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Degens H, Venckunas T, Wüst RC. A modelling approach to disentangle the factors limiting muscle oxygenation in smokers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:457-466. [PMID: 37543954 PMCID: PMC10858155 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05289-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Cigarette smoking is associated with a lower exercise capacity and lower muscle fatigue resistance. This is at least partly attributable to carboxyhaemoglobin (HbCO) in the blood that via reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity, and the left-shift of the Hb-dissociation curve would reduce tissue oxygenation. On the other hand, a reduced oxygen uptake due to mitochondrial dysfunction would result in improved oxygenation. We used previously collected capillarisation, myoglobin and estimated cellular maximal muscle oxygen consumption data derived from succinate dehydrogenase-stained sections from the vastus lateralis muscle from six smokers and five non-smokers. These data were fed into an expanded Krogh tissue oxygenation model to assess whether an impaired muscle fatigue resistance in smokers is primarily due to HbCO or impaired mitochondrial respiration. The model showed that in smokers with 6% and 20% HbCO (causing a left-shift of the Hb-dissociation curve) average muscle oxygenation was reduced by 1.9% and 7.2%, respectively. Muscle oxygenation was increased by 13.3% when maximal mitochondrial respiration was reduced by 29%. A combination of a 29% reduction in maximal mitochondrial respiration and 20% HbCO led to no significant difference in muscle oxygenation from that in non-smokers. This indicates that while HbCO may explain the reduced exercise capacity after just one smoking session, in chronic smokers impaired mitochondrial respiration appears more important in reducing oxygen extraction and exercise capacity with only a small contribution of the left-shift of the Hb-dissociation curve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Degens
- Department of Life Sciences, Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK.
- Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.
| | - Tomas Venckunas
- Department of Life Sciences, Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Rob Cl Wüst
- Laboratory of Myology, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Irvine DS, Lee EY, Janssen I, Leatherdale ST. Gendered associations between e-cigarette use, cigarette smoking, physical activity, and sedentary behaviour in a sample of Canadian adolescents. DIALOGUES IN HEALTH 2022; 1:100029. [PMID: 38515886 PMCID: PMC10953981 DOI: 10.1016/j.dialog.2022.100029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Objectives To examine associations between e-cigarette use, cigarette smoking, physical activity, and sedentary behaviour among a large sample of Canadian adolescents (Grades 9-12) by sex. Methods Cross-sectional data from 55,629 students who participated in COMPASS Year 6 (2017-2018) were used. Exposures included e-cigarette use and cigarette smoking. Outcomes included meeting recommendations for moderate- to vigorous- physical activity (MVPA;≥60 min/d), muscular strengthening exercises (MSE;≥3 time/wk), and recreational screen time (ST;≤2 h/day) and participating in intramurals or competitive team sports. Logistic regressions were performed after adjusting for relevant covariates. Results Male adolescents showed higher prevalence of e-cigarette use (40.0% vs 31.3%) and cigarette smoking (4.4% vs 2.9%) than females. Both males and females who used e-cigarettes were more likely to meet MVPA and MSE recommendations, but less likely to meet the ST recommendation than those who did not use e-cigarettes. E-cigarette use was also consistently associated with more sport participation in males, however, among females the results were mixed. Current cigarette use was associated with meeting the MVPA recommendation and less participation in intramurals in males; however, in females, current cigarette smoking was consistently associated with less participation in any sports. Former cigarette use was associated with participation in competitive team sport within school and meeting the MSE recommendation in females only. Conclusions This study found that associations between e-cigarette use and cigarette smoking with physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sport participation are largely gendered. Identifying differential co-occurrence of risk behaviours by gender is important for future health promotion efforts targeting physical activity among adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan S. Irvine
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, 28 Division St, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Eun-Young Lee
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, 28 Division St, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada
- Department of Gender Studies, Queen's University, 28 Division St, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Ian Janssen
- School of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Queen's University, 28 Division St, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Queen's University, 28 Division St, Kingston, ON K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Scott T. Leatherdale
- School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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3
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Acute Effects of Nicotine on Physiological Responses and Sport Performance in Healthy Baseball Players. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19010515. [PMID: 35010774 PMCID: PMC8745004 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19010515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
There is interest in whether nicotine could enhance attention in sporting performance, but evidence on the acute effect of nicotine on physical response and sports performance in baseball players remains scant. This was an observational study to examine whether nicotine gum chewed before exercise could provide acute effects on physiological responses and sport performance. Accordingly, heart rate variability (HRV), saliva cotinine concentration and α-amylase activity, cognitive function, muscle strength, and baseball-hitting performance were measured. Thirteen healthy male non-smoker baseball players were recruited. Conducting two sequences with 7-day intervals, they chewed nicotine gum (nicotine group) or flavor-matched placebo gum (placebo group) for 30 min. HRV and saliva analyses were conducted before gum consumption (S1), after gum consumption (S2), and after test completion (S3). Cognitive, muscle strength, and baseball-hitting performance tests were performed after nicotine or placebo gum chewing. The outcomes of all assessed variables were compared within and between the groups. Significant changes in HRV, α-amylase, testosterone, and cortisol were observed in the nicotine group at S2 and S3 (p < 0.05). Compared with the placebo group, the nicotine group exhibited enhanced motor reaction times, grooved pegboard test (GPT) results on cognitive function, and baseball-hitting performance, and small effect sizes were noted (d = 0.47, 0.46 and 0.41, respectively). Nicotine could induce changes in endocrine and sympathetic nerve activity and enhance cognitive function and baseball-hitting performance. However, no increase in muscle strength was observed after nicotine intake.
