Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old

The longitudinal (in)stability and cognitive underpinnings of children's cheating behavior

There has been a long-standing debate about whether cheating is a stable behavior across various situations. However, there is a notable gap in our understanding about whether children's cheating behavior could exhibit stability over time. Moreover, research on the cognitive correlates of children's cheating is limited, yet exploring these cognitive factors is essential for understanding how children make (dis)honest decisions. This study aimed to test the longitudinal stability in children's cheating tendency and frequency and to explore the cognitive underpinnings of cheating behavior (theory of mind, inhibitory control, and free will belief). The study involved 100 children aged 3 to 6 years who were initially tested at Time 1, and 89 of these participants were retested at Time 2 approximately 1 year later. Cheating behavior was measured using a die-rolling game over Zoom, and three different cognitive abilities were measured. The results indicated that children's cheating tendency was stable over a year-long interval, whereas cheating frequency did not show longitudinal stability. Moreover, the study found that free will belief was related to cheating behavior, whereas theory of mind and inhibitory control were not. Specifically, children's belief in the free will to inhibit their desires, rather than their actual ability to inhibit the desires, was associated with a reduced frequency and likelihood of cheating. The findings can provide insight into the developmental origin of children's decisions to refrain from cheating.

Outdoor physical activity is more beneficial than indoor physical activity for cognition in young people

BACKGROUND

Substantial evidence demonstrates the beneficial acute effect of physical activity and the outdoor environment independently on cognitive function. However, evidence for their potential synergistic effects remain unknown.

METHODS

Following familiarisation, forty-five children (aged 11-13 years) took part in an identical physical activity session outdoors and indoors; and completed a battery of cognitive tests (Stroop test, Sternberg paradigm, and Flanker task) before, immediately post-, and 45 min post-physical activity.

RESULTS

Following outdoor, compared to indoor, physical activity response time was improved more immediately post-physical activity on the 3-item level of the Sternberg Paradigm (-34 ms vs +14 ms; P = 0.001), at 45 min post-physical activity on the complex level of the Stroop test (-94 ms vs -20 ms; P = 0.002), the 1-item (-9 ms vs +71 ms; P = 0.026) and 3-item level of the Sternberg paradigm (-37 ms vs +69 ms; P < 0.001), and the congruent level of the Flanker test (-44 ms vs -14 ms; P = 0.001). Accuracy was also improved more outdoors (compared to indoors) immediately post-physical activity (+2.0 % vs +0.4 %; P = 0.036) and 45 min post-physical activity (+2.0 % vs +0.1 %; P = 0.043) on the complex level of the Stroop test and on the incongruent level of the Flanker test (no change vs -3 %; P = 0.008).

DISCUSSION

This is the first study to demonstrate superior cognitive benefits of outdoor, compared to indoor, physical activity. The overarching finding of this investigation is that physical activity performed outdoors significantly improves cognitive function more than when performed indoors, suggesting a synergistic effect between physical activity and the outdoor environment.

Assessing Executive Functions: Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Yellow-Red Test in Bosnian Elementary School Students

Executive functions (EF) have been significantly correlated with many important participant characteristics, including education, behavior, and overall health. Assessing EF in children is particularly important, as doing so can help clinicians develop programs for EF remediation. However, there is a limited understanding of comprehensive performance-based EF assessment tools for children. Our goal in the present paper was to conduct a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) of the Yellow-Red test, a performance-based EF measure, in a Bosnian sample of early elementary school students. Specifically, our participants were 180 children aged 8-11 years (M age = 9.6 years, SD = 1), including 83 girls and 97 boys. The CFA showed that the data fit well with both a unidimensional model (global EF) and a two-dimensional EF model, comprised of (i) working memory and (ii) inhibition plus cognitive flexibility. A comparison of these two models showed that the two-factor model was a statistically better fit to this sample's performance than the unidimensional model. These results suggest that EF in this age group can be viewed as both a single construct and a multi-factor construct (with at least two-factors). The Yellow-Red Test, with its engaging and cross-cultural research base, is a useful instrument for detecting EF dysfunction, and it can provide valuable insights for informing tailored interventions.

Music and Rhythm as Promising Tools to Assess and Improve Cognitive Development in Children: A Scoping Review

AIM

Cost-effective methods are needed to monitor and support cognitive development in children at risk of deficits. The aim of this review was to explore the diagnostic and therapeutic use of music and rhythm for cognition in children, either typically developing or with acquired brain injuries.

METHOD

A systematic literature search was performed on 2 September 2024, using PubMed, Embase and PsycINFO. We included studies involving music and rhythm-based interventions aimed at assessing or improving cognitive functions in children with typical development or acquired brain injuries.

RESULTS

We included 27 studies: 26 on typically developing children and one on children with acquired brain injuries. The cognitive domains addressed included executive functioning (16 studies), attention (nine studies), intelligence and learning (seven studies), sensory processing (five studies), mathematical skills (three studies) and self-regulation (two studies). In total, 23 studies reported a positive effect of music and rhythm on at least one cognitive domain, most commonly executive functioning, attention and intelligence. For children with acquired brain injuries, one study reported improved attention.

CONCLUSION

Music and rhythm-based interventions show promise to assess and improve cognitive development in typically developing children. Further research is required to determine their value in children with acquired brain injuries.

The influence of Chinese martial arts teaching intervention based on embodied cognition theory on attention networks in 5-6-year-old children

To examine whether distinct Chinese Martial arts teaching approaches differentially enhance attention networks in preschoolers, this study enrolled 90 kindergarten children (5-6 years, M = 5.5 ± 0.2) randomly allocated to three groups: Martial arts sensory teaching (MAST) group, Martial arts traditional teaching (MATT) group, or a free activity(FA) group. Both Martial arts groups received 10-week interventions (2 sessions/week, 30 min/session), while the FA participated in scheduled outdoor free play without martial arts components. Alerting, orienting, and executive control networks were assessed pre- and post-intervention using the child version of the Attention Network Test (ANT). Baseline results showed no significant differences across groups in all three networks (p > 0.05). Post-intervention, MAST group exhibited significantly lower alerting scores than the FA (p = 0.02, d = 0.75), No significant differences were observed between MAST and MATT (p > 0.05, d = 0.58), or between MATT and FA (p > 0.05, d = 0.17). For executive control, the MAST group outperformed both the MATT group (p = 0.03, d = 0.95) and FA (p < 0.01, d = 1.32), while the MATT group also surpassed FA (p = 0.04, d = 0.57). No significant differences emerged in orienting across groups (p > 0.05). This study concludes that MAST significantly enhances the development of executive control and alerting networks in 5-6-year-old children, demonstrating superior efficacy compared to MATT. The findings suggest that dynamic task design and multi-sensory feedback mechanisms rooted in embodied cognition theory effectively promote the advancement of attention networks in preschool-aged children.

The impact of structured motor learning intervention on preschool children's executive functions

Executive functions are critical for the cognitive and behavioral development of preschool children and are essential for their overall development. However, existing research has predominantly focused on school-aged children, with limited experimental evidence exploring how structured motor learning activities influence executive functions in preschool children. This study aimed to compare the effects of structured motor learning activities and outdoor free play on the executive functions of preschool children specifically working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 80 preschool children aged 4-6, who were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 36) or a control group (n = 44). The intervention group participated in 30-minute structured motor learning sessions twice a week, over 12 weeks, while the control group engaged in same duration regular outdoor free play. Pre- and post-intervention executive functions were assessed using the EF-TOUCH. Multiple linear regression models were used to evaluate the effect of the intervention on executive functions. The intervention group demonstrated significant improvements (B = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.14-0.26) in working memory compared to the control group after controlling for pre-test score, age and gender. However, no significant effects were observed for inhibitory control (B=-0.07, 95% CI:-0.16-0.03) and cognitive flexibility (B=-0.03, 95% CI:-0.08-0.02). Structured motor learning intervention positively impacts preschool children's working memory but its effects on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility remain limited. Integrating structured motor learning with outdoor free play in preschool curricula may support the development of executive functions. Future studies should examine the impact of varying frequency, duration, and intensity of structured motor learning activities to develop more effective interventions for enhancing cognitive development in preschool children.

Executive Function in Young Children: Validation of the Preschool Executive Task Assessment

BACKGROUND

Executive function-the cognitive processes and abilities used to perform daily activities and solve real-world problems-is crucial for children's development. However, existing assessments often lack ecological validity, limiting their ability to reflect real-world cognitive performance. This study aims to validate the Preschool Executive Task Assessment (PETA) as a performance-based ecological measure of executive functions in typically developing Israeli children.

METHODS

Thirty-six typically developing children participated. Parents completed a demographic questionnaire and the Child Evaluation Checklist, while children undertook two Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised 95 subtests. Eligible participants completed three performance-based assessments: PETA, the Children's Kitchen Task Assessment (CKTA), and the Do-Eat. Inter-rater reliability was examined using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and concurrent validity was assessed via correlations with the CKTA and Do-Eat scores. The Benjamini-Hochberg correction method was used to control false-positive findings.

