited by P. xylostella was generally lower in plots under elevated ozone compared to ambient control plots. Our results indicate that passive adsorption and re-release of a volatile monoterpene can occur in nature; however, this process is dependent upon the distance between emitter source and receiver plants as well as the concentration of atmospheric pollutants in the air. We conclude that, in the development of field-scale use of plant volatiles in modern pest control, the effects of distances and air pollution should be considered.

Elevated carbon dioxide reduces emission of herbivore-induced volatiles in Zea mays

Terpene volatiles produced by sweet corn (Zea mays) upon infestation with pests such as beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua) function as part of an indirect defence mechanism by attracting parasitoid wasps; yet little is known about the impact of climate change on this form of plant defence. To investigate how a central component of climate change affects indirect defence, we measured herbivore-induced volatile emissions in plants grown under elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂ ). We found that S. exigua infested or elicitor-treated Z. mays grown at elevated CO₂ had decreased emission of its major sesquiterpene, (E)-β-caryophyllene and two homoterpenes, (3E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene and (3E,7E)-4,8,12-trimethyl-1,3,7,11-tridecatetraene. In contrast, inside the leaves, elicitor-induced (E)-β-caryophyllene hyper-accumulated at elevated CO₂ , while levels of homoterpenes were unaffected. Furthermore, gene expression analysis revealed that the induction of terpene synthase genes following treatment was lower in plants grown at elevated CO₂ . Our data indicate that elevated CO₂ leads both to a repression of volatile synthesis at the transcriptional level and to limitation of volatile release through effects of CO₂ on stomatal conductance. These findings suggest that elevated CO₂ may alter the ability of Z. mays to utilize volatile terpenes to mediate indirect defenses.

Emissions of carotenoid cleavage products upon heat shock and mechanical wounding from a foliose lichen

Carotenoids constitute a major target of chloroplastic photooxidative reactions, leading to the formation of several oxidized derivatives and cleavage products, some of which are volatile (VCCPs). Among them, β-cyclocitral (β-CC), at least, is a retrograde signaling molecule that modulates the activity of many key physiological processes. In the present work, we aimed to study whether β-CC and other VCCPs are released into the atmosphere from photosynthetic tissues. To overcome stomatal limitations, the foliose chlorolichen Lobaria pulmonaria was used as the model system, and the emissions of biogenic volatiles, induced by heat and wounding stresses, were monitored by proton-transfer reaction time-of-flight mass-spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS) and gas-chromatography (GC-MS). Prior to stress treatments, VCCPs were emitted constitutively, accounting for 1.3 % of the total volatile release, with β-CC being the most abundant VCCP. Heat and wounding stresses induced a burst of volatile release, including VCCPs, and a loss of carotenoids. Under heat stress, the production of β-CC correlated positively with temperature. However the enhancement of production of VCCPs was the lowest among all the groups of volatiles analyzed. Given that the rates of carotenoid loss were three orders of magnitude higher than the release rates of VCCPs and that these compounds only represent a minor fraction in the blend of volatiles, it seems unlikely that VCCPs might represent a global stress signal capable of diffusing through the atmosphere to different neighboring individuals.

Impact of summer drought on isoprenoid emissions and carbon sink of three Scots pine provenances

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) provenances cover broad ecological amplitudes. In a greenhouse study, we investigated the impact of drought stress and rewetting on gas exchange for three provenances (Italy: Emilia Romagna; Spain: Alto Ebro; Germany: East-German lowlands) of 2-year old Scots pine seedlings. CO₂, water vapour and isoprenoid exchange of stressed and control trees were quantified with a four-chamber dynamic-enclosure system in the controlled environment of a climate chamber. The three provenances showed distinct isoprenoid emission patterns and were classified into a non-Δ³-carene, with either high α-/β-pinene or β-myrcene fraction, and a Δ³-carene dominated type. Isoprenoid emission rates, net-photosynthesis and transpiration were reduced during summer drought stress and significantly recovered after rewetting. A seasonal increase of isoprenoid emission rates towards autumn was observed for all control groups. Compared with the German provenance, the Spanish and Italian provenances revealed higher isoprenoid emission rates and more plastic responses to drought stress and seasonal development, which points to a local adaptation to climate. As a result of drought, net carbon uptake and transpiration of trees was reduced, but recovered after rewetting. We conclude from our study that Scots pine isoprenoid emission is more variable than expected and sensitive to drought periods, likely impacting regional air chemistry. Thus, a provenance-specific emission assessment accounting for reduced emission during prolonged (summer) drought is recommend for setting up biogenic volatile organic compound emission inventories used in air quality models.