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4
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Fourteen days of smoking cessation improves muscle fatigue resistance and reverses markers of systemic inflammation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12286. [PMID: 34112815 PMCID: PMC8192509 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91510-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cigarette smoking has a negative effect on respiratory and skeletal muscle function and is a risk factor for various chronic diseases. To assess the effects of 14 days of smoking cessation on respiratory and skeletal muscle function, markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in humans. Spirometry, skeletal muscle function, circulating carboxyhaemoglobin levels, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), markers of oxidative stress and serum cytokines were measured in 38 non-smokers, and in 48 cigarette smokers at baseline and after 14 days of smoking cessation. Peak expiratory flow (p = 0.004) and forced expiratory volume in 1 s/forced vital capacity (p = 0.037) were lower in smokers compared to non-smokers but did not change significantly after smoking cessation. Smoking cessation increased skeletal muscle fatigue resistance (p < 0.001). Haemoglobin content, haematocrit, carboxyhaemoglobin, total AGEs, malondialdehyde, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-10 (p < 0.05) levels were higher, and total antioxidant status (TAS), IL-12p70 and eosinophil numbers were lower (p < 0.05) in smokers. IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-12p70 had returned towards levels seen in non-smokers after 14 days smoking cessation (p < 0.05), and IL-2 and TNF-α showed a similar pattern but had not yet fully returned to levels seen in non-smokers. Haemoglobin, haematocrit, eosinophil count, AGEs, MDA and TAS did not significantly change with smoking cessation. Two weeks of smoking cessation was accompanied with an improved muscle fatigue resistance and a reduction in low-grade systemic inflammation in smokers.
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5
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Hung BL, Chen LJ, Chen YY, Ou JB, Fang SH. Nicotine supplementation enhances simulated game performance of archery athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021; 18:16. [PMID: 33602279 PMCID: PMC7890628 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00413-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Nicotine is beneficial to mood, arousal and cognition in humans. Due to the importance of cognitive functioning for archery athletes, we investigated the effects of nicotine supplementation on the cognitive abilities, heart rate variability (HRV), and sport performance of professional archers. Methods Eleven college archers were recruited and given 2 mg of nicotine supplementation (NIC group) and placebo (PLA group) in a crossover design. Results The results showed that at 30 min after the intake of nicotine gum, the “correct rejection” time in the NIC group was significantly lower than that of the PLA group (7.29 ± 0.87 vs. 8.23 ± 0.98 msec, p < 0.05). In addition, the NIC group completed the grooved pegboard test in a shorter time than the PLA group (48.76 ± 3.18 vs. 53.41 ± 4.05 s, p < 0.05), whereas motor reaction times were not different between the two groups. Saliva α-amylase activity was significantly lower after nicotine supplementation (p < 0.01) but increased immediately after the archery test in the NIC group (p < 0.05). In addition, nicotine supplementation significantly decreased HRV and increased the archery score (290.58 ± 10.09 vs. 298.05 ± 8.56, p < 0.01). Conclusions Nicotine enhances the performance of archery athletes by increasing cognitive function and stimulating the sympathetic adrenergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Lien Hung
- Department of Sports Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
| | - Li-Jung Chen
- Department of Exercise Health Science, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, 40404, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ying Chen
- Institute of Athletics, National Taiwan University of Sport, No. 16, Section 1, Shuang-Shih Road, Taichung, 40404, Taiwan
| | - Jhih-Bang Ou
- Institute of Athletics, National Taiwan University of Sport, No. 16, Section 1, Shuang-Shih Road, Taichung, 40404, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Hua Fang
- Institute of Athletics, National Taiwan University of Sport, No. 16, Section 1, Shuang-Shih Road, Taichung, 40404, Taiwan.