RESULTS

Age showed weak-to-moderate correlations with key performance measures, including total score, completion time, and required cues (-0.48 < r < -0.37, p < 0.05), indicating improved PETA performance with age. Inter-rater reliability for the PETA was high (ICC = 0.84). Significant correlations were found between the PETA completion time and CKTA total score (r = 0.42, p = 0.014), and between working memory and the CKTA total score (r = -0.44, p = 0.008). Additionally, significant correlations were found between the PETA and the Do-Eat (-0.69 < r < 0.55).

CONCLUSIONS

Although further research is needed to refine its use across diverse populations and settings with larger samples, these preliminary findings support the PETA's reliability and validity as a performance-based executive function assessment in young children. This study advances ecologically valid assessments and aids clinicians in selecting appropriate tools for evaluating executive functions in early childhood.

Enhancing adolescent health: the role of strength and endurance school-based HIIT interventions in physical fitness and cognitive development

Introduction

Physical activity (PA) is widely known for its outstanding benefits across several health domains including physical, psychological, social, and cognitive in children and adolescents. However, global trends indicate how low levels of PA and physical fitness among adolescents are increasing, with over 80% failing to meet the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines of 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) daily.

Methods

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of an 8-week high-intensity interval training (HIIT) intervention based on strength and endurance trainings protocols during physical education (PE) classes on body composition, physical fitness, and cognitive functions in adolescents aged 13-17 years. A quasi-experimental pre-post design was employed with experimental group (EG) and control group (CG).

Results

Results indicated significant improvements in the EG in cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2max), strength (hand grip, horizontal jump), and speed-agility (4 × 10 m test). Cognitive outcomes assessed via the D2 attention test revealed notable enhancements in concentration, a reduction in errors, and improved processing speed in the EG relative to the CG (p > 0.05).

Discussion

Future studies should explore the long-term impacts of HIIT on cognitive growth and academic achievement, as well as determine the ideal duration and frequency of sessions to optimize benefits in various educational contexts. The results obtained reinforce the use of HIIT in school environments and are further research on its application.

Transfer of the EFE-5 Executive Function Intervention Program to the Reduction of Behavioral Problems

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Numerous research studies link the improvement in executive functions and school success. However, there is hardly any research analyzing the transfer of this improvement to behavioral problems. This study analyzed whether improving executive functions, through contextualized daily activities, decreases these behaviors.

METHODS

Fifty third-year kindergarten students participated, divided into experimental and active control groups, with pre- and post-intervention measurements. The students in the experimental group were trained with the EFE-P program and the students in the control group received regular curriculum activities. The EFE-P program (i) has been designed with the aim of improving their executive functions, using a game-based approach; (ii) not only involves cognitive activities, but also behavioral and emotional activities, related to the warm aspects of executive functions; and (iii) consists of three units (inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility), with each unit involving 7 sessions (21 sessions in total), with an approximate duration of 30 min each.

RESULTS

Analysis of the data using a generalized linear mixed effects model revealed that students in the experimental group scored lower for behavioral problems than those in the active control group and the effect sizes were large for all of them: aggressiveness (d = 1.25); hyperactivity (d = 0.77); attention deficit (d = 1.12); anxiety (d = 0.82); and depression (d = 1.51).

CONCLUSIONS

After discussing the results, it is concluded that intervention in executive functions induces, by way of distant transfer, a decrease in behavioral problems in preschool; the role of contextualized activities in real situations is emphasized; and several implications for practice and research are discussed.

The mindful movement program in primary schools: a single-arm pilot intervention study

BACKGROUND

The early primary school years provide a unique opportunity for improving executive functions on a classroom-wide scale. While mindfulness, music, and movement have each demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing executive functions in early primary classrooms, no previous studies have integrated these modalities into a single program. The aim of this study was to assess the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary impact of a novel program that combines mindfulness with movement to music: the Mindful Movement Program (MMP).

METHODS

This single-arm within-subjects study evaluated the feasibility of teachers delivering the MMP within the early primary years classroom setting. The program was integrated into the classroom curriculum and delivered across two school terms, to seven primary school classes, with a total of 133 students (mean age 6.61 years; standard deviation 0.90).

RESULTS

High rates of student recruitment (91%), and both student and teacher retention were obtained (98% and 100% respectively). Fidelity of implementation was moderate for core practices (68%) and video resource use (66%); and acceptability of the intervention high, despite teacher absences due to COVID-19 restrictions. Mixed-effects modelling showed that teacher-reported global executive functioning (b = -2.95, p < .001), externalising (b = -1.06, p < .001), and internalising (b = -0.52, p < .01) behaviour problems significantly reduced from baseline after receiving the intervention. A subset of students (n = 50) who were directly assessed on general motor skill and specific body coordination skills also showed significant improvements (p < .001) with medium to large effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the feasibility and acceptability of a structured approach to movement and mindfulness developed by an experienced dance teacher, and delivered by teachers within the existing classroom setting. The program showed encouraging findings of improvement in a pre-post assessment. Further research is warranted to establish effectiveness in a controlled study design.

Hot and cool executive function in the development of behavioral problems in grade school

Despite the well-established link between children's executive function and behavioral adjustment, it remains unclear whether the hot and cool aspects of executive function are uniquely associated with children's behavioral problems. Using longitudinal data spanning in the grade school (N = 1,140), this study aimed to examine whether hot and cool executive function skills may be uniquely related to the development of behavioral problems. Hot and cool executive function skills were measured with tasks, standardized tests, and questionnaires at 54 months and in the first grade, respectively. Internalizing and externalizing problems were evaluated by teachers using questionnaires throughout the grade school. The results indicated that, independent of each other, hot and cool executive function skills were uniquely and negatively related to the development of internalizing and externalizing problems over time at the between-individual level, adjusting for within-individual fluctuations. Moreover, internalizing and externalizing problems were positively related at the between-individual level across the grade school. Findings provide needed evidence to clarify the relations between hot and cool executive function and children's behavioral problems, emphasizing the importance of both aspects of executive function in understanding the development of behavioral problems in school-age children.

Effects of exercise intervention on executive function in children with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Weight control in children depends on executive function. Previous studies have shown that exercise interventions can effectively improve children's executive function. However, the effects of these interventions on children with overweight and obesity remain unclear and require further investigation. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on executive function-related indicators in children with overweight and obesity.

Methods

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of exercise interventions on executive functions in children with overweight and obesity were included by searching PubMed, Web of Science, EMbase, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, Scopus, CNKI, China Wanfang, and VIP databases. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. RevMan 5.4 software was used for effect size pooling, forest plot creation, and subgroup analyses. Stata 16.0 software was employed for publication bias testing and sensitivity analysis. The evidence levels of the results were evaluated using the GRADEpro tool.

Results

This meta-analysis included a total of 13 studies. The results indicate that exercise interventions may help improve executive functions in children with overweight and obesity. Specifically, inhibitory control (standardized mean (SMD) = -0.59, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-0.89 to -0.29], Z = 3.85, P < 0.001) and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.54, 95% CI [-1.06 to -0.01], Z = 2.01, P < 0.05) showed moderate effect sizes. Working memory exhibited a smaller effect size (SMD = 0.40, 95% CI [-0.69 to -0.10], Z = 2.61, P < 0.01), while attention did not show significant improvement (SMD = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.39 to 0.65], Z = 0.50, P > 0.05).

Conclusion

The results of this meta-analysis indicate that exercise interventions have significant benefits for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in children with overweight and obesity, but the impact on attention is not significant. Moreover, the effects of inhibitory control interventions are influenced by exercise duration, exercise intensity, exercise type, and age.

Adaptation and psychometric properties of the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task in young Iranian children

Executive functions (EF) lay the foundation for healthy development. However, few reliable and valid measures of EF have been developed among children in less developed countries such as Iran. The present study addressed this gap by examining the factor structure, score variation, and psychometric properties of a short EF task, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS), among children from two metropolitan cities (Isfahan and Tehran) in Iran. Participants (N = 693; 58% male; Mage = 5.88 years) were recruited through a convenience sampling approach and tested with the HTKS along with other performance-based EF measures and parent reports of EF difficulties. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that both one-factor and two-factor structures were acceptable and that a one-factor solution was optimal. Results demonstrated significant variability in scores and age-related differences in EF skills, with higher scores observed in older children. The task indicated acceptable internal consistency, interrater agreement, and test-retest stability. For construct validity, the HTKS was significantly related to other performance-based measures of EF, tapping into working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning skills after controlling for child's age, gender, parental education, and city. Together, these findings underscore the promise of the HTKS task as a brief, economical, and easily administered EF task that reliably and validly captures variation in EF skills among Iranian children.