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6
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Kasper AM, Close GL. Practitioner observations of oral nicotine use in elite sport: You snus you lose. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 21:1693-1698. [PMID: 33263462 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1859621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The elite sport environment is one where athletes strive to find a competitive edge, through improved recovery modalities, cognitive performance or physical capacity. Due to this, non-scientifically evidenced and/or pseudo-scientific alternative remedies are ever popular. Snus (an oral tobacco based product containing the highly addictive compound nicotine) is one alternative 'physical and psychological performance enhancer', purported to act as a 'mental and physical booster', 'relaxative' and even as an 'appetite suppressor'. Despite snus having serious adverse health effects, along with no proven benefit to physical or mental performance, observations by the authors working in professional sport, along with several reports in the mainstream media, would suggest that the use of snus in elite sport appears to be increasing. Perhaps most worrying, the use of snus has been reported to be prevalent within younger athletes. It is crucial that athletes are fully educated with regards to the health implications of snus and other oral tobacco-based products, whilst practitioners should be aware of its growing prevalence in sport with strategies in place to discourage its use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas M Kasper
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Graeme L Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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7
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Chen YM, Huang CC, Sung HC, Lee MC, Hsiao CY. Electronic cigarette exposure reduces exercise performance and changes the biochemical profile of female mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2019; 83:2318-2326. [PMID: 31392935 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2019.1651627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Electronic cigarette(s) (EC) becoming a preferred replacement for nicotine delivery among many smokers in recent years. However, the effect of EC on human health is inconclusive due to a lack of empirical research investigating EC-induced health hazard or benefit. In this study, we examine the effect of vapor produced by EC on exercise performance and health-related profiles in a mouse model. Female ICR mice were divided into five groups (n = 6 per group) and exposed for 14 days. Our results indicate that EC exposure leads to dose-dependent decrease in the grip strength and swimming time of the mice. The EC-treated groups also showed a dose-dependent decrease in liver and muscle glycogen storage. In addition, EC treatment had no negative effect on levels of biochemical indices. We also did not detect any adverse effect or gross abnormalities on the morphology of the major organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ming Chen
- Health Technology College, Jilin Sport University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chi-Chang Huang
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Ching Sung
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Aesthetic Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Mon-Chien Lee
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Yu Hsiao
- Aesthetic Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology and Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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8
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Muller PDT, Barbosa GW, O'Donnell DE, Neder JA. Cardiopulmonary and Muscular Interactions: Potential Implications for Exercise (In)tolerance in Symptomatic Smokers Without Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Front Physiol 2019; 10:859. [PMID: 31354517 PMCID: PMC6635481 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoking and physical inactivity are important preventable causes of disability and early death worldwide. Reduced exercise tolerance has been described in smokers, even in those who do not fulfill the extant physiological criteria for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and are not particularly sedentary. In this context, it is widely accepted that exercise capacity depends on complex cardio-pulmonary interactions which support oxygen (O2) delivery to muscle mitochondria. Although peripheral muscular factors, O2 transport disturbances (including the effects of increased carboxyhemoglobin) and autonomic nervous system unbalance have been emphasized, other derangements have been more recently described, including early microscopic emphysema, pulmonary microvascular disease, ventilatory and gas exchange inefficiency, and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. Using an integrative physiological approach, the present review summarizes the recent advances in knowledge on the effects of smoking on the lung-heart-muscle axis under the stress of exercise. Special attention is given to the mechanisms connecting physiological abnormalities such as early cardio-pulmonary derangements, inadequate oxygen delivery and utilization, and generalized bioenergetic disturbances at the muscular level with the negative sensations (sense of heightened muscle effort and breathlessness) that may decrease the tolerance of smokers to physical exercise. A deeper understanding of the systemic effects of smoking in subjects who did not (yet) show evidences of COPD and ischemic heart disease - two devastating smoking related diseases - might prove instrumental to fight their ever-growing burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo de Tarso Muller
- Laboratory of Respiratory Pathophysiology, Respiratory Division, Department of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Brazil
| | - Gisele Walter Barbosa
- Laboratory of Respiratory Pathophysiology, Respiratory Division, Department of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Brazil
| | - Denis E O'Donnell
- Laboratory of Clinical Exercise Physiology, Respiratory Investigation Unit, Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - J Alberto Neder
- Laboratory of Clinical Exercise Physiology, Respiratory Investigation Unit, Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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9
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Nakagata T, Fukao K, Kobayashi H, Katamoto S, Naito H. The Effects of Transdermal Nicotine Patches on the Cardiorespiratory and Lactate Responses During Exercise from Light to Moderate Intensity: Implications for Exercise Prescription during Smoking Cessation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 55:medicina55070348. [PMID: 31284668 PMCID: PMC6680975 DOI: 10.3390/medicina55070348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background and objectives: Exercise can help ease withdrawal symptoms of smokers. However, there is little information about the physiological responses, such as cardiorespiratory and lactate (La) responses, during exercise from light to moderate intensity combined with transdermal nicotine patches (TNPs) in smokers. This study aimed to investigate the effect of TNPs on the cardiorespiratory and La responses during exercise at light to moderate intensity. Materials and Methods: Fourteen young men (8 non-smokers, 6 current smokers) aged 20 to 26 years participated in this study. They performed an incremental graded submaximal exercise test using an electromagnetic cycle ergometer set from 30 to 210 W with (TNP condition) or without a TNP (control condition) in a random order. The TNP was applied to the left arm 8–10 h prior to starting the exercise to achieve the peak level of blood nicotine concentration. Heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), oxygen consumption (VO2), ventilation (VE), and blood La at rest and during exercise were measured and analyzed. Results: The HR at rest was significantly higher in the TNP condition than in the control condition (TNP; 74.7 ± 13.8 bpm, control; 65.3 ± 10.8 bpm, p < 0.001). There was no interaction (condition × exercise intensity) between any of the variables, and VO2, VE, RPE, and La during exercise were not significantly different between the conditions. However, HR during exercise was 6.7 bpm higher on average in the TNP condition. Conclusions: The HR during exercise was greater at light to moderate intensity with a TNP. Our study results will guide clinicians or health professionals when prescribing exercise programs combined with TNPs for healthy young smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Nakagata
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Hiraka-gakuendai 1-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan.