Body Mass Index and Sedentary Behaviour Affect Hamstring Extensibility in Primary Education Students

Enhancing and maintaining physical condition is an essential element of physical education for primary school children. In this respect, flexibility is of crucial importance in physical performance and coordination. One of the areas addressed in physical education is that of increasing hamstring flexibility, which is diminished by physical inactivity and inversely associated with the body mass index. The objective of this study is to explore the interplay between hamstring extensibility, physical inactivity and overweight in primary school students. Accordingly, a cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out of 265 students, applying sit and reach (SR) and deep trunk flexion (DTF) tests and analysing responses made to the IPAQ questionnaire. Among the results found for the study sample, the average flexor capacity recorded was -0.26 ± 6.33 among the boys and 5.52 ± 6.46 among the girls. The highest values in the girls were achieved at 9-10 years of age (6.69 ± 8.19) and in the boys at 6-7 years of age (2.72 ± 5.99). The lowest values for the girls (3.30 ± 5.19) were recorded in those aged 8-9 years and for the boys (3.13 ± 5.60) at the same age. These study results suggest there is a relationship between a sedentary lifestyle, a high BMI and sub-optimum flexibility. The children identified as physically active obtained higher average results in both the SR and the DTF tests.

Perinatal HIV exposure and infection and child executive function

ABSTRACTIn the combined antiretroviral therapy era, limited information exists about cognitive function in children exposed perinatally to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). To address this, we evaluated executive function (EF) among groups with known HIV exposure status during the perinatal period and at ages 6-10 years: children HIV-infected perinatally (CPHIV, n = 99), children born to HIV-infected mothers, but were HIV negative at enrollment (CPHEU, n = 97), and HIV unexposed, uninfected community controls (CHUU, n = 98). Caregivers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) to assess two dimensions of child EF (BRI: Behavioral Regulation Index; MCI: Metacognition Index) and a combination of these dimensions (General Executive Composite). We derived Z-scores for BRIEF measures using the CHUU group as the reference and used generalized linear models to estimate mean differences among the groups. The CPHIV and CPHEU groups did not differ from the CHUU group on the GEC or MCI. However, the CPHIV group scored lower than CHUU on the BRI, which is indicative of better functioning in this domain (β = -0.40, 95% CI -0.77, -0.03). Results were unaffected following adjustment. EF scores did not differ substantially across perinatal HIV exposure groups, though we observed evidence that CPHIV may thrive in the BRI domain.

Characteristics of preschool-age children who engage in problematic sexual behaviors with siblings

BACKGROUND

Problematic sexual behavior (PSB) between siblings can be a form of sibling sexual abuse (SSA). A notable gap in research are studies examining PSB among preschool-age children with siblings.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the impact of child maltreatment, exposure to family sexuality, and use of coercive sexual behavior on preschool-aged children PSB with siblings and with nonsiblings.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

All 284 children were ages 3-6 years with PSB who had siblings in the home (197 initiated PSB with siblings and 87 initiated PSB with non-siblings).

METHODS

The two groups were compared on types of PSB, use of coercion, child maltreatment history, exposure to family sexuality, and caregiver attitudes. Caregiver report measures were the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory- Third Edition (CSBI-III), the Family Sexuality Index, and intake form on maltreatment experienced (i.e., physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, exposure to domestic violence, caregiver drug use, and failure to protect).

RESULTS

Maltreatment history was significant, t(258) = -3.36, p < .001; sibling initiators were associated with higher rates of sexual and physical abuse, and neglect than non-sibling. Exposure to family sexuality was significant with non-sibling initiators demonstrating greater exposure than the sibling group, t(282) = 2.66, p = .008. There was no significance between groups for types of PSB including use of coercion.

CONCLUSIONS

Results illuminated unique dynamics of PSB with siblings of preschool-aged children. A developmental framework integrating child maltreatment, impulsivity, environmental factors, and capabilities are key considerations for conceptualization, prevention, and response that is distinct from SSA of adolescents.

Benefits of horseback riding for neurotypical children and adolescents: a scoping review

PURPOSE

To investigate evidence of horse riding in the development of language, cognition, social, emotional, and behavioral aspects in neurotypical children and adolescents.

RESEARCH STRATEGIES

Search in the databases of LILACS, MEDLINE, Web of Science, EMBASE, Scopus, and grey literature, without date or language restrictions. Registration in the Open Science Framework (OSF), under number DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/32ETZ. For search strategies: "Equine-Assisted Therapy", "Child or Adolescent Development", Cognition, Socialization, and "Child Behavior".

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized clinical trials and non-randomized experimental before-and-after studies, case series, and prospective observational studies of neurotypically developing people up to 18 years old. Studies with people with disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders were excluded. Interventions researched: horse riding and animal-assisted therapy.

DATA ANALYSIS

Two judges identified primary studies independently by reading the titles and abstracts, considering the inclusion criteria; a third judge was consulted to resolve divergences. The risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-I and ROBINS 2 tools.

RESULTS

Altogether, 131 studies were obtained, and duplicates (27) were removed. Subsequently, 104 studies were analyzed and 77 were excluded. Of the 27 studies evaluated in full text, 21 were excluded. Six studies were eligible for this review - four non-randomized clinical studies and two randomized clinical trials.

CONCLUSION

The non-randomized studies showed significant improvements in cognitive functions and behavioral and emotional aspects. The randomized studies, on the other hand, found significant gains in social competence.

Development and Training of Mindfulness and Its Relationship with Executive Function in Chinese Rural Upper-Grade Elementary School Students

The purpose of this study was to explore the development and relationship between mindfulness and executive function (EF) in students in grades 4-5 and investigate mindfulness training's impact on mindfulness and EF in grade 4 students in rural China. Study 1 measured mindfulness and EF in Chinese students in grades 4-5. Differences in the level of mindfulness among children in grade 4 (n = 159) and grade 5 (n = 187) in rural China were analyzed by multi-factor analysis of variance. Correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to explore the relationship between mindfulness and EF in grade 4 (n = 103) and grade 5 (n = 124). Study 2 included 45 4th graders with a general mindfulness level, with 21 children in the experimental group receiving 12 mindfulness training lessons. The mindfulness and EF scores of individuals in the mindfulness and control groups were tested before and after the intervention. Study 1 showed that 4th graders had significantly lower mindfulness scores than 5th graders. EFs in grades 4-5 were significantly correlated with mindfulness. Study 2 revealed that mindfulness training significantly improved the experimental group's mindfulness and working memory. A non-significant improvement in inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility was observed. There was a significant difference in mindfulness in grades 4 and 5 of Chinese rural upper-grade elementary school. Children who perform well in mindfulness also perform well in EFs. Mindfulness training improved the mindfulness and working memory of 4th graders in rural China with a general mindfulness level.

The Effect of a Short-Term Mindfulness Program on Motor Skills and on Psychological and Social Behavior in Preschool Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Mindfulness-based interventions have shown promise in improving various developmental outcomes in children, including resilience, social behavior, and motor skills. However, the effectiveness of such interventions in preschool-aged children remains underexplored.Purpose: This study aimed to assess the effect of a one-week mindfulness-based intervention on resilience, social behavior, and motor skills in four to five-year-old children.Research Design: We conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the impact of the intervention. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a mindfulness group (MG), a physical activity group (PAG), and a control group (CG).Study Sample: The study sample consisted of 45 children (22 females; 23 males; M age = 4.5, SD = 0.4 years) from the same preschool.Data Collection and/or Analysis: Participants were randomly assigned to three groups: (a) a mindfulness group (MG; n = 15) that participated in five 30-min mindfulness sessions; (b) a physical activity group (PAG; n = 15) that engaged in five 45-min physical exercise sessions; and (c) a control group (CG; n = 15) that received no intervention. Training sessions were held on five consecutive days. Assessments were conducted before (T0) and after (T1) the intervention using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (to assess motor skills), the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (to evaluate behavior), and the Child and Youth Resilience Measure-28 (to measure resilience).Results: At baseline (T0), there were no significant differences between the groups. After the intervention (T1), the mindfulness group experienced the strongest positive effects, with significant improvements in motor skills and social behavior, although there was no significant effect on resilience.Conclusions: Our results suggest that a brief mindfulness training intervention is a promising strategy for improving motor skills and social behavior in early childhood settings, though it did not significantly affect resilience.

The attentional boost effect: current landscape and future directions

Cognitive functions such as attention and memory significantly impact performance in daily life and in various professions, including driving vehicles and providing healthcare services. Driven by the importance of understanding attention, early studies have explored the attentional theories and discovered the attentional boost effect (ABE). In experiments studying the ABE, participants are required to engage in two concurrent tasks: (1) memorising a sequence of briefly displayed stimuli (e.g. images or words) for a later memory test and (2) concurrently detecting a simultaneously presented target signal (e.g. pressing a button when seeing a target white square and taking no action for a distractor black square). Surprisingly, attending to a target boosts memory encoding for the concurrently presented information, contrary to the typical expectation of lowered performance owing to dual-task interference. This effect has been documented not only in behavioural experiments across different materials and modalities but also in neuroimaging investigations. This review paper is divided into several main sections, covering the behavioural evidence supporting the ABE, interpretations of the effect from neuroimaging studies, individual differences, consensus and controversies in ABE research as well as prospective future research in this area. The discussion in this review might also offer helpful insights to researchers for translating this phenomenon into real-world practical applications.