- National Institute of Health and Nutrition, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8636, Japan.
| | - Kosuke Fukao
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Hiraka-gakuendai 1-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kobayashi
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Hiraka-gakuendai 1-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan
- Mito Medical Center, Tsukuba University Hospital, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 310-0015, Japan
| | - Shizuo Katamoto
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Hiraka-gakuendai 1-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan
| | - Hisashi Naito
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Hiraka-gakuendai 1-1, Inzai, Chiba 270-1695, Japan
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10
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Mündel T, Houltham SD, Barnes MJ, Stannard SR. Nicotine Supplementation Does Not Influence Performance of a 1h Cycling Time-Trial in Trained Males. Front Physiol 2019; 10:292. [PMID: 30971941 PMCID: PMC6444171 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of nicotine amongst professional and elite athletes is high, with anecdotal evidence indicating increased prevalence amongst cycling sports. However, previous investigations into its effects on performance have not used high-validity or -reliability protocols nor trained cyclists. Therefore, the present study determined whether nicotine administration proved ergogenic during a ∼1 h self-paced cycling time-trial (TT). Ten well-trained male cyclists (34 ± 9 years; 71 ± 8 kg; O2max: 71 ± 6 ml ⋅ kg−1 ⋅ min−1) completed three work-dependent TT following ∼30 min administration of 2 mg nicotine gum (GUM), ∼10 h administration of 7 mg ⋅ 24 h−1 nicotine patch (PAT) or color- and flavor-matched placebos (PLA) in a randomized, crossover, and double blind design. Measures of nicotine’s primary metabolite (cotinine), core body temperature, heart rate, blood biochemistry (pH, HCO3−, La−) and Borg’s rating of perceived exertion (RPE) accompanied performance measures of time and power output. Plasma concentrations of cotinine were highest for PAT, followed by GUM, then PLA, respectively (p < 0.01). GUM and PAT resulted in no significant improvement in performance time compared to PLA (62.9 ± 4.1 min, 62.6 ± 4.5 min, and 63.3 ± 4.1 min, respectively; p = 0.73), with mean power outputs of 264 ± 31, 265 ± 32, and 263 ± 33 W, respectively (p = 0.74). Core body temperature was similar between trials (p = 0.33) whilst HR averaged 170 ± 10, 170 ± 11, and 171 ± 11 beats ⋅ min−1 (p = 0.60) for GUM, PAT, and PLA, respectively. There were no differences between trials for any blood biochemistry (all p > 0.46) or RPE with mean values of 16.7 ± 0.9, 16.8 ± 0.7, and 16.8 ± 0.8 (p = 0.89) for GUM, PAT, and PLA, respectively. In conclusion: (i) nicotine administration, whether via gum or transdermal patch, did not exert an ergogenic or ergolytic effect on self-paced cycling performance of ∼1 h; (ii) systemic delivery of nicotine was greatest when using a transdermal patch; and (iii) nicotine administration did not alter any of the psycho-physiological measures observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Mündel
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Stuart D Houltham
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J Barnes
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Stephen R Stannard
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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11
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Zandonai T, Tam E, Bruseghini P, Capelli C, Baraldo M, Chiamulera C. Exercise performance increase in smokeless tobacco-user athletes after overnight nicotine abstinence. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2018; 29:430-439. [PMID: 30387193 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The use of nicotine administered through smokeless tobacco (snus) has increased among athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the ergogenic effects of snus on aerobic performance during exercise until exhaustion in athletes after abstinence or satiety nicotine conditions. The study utilized a randomized, controlled, within-subject design experiment. Sixteen male snus-user athletes completed an exercise until exhaustion at a constant load of their 80% of V ˙ O 2 max (calculated by a maximal incremental test) in two separate sessions, corresponding to nicotine conditions: 12-hour overnight abstinence and satiety. A portion of 1 g of snus (~8 mg/g of nicotine) was administered 25 minutes before each experimental test. In each session, time to exhaustion (TTE), global rating of perceived exertion, cardiovascular and metabolic responses, and muscle and cerebral oxygenation were measured. Nicotine and cotinine analysis confirmed session conditions (abstinence or satiety). Snus induced a significant increase (+13.1%) of TTE following abstinence (24.1 ± 10.7 minutes) compared to satiety condition (20.9 ± 8.0 minutes; P = 0.0131). The baseline values revealed that abstinence of snus induced significant increase in the oxygenation of the muscular tissues (+4%), in metabolic values and in cardiovascular parameters, when compared to satiety condition. Our results indicate an increase of exercise performance (+13.1% TTE) due to snus administration in an abstinence condition. Considering that twelve hours of abstinence from snus-contained nicotine affected metabolic, cardiovascular and muscular tissue oxygenation, we suggest that snus administration at test time might relieve these withdrawal changes and yield an increase in time to exhaustion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Zandonai
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research Center, Department of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Neuropsychopharmacology Lab., Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona, Italy
| | - Enrico Tam
- School of Exercise and Sport Science, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Paolo Bruseghini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Carlo Capelli
- Department of Physical Performances, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Massimo Baraldo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medical Sciences, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Cristiano Chiamulera
- Neuropsychopharmacology Lab., Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona, Italy
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12
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Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations. Sports Med 2018; 47:2497-2506. [PMID: 28791650 PMCID: PMC5684328 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0764-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine use amongst athletes is high and increasing, especially in team sports. This narrative review examines the rationale behind its use and evidence of its effect on physical performance, and considers important factors that should determine future research efforts. To date, ten studies have assessed muscular strength and power, sub- or maximal endurance and high-intensity exercise when nicotine (medication) or smokeless tobacco was used as an intervention. Two studies observed an ergogenic effect, one an ergolytic with the remaining seven reporting no change. These studies have notable limitations and confounding factors that include participant tolerance to nicotine, interindividual responses, the nicotine delivery system used and failure to adhere to rigorous experimental/scientific design. Further research is encouraged to address these limitations and determine the extent to which anti-doping and governing bodies should consider promoting, coordinating and monitoring any effort against nicotine and nicotine-containing substances in sports.