Programming the Brain: How Maternal Overnutrition Shapes Cognitive Aging in Offspring

Background: Maternal overnutrition critically influences offspring's long-term metabolic and cognitive health. While prior research indicates maternal diet can disrupt hippocampal function, the specific impact on spatial memory remains unclear. Methods: Female mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for nine weeks before and during pregnancy. Offspring were weaned onto a standard diet and tested at postnatal day 90 using the dry maze, a spatial reference memory task. Results: HFD-exposed offspring exhibited significant learning acquisition impairments, with prolonged latencies in locating hidden rewards and diminished within-session improvements compared to controls. During the probe trial, they spent significantly less time in the target quadrant, indicating long-term spatial memory retention deficits. Notably, these cognitive impairments occurred independently of body weight differences at testing. Discussion: This study uniquely demonstrates that maternal HFD exposure induces specific spatial memory deficits in adult offspring, potentially through neurodevelopmental alterations preceding metabolic dysfunction. The results highlight the importance of prenatal nutrition in shaping cognitive outcomes later in life. Conclusions: These findings extend our understanding of how prenatal nutrition impacts cognitive aging and disease susceptibility. Given rising obesity rates among women of reproductive age, this research underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions to mitigate the intergenerational effects of maternal overnutrition on brain function.

Effects of Different Traditional Chinese Mind-Body Exercises on Learning Abilities, Executive Functions, and Brain Connectivity in Children with Learning Difficulties

This study examines the effects of three traditional Chinese mind-body exercises-Tai Chi (TC), Baduanjin (BD), and Health Qigong Yijinjing (YJJ)-on learning abilities, executive functions, and prefrontal brain connectivity in children with learning difficulties. Seventy-two children (aged 9-11) with learning difficulties were randomly assigned to TC, BD, YJJ, or a control group (CON). Intervention groups practiced for 12 weeks (45 min, three times per week), while the control group maintained their regular physical education. Assessments included Academic Performance Ranking (APR), Pupil Rating Scale (PRS), and executive functions. Granger causality analyses were conducted on the functional near-infrared spectroscopy data to derive the effective connectivity at the brain region levels. Post-intervention, all intervention groups showed significant improvements over the control group in PRS and APR scores (p < 0.05), with the TC group achieving higher PRS scores than the BD group. The TC group also demonstrated superior improvements in executive functions, particularly in inhibition and working memory. Additionally, the TC group exhibited significantly enhanced effective connectivity from the left and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to Brodmann area 8, indicating improved brain communication. Traditional Chinese mind-body exercises, particularly Tai Chi, improve academic performance, executive functions, and prefrontal cortex connectivity in children with learning difficulties. Tai Chi demonstrates superior outcomes, supporting its potential as an effective intervention for cognitive and academic development.

Examining the effectiveness of a video-based parent-child program on executive functions for children 5 to 6 years old: A randomized controlled trial

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Parent-child Brain Camp, a 4-week video-based executive functions (EFs) training program for children ages 5-6, through a randomized controlled trial with a pre- and post-test design with 173 Hong Kong children (intervention ni = 79, 48.7% girls, Mage = 69.16 months; control n = 94, 56.4% girls, Mage = 68.58 months) in 2022. Results from the two-way mixed ANOVA revealed that while the main effect of the Group was not significant, the main effect of Time (ηp 2 = 0.232) and the Time × Group interaction effect (ηp 2 = 0.038) were significant, with the intervention group demonstrating greater improvements in EFs compared to the control group.

Preliminary psychometric properties of an inhibition task in young children with Down syndrome

Background: Executive function (EF) skills are important treatment targets for people with Down syndrome (DS); however, few EF measures have been evaluated for use with young children in this population. Methods: The present study evaluated preliminary psychometric properties of a measure of the EF component of inhibition. Participants were 73 children with DS between 2.5 and 8.67 years old who completed an adapted ability to delay task using a desirable toy. Results: Across two separate trials, latencies to touch the toys were significantly correlated. Latencies increased overall with chronological and mental age, with caveats for the youngest and oldest participants. Conclusion: Findings suggest that an adapted prohibition task is an appropriate method of measuring inhibition for children with DS between 4 and 7 years old, though many children in this chronological age range are at early stages of acquiring this skill set.

Callous-unemotional traits, cognitive functioning, and externalizing problems in a propensity-matched sample from the ABCD study

BACKGROUND

Many studies show that both callous-unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., low empathy, lack of guilt) and cognitive difficulties increase risk for externalizing psychopathology across development. However, other work suggests that some aggression (e.g., relational, proactive) may rely on intact cognitive function, which could vary based on the presence of CU traits. Moreover, no prior research has adequately accounted for common risk factors shared by CU traits, cognitive difficulties, and externalizing problems, which confounds conclusions that can be drawn about their purported relationships. The current study addressed these knowledge gaps by leveraging rigorous propensity matching methods to isolate associations between CU traits and different dimensions of cognitive function and externalizing problems.

METHODS

Associations between CU traits, cognitive functioning, and externalizing outcomes were tested within dimensional (n = 11,868) and propensity-matched group-based (n = 1,224) models using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study®, with rigorous statistical control for shared sociodemographic risk factors. Cross-sectional outcomes were parent-reported symptoms of conduct disorder (CD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Longitudinal outcomes were child-reported overt and relational aggression.

RESULTS

CU traits were uniquely related to more parent-reported CD, ODD, ADHD symptoms, as well as more child-reported aggressive behaviors. Effects of cognitive difficulties were domain specific and were not consistent across dimensional and propensity matched models. There was minimal evidence for divergent associations between CU traits and externalizing outcomes as a function of cognition (i.e., no moderation).

CONCLUSIONS

Rigorous control for sociodemographic factors within propensity-matched models establish CU traits as a robust and unique risk factor for externalizing psychopathology, over and above difficulties with cognitive functioning.

Associations Between Preschooler Screen Time Trajectories and Executive Function

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between preschooler screen time trajectories and executive functions and effortful control at age 5.

METHODS

Prospective, community-based convenience sample of 315 parents of preschoolers (54% male), studied at the ages of 3.5 (2020), 4.5 (2021), and 5.5 (2022). Parent-reported screen use at the ages of 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5 was used to estimate preschooler screen use trajectories. Using latent growth modeling, we identified low (mean=.9h/d, 23%), medium (mean=3.0h/d, 56%), and high (mean=6.38h/d, 21%) screen time groups. Children completed assessments of inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility at age 5.5. Both tasks are from the National Institute of Health Toolbox. Parents reported child effortful control at the age of 3.5 and 5.5 using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire, educational attainment, and parenting stress.

RESULTS

Children in the average (b=-5.24) and high (b=.9.30) screen time trajectories scored significantly lower on inhibitory control than those in the low screen time group. Children in the average and high screen time groups also scored higher than children in the low screen time group on cognitive flexibility (b=-4.50) and (b=-10.12), respectively. Finally, children in the average and high screen time groups scored lower than children in the low screen time groups on effortful control (b=-.41) and (b=-.61), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study shows that stability in high levels of screen use is common among preschoolers and may forecast higher risk of cognitive difficulty and lower levels of cognitive control by the time of school entry.

SUMMARY

High levels of preschooler screen use were associated with lower scores on assessments of inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and effortful control.

Illuminating the hidden cost: A systematic review of cognitive late effects regarding cancer-related fatigue in treated paediatric brain tumors

Objective

Globally, in 2022, 30,871 children were diagnosed with CNS-tumors. Many have been treated with radiotherapy, and a significant number suffer from chronic late effects, including fatigue. This study aims to investigate previous research on the impact of cancer-related fatigue for neurocognitive function that can be related to radiotherapy in patients who have undergone primary brain radiotherapy before the age of 18.

Methods

Conducted under PRISMA-S framework, this systematic review searched MEDLINE ALL (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid), CINAHL (EBSCO), and PsycINFO (Ovid) for relevant studies. Criteria for inclusion were children under 18 who underwent radiotherapy for primary brain cancer, focusing on late cognitive side effects, published 2000-2023.

Results

From 4,067 records, 10 studies were included, examining Proton Radiation Therapy (n = 4), X-ray Radiation Therapy (n = 3), and their comparisons (n = 3). The studies used various cognitive tests, and late effects that emerged were neurocognitive functions and disorders, intellectual functioning, specific cognitive functions and daily life, social functioning, and performance. These themes can be encompassed by cancer-related fatigue.

Conclusions

The findings underscore critical need for more in-depth research to understand the health perception variations among children post-primary brain radiotherapy. Furthermore, detailed insights of treatment specifics, disease progression, target volume sizes, and doses to surrounding organs at risk are imperative.