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13
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Zandonai T, Tam E, Bruseghini P, Pizzolato F, Franceschi L, Baraldo M, Capelli C, Cesari P, Chiamulera C. The effects of oral smokeless tobacco administration on endurance performance. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:465-472. [PMID: 30450256 PMCID: PMC6226421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2016.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Smokeless tobacco is widely used by athletes to enhance performance. Nicotine is a central nervous system stimulant and acts on cardiocirculatory and metabolic systems, involving tissue blood flow and circulatory vasoreactivity. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the oral smokeless tobacco (Swedish snus (SS)) on the perception of fatigue and time to exhaustion (TTE) during moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. METHODS Fourteen healthy non-tobacco male users were recruited for a double-blind, controlled crossover design (SS vs. snus placebo (SP)). Subjects were tested for 3 sessions: experimental session 1 (Exp1) consisted of an incremental test to determine the maximal aerobic power output (Wmax), whereas Exp2 and Exp3 consisted of exercising at 65%Wmax until exhaustion in SS or SP conditions. During Exp2 and Exp3, muscle and cerebral oxygenation was assessed by means of near-infrared spectroscopy, and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded. RESULTS Comparing SS with SP tests, significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in the values of cerebral (~3%) and muscular tissues oxygenation (~4%) in the first 30 min of exercise. The RPE values were not significantly different between the 2 conditions (SS vs. SP). No significant difference was found in TTE (SS: 54.25 ± 21.84 min; SP: 50.01 ± 17.03 min). CONCLUSION This study showed that muscular and cerebral oxygenation increased significantly with snus administration during an endurance exercise until exhaustion, but this did not affect fatigue perception and TTE. The results showed that snus could not be considered an ergogenic substance in non-tobacco users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Zandonai
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona 37134, Italy
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center CIMCYC, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada 18071, Spain
| | - Enrico Tam
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona, Verona 37131, Italy
| | - Paolo Bruseghini
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona, Verona 37131, Italy
| | - Fabio Pizzolato
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona, Verona 37131, Italy
| | - Loretta Franceschi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medical Sciences, University of Udine, Udine 33100, Italy
| | - Massimo Baraldo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medical Sciences, University of Udine, Udine 33100, Italy
| | - Carlo Capelli
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona, Verona 37131, Italy
- Department of Physical Performances, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo N-0806, Norway
| | - Paola Cesari
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, School of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Verona, Verona 37131, Italy
| | - Cristiano Chiamulera
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona 37134, Italy
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Mündel T, Olfert IM. Nicotine and exercise performance: another tool in the arsenal or curse for anti-doping? Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:679-680. [PMID: 29484483 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3830-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Toby Mündel
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - I Mark Olfert
- Division of Exercise Physiology, Toxicology Working Group, Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, West Virginia University School of Medicine, One Medical Center Dr, PO Box 9227, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA.
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15
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Johnston R, Crowe M, Doma K. Effect of nicotine on repeated bouts of anaerobic exercise in nicotine naïve individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:681-689. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3819-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Björkman F, Edin F, Mattsson CM, Larsen F, Ekblom B. Regular moist snuff dipping does not affect endurance exercise performance. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181228. [PMID: 28704507 PMCID: PMC5509427 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological and medical effects of snuff have previously been obtained either in cross-sectional studies or after snuff administration to non-tobacco users. The effects of snuff cessation after several years of daily use are unknown. 24 participants with >2 years of daily snuff-use were tested before and after >6 weeks snuff cessation (SCG). A control group (CO) of 11 snuff users kept their normal habits. Resting heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) were significantly lower in SCG after snuff cessation, and body mass was increased by 1.4 ± 1.7 kg. Total cholesterol increased from 4.12 ± 0.54 (95% CI 3.89–4.35) to 4.46 ± 0.70 (95% CI 4.16–4.75) mM L–1 in SCG, due to increased LDL, and this change was significantly different from CO. Resting values of HDL, C-reactive protein, and free fatty acids (FFA) remained unchanged in both groups. In SCG group, both HR and BP were reduced during a four-stage incremental cycling test (from 50 to 80% of VO2max) and a prolonged cycling test (60 min at 50% of VO2max). Oxygen uptake (VO2), respiratory exchange ratio, blood lactate (bLa) and blood glucose (bGlu) concentration, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were unchanged. In CO group, all measurements were unchanged. During the prolonged cycling test, FFA was reduced, but with no significant difference between groups. During the maximal treadmill running test peak values of VO2, pulmonary ventilation (VE), time to exhaustion and bLa were unchanged in both groups. In conclusion, endurance exercise performance (VO2max and maximal endurance time) does not seem to be affected by prolonged snuff use, while effects on cardiovascular risk factors are contradictory. HR and BP during rest and submaximal exercise are reduced after cessation of regular use of snuff. Evidently, the long-time adrenergic stress on circulation is reversible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frida Björkman
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Edin
- Department of Food and Nutrition, and Sport Science, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - C Mikael Mattsson
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Filip Larsen
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Björn Ekblom
- Åstrand Laboratory of Work Physiology, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Johnston R, Doma K, Crowe M. Nicotine effects on exercise performance and physiological responses in nicotine-naïve individuals: a systematic review. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2017; 38:527-538. [PMID: 28574230 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate the effects of smokeless forms of nicotine on physiological responses and exercise performance. Methodology and reporting were based on the PRISMA statement. The intervention was defined as any product containing nicotine that did not require smoking. Searches were conducted across two electronic databases with supplementary approaches utilized. Studies were selected following set inclusion and exclusion criteria and checked by two independent authors. A modified PEDro scale was utilized to rate study quality with studies averaging 9·3/13. Six studies assessed exercise performance with endurance-based parameters reported as significantly improved with nicotine in one study, while anaerobic parameters were unaffected or decreased compared to placebo except in one study which reported enhanced leg extensor torque but no effect on countermovement jump or Wingate anaerobic capacity. Sixteen of 28 studies investigating physiological responses reported that nicotine significantly increased heart rate compared to placebo or control. Blood pressure and blood flow were also reported as significantly increased in multiple studies. While there is strong evidence of nicotine-induced changes in physiological function that would benefit physical performance, beneficial effects have only been reported on leg extensor torque and endurance performance by one study each. Subsequently, there is need for more research with strong methodological quality to definitively evaluate nicotine's potential as an ergogenic aid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Johnston
- College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kenji Doma
- Sport & Exercise Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Melissa Crowe
- College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
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Mündel T, Machal M, Cochrane DJ, Barnes MJ. A Randomised, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Study Investigating the Effects of Nicotine Gum on Strength, Power and Anaerobic Performance in Nicotine-Naïve, Active Males. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2017; 3:5. [PMID: 28092056 PMCID: PMC5236038 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-016-0074-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Nicotine use amongst athletes is high and increasing, especially team sports, yet the limited previous studies investigating the performance consequences of this behaviour have not examined the effects of the principal active ingredient, nicotine, per se. Therefore, we determined whether nicotine gum affected muscular and anaerobic performance. Methods Nine active males (24 ± 3 years) completed three trials in a random order in which 20 min prior to testing they chewed 2 mg (NIC-2), 4 mg (NIC-4) nicotine or flavour-matched placebo (PLA) gum. Peak and average peak isometric, concentric and eccentric leg extensor torque was measured followed by vertical counter-movement jump height and a 30-s Wingate test. Heart rate was measured whilst capillary blood samples determined pH, HCO3− and venous blood confirmed the presence of nicotine. Results Nicotine was confirmed by the presence of its major metabolite, cotinine and participants reported no side effects with nicotine. Peak and average peak isometric and eccentric torque was significantly affected (NIC-2 > PLA; p < 0.05) whilst peak (NIC-2 > PLA; p < 0.05) but not average peak (p > 0.05) concentric torque was different between trials. Counter-movement jump height was similar across trials (p > 0.05). Anaerobic capacity during the Wingate remained similar across trials (p > 0.05); however, pacing strategy (peak power and rate of fatigue) was different during NIC-2 than PLA. pH was affected by nicotine (NIC-2 > PLA; p < 0.05) and was reduced following the Wingate in all trials. HCO3− showed similar responses across trials (p > 0.05) although it was also reduced following the Wingate (p < 0.05), whilst heart rate was significantly affected (NIC-2/NIC-4 > PLA; p < 0.05). Conclusions Chewing low-dose (2 mg) nicotine gum 20 min prior to exercise significantly improved leg extensor torque but did not affect counter-movement jump height or Wingate performance compared to a placebo, whilst there were minimal effects of the 4 mg nicotine gum on the performance parameters measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Mündel
- School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Private bag 11 222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand.
| | - Marine Machal
- School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Private bag 11 222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Darryl J Cochrane
- School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Private bag 11 222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J Barnes
- School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Private bag 11 222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
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19
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Ketsuwan N, Leelarungrayub J, Kothan S, Singhatong S. Antioxidant compounds and activities of the stem, flower, and leaf extracts of the anti-smoking Thai medicinal plant: Vernonia cinerea Less. Drug Des Devel Ther 2017; 11:383-391. [PMID: 28243061 PMCID: PMC5317266 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s126882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vernonia cinerea (VC) Less has been proposed as a medicinal plant with interesting activities, such as an aid for smoking cessation worldwide. Despite its previous clinical success in smoking cessation by exhibiting reduced oxidative stress, it has not been approved. The aim of this study was to investigate various antioxidant activity and active compounds that have not been approved, including the protective activity in human red blood cells (RBCs), from the stem, flower, and leaf extracts of VC Less in vitro. These extracts were tested for their antioxidant activity in scavenging 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for their active compounds: total tannin, five catechin (C) compounds (epicatechin gallate [ECG], C, epicatechin [EC], epigallocatechin gallate [EGCG], and (-)-epigallocatechin [EGC]), flavonoid, nitrite, nitrate, caffeine, and nicotine. Moreover, antioxidant activities of the extracts were evaluated in 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH)-treated RBCs. The results showed that the flower and leaf of VC Less had higher activity than the stem in scavenging DPPH radicals. The tannin content in the flower and leaf was higher than that in the stem. The leaf had the highest content of the five catechins (C, EC, EGCG, ECG, and EGC), the same as in the flavonoid, when compared to the stem and flower. Furthermore, the leaf extract had higher nitrate and nitrite than the stem. Nicotine content was found to be higher in the leaf when compared to the flower. In addition, the leaf showed protective activity in glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein carbonyl, with a dose response in AAPH-oxidized RBCs, the same as in standard EGCG. Thus, this study concluded that radical scavenging and antioxidant compounds such as catechins, flavonoid, nitrate and nitrite, and nicotine are present in different VC Less parts and are included in the AAPH-oxidized RBC model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jirakrit Leelarungrayub