Gross-Motor Coordination and Executive Functions Development in Soccer and Artistic Gymnastics Preadolescent Female Athletes

Background/Objectives: The characteristics of open- and closed-skill sports can have a significant impact on the development of both motor and cognitive functions during late childhood and early adolescence. This study examined the impact of artistic gymnastics and soccer practice on physical/coordinative skills and executive functions in preadolescent female athletes. Methods: Gross-motor coordination (Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder battery), explosive lower limb power (countermovement jump) and executive functions (Flanker/Reverse Flanker; Digit Span) of ninety-eight soccer and gymnastics athletes (10.9 ± 0.6 years of age) were tested at the beginning and the end of a sports season. A t-test and a mixed linear method were used to detect differences between sports and expertise levels (amateur vs. elite) at baseline and over time, respectively. Results: Gymnasts scored higher in physical tests compared to soccer athletes, who obtained better scores in the Digit Span test. Elite gymnasts showed higher physical skills compared to both amateur gymnasts and elite soccer players, with executive function levels comparable to those of amateur gymnasts. Similarly, elite soccer players showed higher reaction time in executive functions tests compared to both elite gymnasts and amateur soccer athletes, with similar physical skills as amateur soccer players. Amateur gymnastics and soccer athletes showed similar levels of physical and cognitive skills. All groups improved their physical and executive function skills over time, with relevant effects of expertise level on physical tasks. Conclusions: Results revealed the impact of sport type and athletes' level of expertise in influencing both their motor and cognitive development.

Exploring the Link Between Special Educational Needs and Mental Health of Schoolchildren and Their Parents

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The relationship between executive functions, special educational needs (SEN), and psychopathology in school-aged children is critical to the design of effective educational and therapeutic interventions. This study examines the connection between executive functions, SEN, schoolchildren's psychopathology, and parental mental health. The objectives were to describe the psychopathological profiles of schoolchildren, to analyze the psychopathological differences between students with and without SEN, and to know the mental health status of parents of children with SEN.

METHODS

A total of 123 schoolchildren with and without SEN, together with their parents, participated in the study. Validated instruments were used to assess executive functions and child psychopathology, and an ad hoc register was used to assess parental mental health. In addition, sociodemographic and clinical data were collected.

RESULTS

The results revealed that children with SEN showed a significantly more affected psychopathological profile compared to their peers without SEN in all areas assessed. In addition, parents of children with SEN reported higher levels of emotional overburden (r = 0.39, p < 0.01). Deficits in executive functions, such as inhibition (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), working memory (r = 0.37, p < 0.01), and cognitive flexibility (r = 0.33, p < 0.05), were also found to be related to greater psychopathological problems in children.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the importance of considering both executive functions and psychopathological profiles in designing educational and therapeutic interventions for children with SEN. It is recommended that intervention programs should comprehensively address the educational and emotional needs of children, as well as the well-being of their parents, with a specific focus on improving executive functions and reducing psychopathological disorders.

Integrating Kata Training into School Education: Effects on Sustained Attention and Cognitive Performance in 8-9-Year-Old Children

(1) Background: The ability to sustain attention in primary school children aged 8-9 years plays a critical role in maintaining focus for extended periods, enabling them to comprehend and integrate large amounts of information. Enhancing sustained attention during this formative stage significantly improves a child's capacity to acquire and consolidate new skills and knowledge, laying a strong foundation for academic and cognitive development. (2) Objectives: This study aimed to assess the effect of an 8-week kata training program on attention and its components in 8-9-year-old school-age children, a critical developmental period for attention. (3) Methods: After excluding the participants who gave a low number of correct answers in the pre-test or created a ceiling effect, 43 participants, aged 9.12 ± 0.40 years, were included in this study. This study, conducted during the academic term, included three measurement phases and a familiarization session. Attention parameters were evaluated using the Bourdon-Vos Test, and participants were categorized into Low Performers (LP) and High Performers (HP) based on pre-test scores. The intervention group (INT) underwent kata training thrice weekly for 8 weeks, while the control group (CON) followed their regular activities. Post-training, attention parameters were reassessed using the Bourdon-Vos Test. (4) Results: In the post-intervention analysis, significant improvements in the number of correct responses were observed in both the LP (p < 0.001, Cohen's d = -1.333) and HP (p = 0.001, Cohen's d = -1.644) groups within the INT group. In the CON group, significant improvement was observed only in the HP group (p = 0.031, Cohen's d = -0.948). Regarding attention processing speed, significant pre-post improvements were found exclusively in the INT group (p < 0.001). Block-wise analysis revealed significant differences only in Block 1 of the CON group (p = 0.011, Cohen's d = -0.522). However, in the INT group, significant improvements were observed in both Block 1 (p < 0.001, Cohen's d = -1.200) and Block 2 (p = 0.004, Cohen's d = -0.678). (5) Conclusions: The findings of this study highlight the effectiveness of an 8-week kata training program in enhancing sustained attention and cognitive processing speed among 8-9-year-old children, particularly in low-performing groups. This suggests that integrating structured kata-based motor and cognitive activities into school curricula can serve as a promising strategy for addressing attention deficits and promoting cognitive development during this critical developmental period. Future studies should examine the long-term effects of kata training on attention and related cognitive functions, such as working memory and executive control. Investigating neurophysiological mechanisms through neuroimaging and including diverse age groups with larger samples could further validate these findings.

Links Between Executive Functions and Decoding Skills in a Semitransparent Orthography: A Longitudinal Study from Kindergarten to First Grade

Despite progress in understanding the link between executive functions (EFs) (i.e., a set of skills involved in goal-directed activities crucial for regulating thoughts and actions) and word decoding skills, research has not yet determined the dynamics and extent of this link. This longitudinal study examined whether EF subcomponents (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) significantly predict decoding skills in Portuguese, which has a semitransparent orthography. The sample included 81 children (Mage = 5.36 years, SDage = 0.30; 40 girls) in their final year of kindergarten. EF performance was evaluated during kindergarten using nonverbal performance-based tests, and decoding skills were assessed one year later in first grade through a pseudoword reading task. A three-step regression analysis was used to explore the unique contributions of each EF subcomponent to decoding skills. Findings indicated that inhibitory control skills were significant predictors of first-grade decoding outcomes. However, adding working memory abilities to the regression model did not increase the explained variance. In the final step, including cognitive flexibility skills reduced the significance of inhibitory control and increased the amount of explained variance. These results suggest that, while inhibitory control plays an important role, cognitive flexibility has a more significant impact on word decoding skills, highlighting the importance of early development of specific EFs for decoding abilities.

Working Memory as the Focus of the Bilingual Effect in Executive Functions

The bilingual effect on executive functions (EFs) has garnered considerable attention, with most studies focusing on the visual domain and largely overlooking the auditory domain. Furthermore, research has predominantly concentrated on specific subcomponents of executive functions, with few studies systematically examining all three key subcomponents. This raises two important questions: (a) Is the bilingual effect specific to certain modalities (modality-specific), or a more general phenomenon (modality-general)? (b) Is the bilingual effect concentrated in a specific component of executive functions (process-specific), or does it extend to all three components (process-general)? To explore these questions, this study recruited monolingual Chinese and bilingual Chinese-English participants, using matched visual and auditory Stroop, N-back, and task-switching tasks to assess inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in both groups. The results showed that, after controlling for variables like intelligence, socioeconomic status, and age, bilingualism significantly predicted performance in both auditory and visual working memory tasks, explaining 34% and 19% of the variance, respectively. However, no evidence was found to support a bilingual effect in inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility. In conclusion, these results suggest that bilingual effects are not only process-specific (affecting only working memory) but also modality-general (providing advantages in both visual and auditory modalities).

Adaptive cognitive control in 4 to 7-year-old children and potential effects of school-based yoga-mindfulness interventions: an exploratory study in Italy

Introduction

Recent findings showed that adaptive cognitive control (CC) can be instantiated by bottom-up mechanisms, including statistical contingency of event occurrence. However, the developmental evidence in this domain remains limited.

Methods

To address this gap, our study delves into the exploration of different mechanisms underlying adaptive CC in a substantial cohort of young children (211 participants aged between 4 and 7 years). We utilized the Dynamic Temporal Prediction (DTP) task and a modified version of the Flanker task to assess the effect of context predictability on motor preparation/inhibition and interference control, respectively. Furthermore, as part of an exploratory study designed to evaluate the feasibility of a school-based program in Italy, all children underwent a re-testing session after an 8-week intervention involving yoga-mindfulness.

Results

Results suggested that young children can exploit global probabilistic changes to optimize motor preparation/ inhibition while counterbalancing fatigue effects. Moreover, they successfully modulate interference control as a function of environmental contingencies, displaying more optimal conflict resolution when proactive control is engaged. Finally, we observed a post-intervention increase of the capability to implicitly adapt motor preparation/inhibition and a boosting effect on the interference control functions.

Discussion

Overall, these findings confirmed that adaptive CC is already present in preschool-aged children, extending these results to include 4-years-olds. Additionally, school-based yoga-mindfulness programs are feasible and might improve children's capability to flexibly and proactively adapt to environmental requests promoting cognitive proficiency.

Effects of movement behaviors on preschoolers' cognition: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Movement behaviors, including physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB), and sleep, are fundamental to early childhood development. These behaviors interact dynamically within a 24-hour period, creating a complex balance that influences not only physical health but also cognitive and emotional well-being in young children. While the physical health benefits of movement behaviors are well-documented, systematic evaluations of how interventions targeting these behaviors affect cognitive development in preschool-aged children remain limited.

METHODS

This review was guided through PRISMA 2020 guidelines. We conducted a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to evaluate the impact of interventions targeting PA, SB, and sleep on cognitive outcomes in preschool-aged children. A comprehensive search was performed across five databases: PubMed, PsycInfo, Web of Science, Embase, and CINAHL, covering studies published between January 2000 and December 2023. Eligible studies were those that focused on at least one movement behavior, had a minimum intervention duration of four weeks, and assessed cognitive development as a primary outcome. The cognitive outcomes evaluated included executive function, attention, memory, and other key domains critical to early childhood development, such as language, processing speed, and social cognition.

RESULTS

Twenty-two RCTs (14 individual, 8 cluster) met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 21 studies focused on PA, while only one targeted SB, and none specifically addressed sleep or combined movement behaviors. PA interventions, particularly those involving cognitively engaging activities, significantly improved cognitive domains such as executive function, inhibition, and attention, with effect sizes ranging from moderate to large (Cohen's d > 0.5). The SB-focused study did not report significant cognitive improvements. A clear gap exists in understanding the effects of sleep and multi-behavior interventions on cognitive outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitively engaging PA interventions demonstrated the largest effects, while motor skill-focused and general PA programs produced moderate to smaller gains. Evidence on SB and sleep interventions remains limited, with no studies exploring the combined effects of these three movement behaviors. Future research should focus on integrated interventions that address PA, SB, and sleep to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of their collective impact on cognitive development in early childhood.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was registered with PROSPERO under the registration number CRD42023479156.

The Impact of Physical Activity and Screen Time on Motor Creativity in Kindergarteners

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Motor creativity and physical activity are essential to early childhood development, impacting physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. This study investigates the relationships among motor creativity, motor working memory (MSTM), screen time, and physical activity (PA) in kindergarten children, focusing on the mediating roles of cognitive functions and screen time.

METHODS

Data were collected from 124 Arab Israeli kindergarten children through assessments of Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) for motor creativity and the Hand Movement Test for MSTM. Parents reported the children's screen time and days engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

RESULTS

The results show significant positive associations between motor creativity and both MSTM and PA, underscoring the role of cognitive processes in creative motor expression. Linear regression and mediation analyses showed that MSTM significantly mediates the relationship between PA and motor creativity. Conversely, screen time negatively correlates with PA and motor creativity, serving as a significant mediator that restricts opportunities for physical and creative activities.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes the bidirectional relationship between PA and motor creativity, wherein diverse physical activities stimulate creativity, and creative movements encourage active participation. The combined mediating effects of MSTM and screen time highlight the complexity of these relationships, suggesting the need for integrated interventions. The findings inform early childhood education by advocating for strategies that promote physical activity, enhance cognitive functions, and limit excessive screen time, fostering holistic development in young children.

The amygdala and the pursuit of future rewards

The successful pursuit of future rewards requires forming an internal goal, followed by planning, decision-making, and progress-tracking over multiple steps. The initial step-forming goals and the plans for obtaining them-involves the subjective valuation of an anticipated reward, considering both the reward's properties and associated delay and physical-effort costs. Recent findings indicate individuals similarly evaluate cognitive effort over time (Johnson and Most, 2023). Success and failure in these processes have been linked to differential life outcomes and psychiatric conditions. Here we review evidence from single-neuron recordings and neuroimaging studies that implicate the amygdala-a brain structure long associated with cue-reactivity and emotion-in decision-making and the planned pursuit of future rewards (Grabenhorst et al., 2012, 2016, 2019, 2023;Hernadi et al., 2015;Zangemeister et al., 2016). The main findings are that, in behavioral tasks in which future rewards can be pursued through planning and stepwise decision-making, amygdala neurons prospectively encode the value of anticipated rewards and related behavioral plans. Moreover, amygdala neurons predict the stepwise choices to pursue these rewards, signal progress toward goals, and distinguish internally generated (i.e., self-determined) choices from externally imposed actions. Importantly, amygdala neurons integrate the subjective value of a future reward with delay and effort costs inherent in pursuing it. This neural evidence identifies three key computations of the primate amygdala that underlie the pursuit of future rewards: (1) forming a self-determined internal goal based on subjective reward-cost valuations, (2) defining a behavioral plan for obtaining the goal, (3) executing this plan through stepwise decision-making and progress-tracking. Based on this framework, we suggest that amygdala neurons constitute vulnerabilities for dysfunction that contribute to maladaptive reward pursuit in psychiatric and behavioral conditions. Consequently, amygdala neurons may also represent potential targets for behavioral-change interventions that aim to improve individual decision-making.

Effects of Breast Cancer Treatment on Neural Noise: a Longitudinal Design

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive dysfunction has been observed consistently in a subset of breast cancer survivors. Yet the precise neurophysiological origins of cancer-related cognitive decline remain unknown. The current study assessed neural noise (1/f activity in electroencephalogram [EEG]) in breast cancer survivors as a potential contributor to observed cognitive dysfunction from pre- to post-treatment.

METHODS

We measured EEG in a longitudinal design during performance of the paired-click task and the revised Attention Network Test (ANT-R) to investigate pre- versus post-treatment effects of neural noise in breast cancer patients (n = 20 in paired click; n = 19 in ANT-R) compared with healthy controls (n = 32 in paired click; n = 29 in ANT-R).

RESULTS

In both paradigms, one sensory (paired click) and one cognitive (ANT-R), we found that neural noise was significantly elevated after treatment in patients, remaining constant from pretest to posttest in controls. In the ANT-R, patients responded more slowly than controls on invalid cuing trials. Increased neural noise was associated with poorer alerting and poorer inhibitory control of attention (as measured by behavioral network scores), particularly for patients after treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study is the first to show a deleterious effect of breast cancer and/or cancer treatment on neural noise, pointing to alterations in the relative balance of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs, while also suggesting promising approaches for cognitive rehabilitation.

Effects of music training on executive functions in preschool children aged 3-6 years: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Executive functions is a crucial ability in the early development of preschool children. While numerous studies have found that music training has a favorable effect on children's executive functions, there is a lack of a consistent perspective on this topic, particularly with regard to the dose-response relationship.

Methods

Systematic searches were conducted of Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to compute standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

In all, 10 studies were included in the meta-analysis, in which children's music training groups showed significantly improved inhibitory control (SMD = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.16-0.6), working memory (SMD = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.04-0.42) in comparison with control groups. Subgroup analyses indicated significant improvements relative to the control groups for inhibitory control following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.22-0.8), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI: 0.2-0.75), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.2-0.63). Significant improvements were seen for working memory following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.18-0.65), occurring <3 times per week (SMD = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.06-0.93), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.28, 95% CI:0.1-0.47), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54). Music training significantly improved cognitive flexibility following training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.04-0.41), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.0-0.39), and lasting >40 min per session (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.22-1.26).

Conclusion

Music training has a positive effect on inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in preschool children aged 3-6 years. This effect is influenced by certain training factors, including the duration of the intervention period, frequency per week, and length of each session.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#aboutregpage, CRD42024513482.

Comparative effectiveness of physical activity interventions on cognitive functions in children and adolescents with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Physical activity (PA) interventions have been shown to yield positive effects on cognitive functions. However, it is unclear which type of PA intervention is the most effective in children and adolescents with Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs). This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of different types of PA interventions on cognitive functions in children and adolescents with NDDs, with additional analyses examining intervention effects across specific NDD types including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

METHODS

In this systematic review and network meta-analysis, seven databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Medline, APA PsycINFO, Embase, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus) for randomized controlled trials from database inception to September 2023 were searched. Randomized controlled trials comparing the effectiveness of PA intervention with any non-pharmacological treatment or control group on cognitive functions in children and adolescents diagnosed with NDDs aged 5-17 years were included. Frequentist network meta-analyses were performed based on standardized mean differences (SMD) using random effects models to examine post-intervention differences in cognitive functions, including attention, memory, and executive functions. Intervention dropout was assessed as a measure of treatment acceptability.

RESULTS

Thirty-one randomized controlled trials (n = 1,403, mean age 10.0 ± 1.9 years) with 66 arms were included in the network. Mind-body exercise (MBE; SMD = 1.91 for attention; 0.92 for executive functions), exergaming (SMD = 1.58 for attention; 0.97 for memory; 0.94 for executive functions), and multi-component physical activity (MPA; SMD = 0.79 for executive functions) were associated with moderate to substantial cognitive improvements compared with usual care, whereas the effectiveness of aerobic exercise (AE) was non-significant. Exergaming (SMD = 0.78, 95%CI 0.12 to 1.45) and MPA (SMD = 0.64, 95%CI 0.11 to 1.18) were more effective than AE for executive functions. When analyzing specific NDD types, exergaming lost its superiority over usual care for attention and memory in ADHD, nor for executive functions in ASD. Instead, MPA demonstrated significant benefits across these domains and populations. The certainty of evidence for these comparisons was very low to low. No significant differences in acceptability were observed among MBE, exergaming, and MPA.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings in this study suggest that MBE, exergaming, and MPA were effective interventions for improving domain-specific cognitive functions in children and adolescents with NDDs. AE demonstrated non-significant effectiveness for all outcomes. MBE emerges as particularly advantageous for attention. MPA yielded consistent improvements in memory and executive functions across NDD types. Further high-quality randomized controlled trials of direct comparisons are needed to confirm and expand on the findings from this NMA.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42023409606.