- Department of Physical Therapy
- Correspondence: Jirakrit Leelarungrayub, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Intawaroroj Road, Sripoom, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand, Tel +66 53 94 9272, Fax +66 53 94 6042, Email
| | | | - Supawatchara Singhatong
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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20
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Degens H, Gayan-Ramirez G, van Hees HWH. Smoking-induced Skeletal Muscle Dysfunction. From Evidence to Mechanisms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 191:620-5. [DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201410-1830pp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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21
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Morente-Sánchez J, Zandonai T, Mateo-March M, Sanabria D, Sánchez-Muñoz C, Chiamulera C, Zabala Díaz M. Acute effect of Snus on physical performance and perceived cognitive load on amateur footballers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:e423-31. [PMID: 25262592 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Smokeless tobacco (Snus) is a substance that contains nicotine, which has been placed on World Anti-Doping Agency's 2014 Monitoring Program. A proliferation of nicotine use in sport has been observed in recent years, but little is known regarding its effects, especially on football players' performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effect of Snus on physical performance, heart rate variability, subjective activation, mental fatigue, and perceived readiness before a physical test in non-smoker, non-Snus user, amateur football players. Participants were administered either Snus or placebo 40 min prior to a fitness test battery (handgrip test, countermovement jump, agility test, and Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test). Results showed that Snus intake (compared with placebo) increased perceived mental fatigue level and mental load, and reduced perceived readiness level and heart rate variability. No significant differences between the two experimental conditions were found in either performance in the physical tests or perceived physical fatigue levels. In light of these results, Snus could not be considered an ergogenic substance. On the contrary, based on the extant evidence linking mental load and fatigue with physical performance, we argue that the observed negative effects on mental fatigue, perceived readiness, and heart rate variability should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - T Zandonai
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - D Sanabria
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada, Granada, Spain.,Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - C Sánchez-Muñoz
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - C Chiamulera
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - M Zabala Díaz
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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22
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Mündel T, Carter JM, Wilkinson DM, Jones DA. A comparison of rectal, oesophageal and gastro-intestinal tract temperatures during moderate-intensity cycling in temperate and hot conditions. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2014; 36:11-6. [PMID: 25178454 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare three of the most commonly used methods of core temperature (Tcore) measurement during cycling under different environmental conditions as there are practical problems associated with each method and, sometimes, uncertainty as to which is the appropriate measure. Eight trained males (VO2 max: 60 ± 7 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) completed two 60-min cycling trials at ~70% VO2 max at 20°C (MOD) and 35°C (HOT). Measures of Tcore were made every 5 min with oesophageal (Toes) and rectal (Trec) thermistors and of the gastro-intestinal tract temperature (Tgi ) with a temperature-sensitive disposable radio pill. During MOD Toes initially plateaued after 10 min, Tgi after 25 min and Trec after 50 min, whereas during HOT these times had increased to 25 min for Toes and 55 min for both Tgi and Trec. Toes consistently provided lower readings than Trec (0·24-0·26°C) and Tgi (0·26-0·28°C) with Tgi and Trec similar (0·02°C). Readings for Tgi displayed closer agreement with Trec (ICC = 0·92) than Toes (ICC = 0·86) with less agreement between Trec and Toes (ICC = 0·84). 95% of all Tgi readings were within ±0·5°C of Trec and within ±0·6°C of Toes with 95% of all Toes readings being within ±0·7°C of Trec . These results demonstrate distinct response times, absolute values and agreement between Tcore measured at different body locations under different ambient conditions. Implications and considerations are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Mündel
- School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | - David M Wilkinson
- Sport Performance and Rehabilitation Unit, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - David A Jones
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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Gajewska M, Worth A, Urani C, Briesen H, Schramm KW. The acute effects of daily nicotine intake on heart rate--a toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic modelling study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 70:312-24. [PMID: 25066669 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Joint physiologically-based toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic (PBTK/TD) modelling was applied to simulate concentration-time profiles of nicotine, a well-known stimulant, in the human body following single and repeated dosing. Both kinetic and dynamic models were first calibrated by using in vivo literature data for the Caucasian population. The models were then used to estimate the blood and liver concentrations of nicotine in terms of the Area Under Curve (AUC) and the peak concentration (Cmax) for selected exposure scenarios based on inhalation (cigarette smoking), oral intake (nicotine lozenges) and dermal absorption (nicotine patches). The model simulations indicated that whereas frequent cigarette smoking gives rise to high AUC and Cmax in blood, the use of nicotine-rich dermal patches leads to high AUC and Cmax in the liver. Venous blood concentrations were used to estimate one of the most common acute effects, mean heart rate, both at rest and during exercise. These estimations showed that cigarette smoking causes a high peak heart rate, whereas dermal absorption causes a high mean heart rate over 48h. This study illustrates the potential of using PBTK/TD modelling in the safety assessment of nicotine-containing products.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gajewska
- Systems Toxicology Unit and EURL ECVAM, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy; University of Milano Bicocca, Dep. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Piazza della Scienza 1, Milano, Italy; TUM, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan für Ernährung und Landnutzung, Department für Biowissenschaften, Weihenstephaner Steig 23, 85350 Freising, Germany.