A Comparison of Brief Resistance and Aerobic Exercise Bouts on Cognitive Processing Speed in Young Adults

Research has found even a brief bout of exercise to be beneficial for improving processing speed. However, there is a lack of research directly comparing the effect of exercise modalities on processing speed. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a single brief bout of resistance exercise to aerobic exercise on cognitive processing speed in young adults. A total of 29 young adults ranging from 20-34 years of age (22.59±2.86 years) participated in a familiarization session followed by two randomized exercise conditions (aerobic, resistance). Each moderate-intensity exercise condition was followed by completion of a symbol search test to measure cognitive processing speed. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to assess differences in processing speed between aerobic and resistance exercise conditions. Processing speed scores in the aerobic exercise condition (M = 42.97, SD = 9.06) did not significantly differ (t(28) = -1.701, p = 0.100, d = 0.316) from processing speed scores in the resistance exercise condition (M = 44.62, SD = 9.28). Findings from our study suggest that either modality may be used by a healthy young adult population when exercising to improve processing speed. Future research should continue to explore the exercise and processing speed relationship using body weight and resistance band exercises, as used in the present study, on processing speed, because this may be a more attractive strategy for college students who often report time, accessibility, and cost as barriers to exercise.

Adherence to the 24-h Movement Behaviors Guidelines and Associations With Cognitive and Behavioral Self-Regulation Among Brazilian Preschoolers

BACKGROUND

Adherence to 24-h movement guidelines has been associated with early health benefits, including neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, the associations between these guidelines and Cognitive (CSR) and Behavioral (BSR) self-regulation in preschoolers are underexplored. This study investigated the associations between adherence to 24-h movement guidelines and CSR and BSR in Brazilian preschoolers.

METHODS

A total of 223 preschoolers (4.76 ± 0.32 years old; 50.67% boys) participated. Physical activity (PA) was assessed with Actigraph wGT3X. Parents reported children's sleep and screen time. CSR was evaluated through iPad games, and BSR was assessed using the Head, Toes, Knees, Shoulders test revised.

RESULTS

Boys showed higher adherence to the PA recommendation than girls (52.2% vs. 32.7%, χ2 = 0.003), whereas a higher percentage of girls did not adhere to any recommendations (23.6% vs. 12.4%, χ2 = 0.029). Positive association was found between adherence to combined PA and screen time with cognitive flexibility (β = 4.091 [95% CI: 0.699, 7.754]). Adherence to PA was associated with lower BSR scores (β = -7.104 [-13.52, -0.623]), as was adherence to combined PA and sleep duration (β = -8.813 [-15.794, -1.397]).

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted differences in adherence to movement behavior guidelines between boys and girls, as well as demonstrated that different combinations of these behaviors can affect preschoolers' cognitive and behavioral levels of self-regulation in distinct ways.

Effects of human concurrent aerobic and resistance training on cognitive health: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Background

The rising prevalence of cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases, projected to affect 150 million individuals by 2050, highlights the urgent need to enhance neurocognitive health. While both aerobic and resistance training are recognized as effective strategies, their combined effects on cognition remain underexplored.

Objective

This study aimed to determine if concurrent aerobic and resistance training (CT) is effective in enhancing cognitive function.

Methods

Seven English and three Chinese databases were searched from inception to August 2024. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of CT on global cognition across diverse populations were included. A meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model in R and Stata, supplemented by subgroup and meta-regression analyses to explore variability.

Results

The meta-analysis included 35 RCTs with 5,734 participants, revealing a positive effect of CT on global cognition (g = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.17-0.46, p < 0.001). Notably, older adults (≥65 years) exhibited greater cognitive benefits (g = 0.33; 95% CI: 0.14-0.51, p < 0.05) compared to younger populations. Significant effects were also observed in clinical populations (g = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.11-0.46, p < 0.001). Exercise frequency and duration positively influenced outcomes, with medium-length interventions (13-26 weeks) demonstrating significant effects (g = 0.21; 95% CI: 0.05-0.37, p = 0.011).

Conclusion

The findings indicate that CT significantly enhances cognitive health, particularly in older adults and clinical populations. Prioritizing strength training, implementing short- to medium-term interventions (4-26 weeks), and maintaining session durations of 30-60 minutes are crucial for optimizing cognitive benefits.

Executive function in young children with and without global developmental delays: Association with mastery motivation and developmental abilities

Executive functions (EF) affect child competencies across domains in early childhood. Thus, this study examined: 1) the EF differences between young children with global developmental delays (GDD) and those with typical development (TD); 2) the relationship between mastery motivation (MM) and EF; 3) the association between developmental abilities and EF in both groups. Participants included 26 mother-child dyads of preschoolers with GDD (age 24-55 months) and 26 sex- and mental-age-matched dyads of TD preschoolers (age 15-29 months). Child developmental abilities were assessed using the Comprehensive Developmental Inventory for Infants and Toddlers. Mothers rated child EF and MM using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and the Revised Dimensions of Mastery Questionnaires. Independent-t test (p <.008, 2-tailed) and hierarchical regressions were used to examine association (p <.05, 2-tailed). GDD group showed higher EF difficulties compared to their TD counterparts (t = 4.05- 5.48, p <.001). Additionally, higher child MM, developmental ability, and mother's perceived child ability are significantly associated with overall EF. Therefore, early childhood practitioners should coach parents to observe their child's MM and to identify the child ability to enhance EF in young children. This study provides preliminary evidence linking MM, EF, and child abilities in early childhood.

Links between self-regulation patterns and prosocial behavior trajectories from middle childhood to early adolescence: a longitudinal study

Prosocial behavior that conforms to social norms and serves the good of others requires particularly high self-regulatory competences, because it is often in contrast with one's own interests. It is unknown which self-regulatory competences are particularly important for prosocial-behavior development and whether they may distinguish between children on different prosocial-behavior trajectories. This longitudinal study examined differences in self-regulatory competences, including inhibition, emotional reactivity, planning behavior, emotion regulation, working-memory updating, affective decision making, flexibility, and delay of gratification, between trajectories of prosocial behavior in 1,657 German 6- to 13-year-olds (52% female). LCGA suggested four trajectories of stable high, stable low, increasing, and decreasing prosocial behavior. MANOVAs showed differences between trajectories in inhibition and emotional reactivity at all three measurement points, as well as planning behavior at the second measurement point. Early patterns of these self-regulatory skills may help identifying children at risk for impaired long-term prosocial-behavior development and should primarily be addressed by prevention and intervention measures.

The effect of playing Onigokko on children's executive function and cardiovascular endurance in the early elementary school grades

This study investigated whether continuously playing Onigokko, a game similar to tag, could enhance children's cognitive flexibility, a component of executive function, and improve cardiovascular endurance. The intervention group comprised 34 students enrolled in the second-grade A class of H elementary school in Y prefecture. The control group comprised 34 students enrolled in the second-grade B class at the same school. Cognitive flexibility was assessed using the Trail Making Test Task B (TMT-B), while cardiovascular endurance was measured using a 20-meter shuttle run. These measurements were taken for both groups before and after four weeks playing Onigokko with the intervention group. A two-way ANOVA was applied for each measurement item, considering the group (intervention and control groups) and measurement period (pre and post). A significant interaction was found between cognitive flexibility (TMT-B response time) and cardiovascular endurance (20-meter shuttle run count and maximal oxygen consumption [VO2Max]); thereafter, a simple main effect test (Bonferroni method) was conducted. The results revealed that the intervention group's cognitive flexibility (TMT-B response time) and cardiovascular endurance (20-meter shuttle run count and VO2Max) significantly improved post-intervention compared to the control group. These findings suggest that continuously playing Onigokko can significantly enhance both cognitive flexibility and cardiovascular endurance among early elementary school students.

Daily Physical Activity, Sports Participation, and Executive Function in Children

Importance

It is unclear whether daily physical activity and sports participation relate to executive function (EF) in children.

Objective

To explore associations between early-life physical activity, sports participation, and executive function in primary school children.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Data for this cohort study were collected from April 2006 to December 2017 from the Groningen Expert Center for Kids with Obesity (GECKO) Drenthe birth cohort, which includes Northern Dutch children. Preschool children aged 5 to 6 years and primary school children aged 10 to 11 years with valid EF, daily physical activity, and sports participation data were included in the analysis. Data were analyzed from May 2023 to February 2024.

Exposures

At ages 5 to 6 years, daily physical activity was measured with accelerometry. At ages 10 to 11 years, sports participation data were collected using the Short Questionnaire to Assess Health-Enhancing Physical Activity.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Executive function was assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function at ages 10 to 11 years.

Results

A total of 880 children (470 female [53.4%]; mean [SD] age at EF measurement, 11.1 [0.4] years) were included. Moderate to vigorous physical activity at ages 5 to 6 years did not correlate with EF at ages 10 to 11 years (eg, Global Executive Composite [GEC]: β, 0.16; 95% CI, -0.21 to 0.53). Higher levels of light physical activity at ages 5 to 6 years were associated with poorer inhibitory control (β, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.24-1.47) and self-monitoring (β, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.09-1.48) at ages 10 to 11 years, while greater sedentary time was associated with better inhibitory control (β, -0.62; 95% CI, -1.08 to -0.16) and self-monitoring (β, -0.57; 95% CI, -1.09 to -0.06). Compared with children engaged in individual sports, team sports participants exhibited better overall EF (mean difference [SE], -3.03 [0.81]), behavior regulation (mean difference [SE], -3.39 [0.77]), and metacognition (mean difference [SE], -2.55 [0.81]). Children involved in both types of sports vs only individual sports had better EF (GEC: mean difference [SE], -2.66 [0.93]).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of Dutch children, early-life moderate to vigorous physical activity was not associated with EF in middle childhood. Children participating in team sports at ages 10 to 11 years consistently exhibited superior EF compared with participants in individual sports.

Dynamic Field Theory of Executive Function: Identifying Early Neurocognitive Markers

In this Monograph, we explored neurocognitive predictors of executive function (EF) development in a cohort of children followed longitudinally from 30 to 54 months of age. We tested predictions of a dynamic field model that explains development in a benchmark measure of EF development, the dimensional change card sort (DCCS) task. This is a rule-use task that measures children's ability to switch between sorting cards by shape or color rules. A key developmental mechanism in the model is that dimensional label learning drives EF development. Data collection began in February 2019 and was completed in April 2022 on the Knoxville campus of the University of Tennessee. Our cohort included 20 children (13 female) all of whom were White (not Hispanic/Latinx) from an urban area in southern United States, and the sample annual family income distribution ranged from low to high (most families falling between $40,000 and 59,000 per year (note that we address issues of generalizability and the small sample size throughout the monograph)). We tested the influence of dimensional label learning on DCCS performance by longitudinally assessing neurocognitive function across multiple domains at 30 and 54 months of age. We measured dimensional label learning with comprehension and production tasks for shape and color labels. Simple EF was measured with the Simon task which required children to respond to images of a cat or dog with a lateralized (left/right) button press. Response conflict was manipulated in this task based on the spatial location of the stimulus which could be neutral (central), congruent, or incongruent with the spatial lateralization of the response. Dimensional understanding was measured with an object matching task requiring children to generalize similarity between objects that matched within the dimensions of color or shape. We first identified neural measures associated with performance and development on each of these tasks. We then examined which of these measures predicted performance on the DCCS task at 54 months. We measured neural activity with functional near-infrared spectroscopy across bilateral frontal, temporal, and parietal cortices. Our results identified an array of neurocognitive mechanisms associated with development within each domain we assessed. Importantly, our results suggest that dimensional label learning impacts the development of EF. Neural activation in left frontal cortex during dimensional label production at 30 months of age predicted EF performance at 54 months of age. We discussed these results in the context of efforts to train EF with broad transfer. We also discussed a new autonomy-centered EF framework. The dynamic field model on which we have motivated the current research makes decisions autonomously and various factors can influence the types of decisions that the model makes. In this way, EF is a property of neurocognitive dynamics, which can be influenced by individual factors and contextual effects. We also discuss how this conceptual framework can generalize beyond the specific example of dimensional label learning and DCCS performance to other aspects of EF and how this framework can help to understand how EF unfolds in unique individual, cultural, and contextual factors. Measures of EF during early childhood are associated with a wide range of development outcomes, including academic skills and quality of life. The hope is that broad aspects of development can be improved by implementing interventions aimed at facilitating EF development. However, this promise has been largely unrealized. Previous work on EF development has been limited by a focus on EF components, such as inhibition, working memory, and switching. Similarly, intervention research has focused on practicing EF tasks that target these specific components of EF. While performance typically improves on the practiced task, improvement rarely generalizes to other EF tasks or other developmental outcomes. The current work is unique because we looked beyond EF itself to identify the lower-level learning processes that predict EF development. Indeed, the results of this study identify the first learning mechanism involved in the development of EF. Although the work here provides new targets for interventions in future work, there are also important limitations. First, our sample is not representative of the underlying population of children in the United States under the age of 5. This is a problem in much of the existing developmental cognitive neuroscience research. We discussed challenges to the generalizability of our findings to the population at large. This is particularly important given that our theory is largely contextual, suggesting that children's unique experiences with learning labels for visual dimensions will impact EF development. Second, we identified a learning mechanism to target in future intervention research; however, it is not clear whether such interventions would benefit all children or how to identify children who would benefit most from such interventions. We also discuss prospective lines of research that can address these limitations, such as targeting families that are typically underrepresented in research, expanding longitudinal studies to examine longer term outcomes such as school-readiness and academic skills, and using the dynamic field (DF) model to systematically explore how exposure to objects and labels can optimize the neural representations underlying dimensional label learning. Future work remains to understand how such learning processes come to define the contextually and culturally specific skills that emerge over development and how these skills lay the foundation for broad developmental trajectories.

One Score to Rule Them All? Comparing the Predictive and Concurrent Validity of 30 Hearts and Flowers Scoring Approaches

The Hearts and Flowers (H&F) task is a computerized executive functioning (EF) assessment that has been used to measure EF from early childhood to adulthood. It provides data on accuracy and reaction time (RT) across three different task blocks (hearts, flowers, and mixed). However, there is a lack of consensus in the field on how to score the task that makes it difficult to interpret findings across studies. The current study, which includes a demographically diverse population of kindergarteners from Boston Public Schools (N = 946), compares the predictive and concurrent validity of 30 ways of scoring H&F, each with a different combination of accuracy, RT, and task block(s). Our exploratory results provide evidence supporting the use of a two-vector average score based on Zelazo et al.'s approach of adding accuracy and RT scores together only after individuals pass a certain accuracy threshold. Findings have implications for scoring future tablet-based developmental assessments.

Resting-state functional abnormalities in ischemic stroke: a meta-analysis of fMRI studies

Ischemic stroke is a leading neurological cause of severe disabilities and death in the world and has a major negative impact on patients' quality of life. However, the neural mechanism of spontaneous fluctuating neuronal activity remains unclear. This meta-analysis explored brain activity during resting state in patients with ischemic stroke including 22 studies of regional homogeneity, amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation, and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (692 patients with ischemic stroke, 620 healthy controls, age range 35-80 years, 41% female, 175 foci). Results showed decreased regional activity in the bilateral caudate and thalamus and increased regional activity in the left superior occipital gyrus and left default mode network (precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex). Meta-analysis of the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation studies showed that increased activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus was reduced across the progression from acute to chronic phases. These findings may indicate that disruption of the subcortical areas and default mode network could be one of the core functional abnormalities in ischemic stroke. Altered brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus could be the imaging indicator of brain recovery/plasticity after stroke damage, which offers potential insight into developing prediction models and therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke rehabilitation and recovery.

The effects of working memory training on working memory, self-regulation, and analogical reasoning of preschool children

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This study examined the effects of working memory training (WMT) on WM and fluid intelligence. A novel four-pronged model of mediated learning, cognitive functions, task characteristics and metacognition is presented as a conceptual basis for the Modifiability of a Working Memory Program (MWMP). Our basic assumption is that increasing WM depends on a synchronized combination of the four components.

SAMPLE

A group of typically developed preschool children (n = 62) participated in the experimental group, receiving the MWMP. They were compared with a control group (n = 56) of preschool children who engaged in a substitute program. This comparison allowed us to discern the specific effects of the MWMP.

METHODS

All participants received tests of WM, self-regulation and analogical reasoning before and after the intervention. The MWMP was administered to children in the experimental group for 10 weekly sessions, each lasting 40 minutes, in small groups of two children. The children in the control group engaged in didactic activities that were part of a school curriculum routine for kindergartners for the same length of time.

RESULTS

We used ANCOVA analysis to compare the Treatment x Time with age and socioeconomic status as covariates. The findings revealed a higher improvement in some WM and self-regulation tests among children in the experimental group compared to those in the control group. However, no significant transfer effects were observed in analogical thinking.

CONCLUSION

The findings confirm the effectiveness of a non-computerized WMT among kindergartners and support our four-pronged theoretical model. We also discuss earlier findings on far-transfer effects and educational implications. We suggest that future WM studies adopt the following: (1) the development of training methods that are theoretically anchored; (2) training procedures should not rely heavily on computerized exercises but can be adapted to group characteristics, educational settings and cost-effectiveness aspects; (3) varying the task characteristics and training strategies to stimulate task-intrinsic motivation; (4) identifying training strategies to produce cognitive improvements underlying WM; (5) intervention should target individuals in early development as much as possible; (6) development of training procedures that facilitate motivation; and (7) providing empirical evidence of far-transfer effects for WM training. The empirical evidence should link gains in WM capacity and achievements in academic and other life domains.