| | - A Worth
- Systems Toxicology Unit and EURL ECVAM, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy
| | - C Urani
- University of Milano Bicocca, Dep. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Piazza della Scienza 1, Milano, Italy
| | - H Briesen
- TUM, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan für Ernährung und Landnutzung, Lehrstuhl für Systemverfahrenstechnik, Weihenstephaner Steig 23, 85350 Freising, Germany
| | - K-W Schramm
- TUM, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan für Ernährung und Landnutzung, Department für Biowissenschaften, Weihenstephaner Steig 23, 85350 Freising, Germany; Helmholtz Zentrum München - German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Molecular EXposomics (MEX), Ingolstädter Landstr.1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK. The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2013; 10:71. [PMID: 24330705 PMCID: PMC3878772 DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-10-71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are among the most prevalent and culturally accepted drugs in western society. For example, in Europe and North America up to 90% of the adult population drinks coffee daily and, although less prevalent, the other drugs are also used extensively by the population. Smoked tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption and marijuana (cannabis) smoking are addictive and exhibit adverse health effects. These drugs are not only common in the general population, but have also made their way into elite sports because of their purported performance-altering potential. Only one of the drugs (i.e., caffeine) has enough scientific evidence indicating an ergogenic effect. There is some preliminary evidence for nicotine as an ergogenic aid, but further study is required; cannabis and alcohol can exhibit ergogenic potential under specific circumstances but are in general believed to be ergolytic for sports performance. These drugs are currently (THC, ethanol) or have been (caffeine) on the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency or are being monitored (nicotine) due to their potential ergogenic or ergolytic effects. The aim of this brief review is to evaluate the effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol and THC by: 1) examining evidence supporting the ergogenic or ergolytic effects; 2) providing an overview of the mechanism(s) of action and physiological effects; and 3) where appropriate, reviewing their impact as performance-altering aids used in recreational and elite sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik H Pesta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Sports Science, Medical Section, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Siddhartha S Angadi
- Healthy Lifestyles Research Center, School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Martin Burtscher
- Department of Sports Science, Medical Section, University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian K Roberts
- Exercise and Metabolic Disease Research Laboratory, Translational Sciences Section, School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Exercise, Heat Stress and the Interleukin-6 Response: Support for Temperature-Mediated Neuroendocrine Regulatory Mechanisms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.2478/v10036-010-0018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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26
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Mündel T, Jones DA. The effects of swilling an l(−)-menthol solution during exercise in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 109:59-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-009-1180-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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27
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Skeletal muscle properties and fatigue resistance in relation to smoking history. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 104:103-10. [PMID: 18560879 PMCID: PMC2480601 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-008-0792-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Although smoking-related diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are often accompanied by increased peripheral muscle fatigability, the extent to which this is a feature of the disease or a direct effect of smoking per se is not known. Skeletal muscle function was investigated in terms of maximal voluntary isometric torque, activation, contractile properties and fatigability, using electrically evoked contractions of the quadriceps muscle of 40 smokers [19 men and 21 women; mean (SD) cigarette pack years: 9.9 (10.7)] and age- and physical activity level matched non-smokers (22 men and 23 women). Maximal strength and isometric contractile speed did not differ significantly between smokers and non-smokers. Muscle fatigue (measured as torque decline during a series of repetitive contractions) was greater in smokers (P = 0.014), but did not correlate with cigarette pack years (r = 0.094, P = 0.615), cigarettes smoked per day (r = 10.092, P = 0.628), respiratory function (%FEV1pred) (r = −0.187, P = 0.416), or physical activity level (r = −0.029, P = 0.877). While muscle mass and contractile properties are similar in smokers and non-smokers, smokers do suffer from greater peripheral muscle fatigue. The observation that the cigarette smoking history did not correlate with fatigability suggests that the effect is either acute and/or reaches a ceiling, rather than being cumulative. An acute and reversible effect of smoking could be caused by carbon monoxide and/or other substances in smoke hampering oxygen delivery and mitochondrial function.
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Morse CI, Wüst RCI, Jones DA, de Haan A, Degens H. Muscle fatigue resistance during stimulated contractions is reduced in young male smokers. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2007; 191:123-9. [PMID: 17550408 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01721.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIM To determine whether muscle function is compromised in healthy smokers in comparison with activity-matched non-smokers. METHODS Nine male smokers (aged 22.2 +/- 2.5 years: mean +/- SD) with a smoking history of 2.5 +/- 3.1 pack years, and ten male control participants (25.4 +/- 2.9 years) matched for physical activity level participated in this study. Knee extensor strength was measured using isometric maximal voluntary contractions. Voluntary activation of the quadriceps and co-activation of the biceps femoris were determined using interpolated twitches and surface electromyography respectively. The frequency-torque relationship and fatigue resistance were assessed with electrically evoked contractions. A fatigue index was determined as the ratio of final torque to initial torque during a series of isometric contractions (2 min; 30 Hz; 1 s contraction/1 s rest). Quadriceps anatomical cross sectional area was measured with MRI at 50% of femur length. RESULTS Maximal voluntary contraction torque, quadriceps anatomical cross sectional area, knee extensor torque/quadriceps cross sectional area, activation, co-activation and force-frequency relationship were similar, whereas the fatigue index was 17% lower in smokers than non-smokers. CONCLUSION In young men smoking does not significantly affect quadriceps muscle mass and contractile properties, but does reduce fatigue resistance of the quadriceps muscle, which was not attributable to differences in physical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C I Morse
- Institute for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement (IRM), Manchester Metropolitan University, Cheshire, UK.
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