Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones

A half-century of research on tuberculosis: Successes and challenges

Great progress has been made over the past half-century, but TB remains a formidable global health problem, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Understanding the mechanisms of pathogenesis and necessary and sufficient conditions for protection are critical. The need for inexpensive and sensitive point-of-care diagnostic tests for earlier detection of infection and disease, shorter and less-toxic drug regimens for drug-sensitive and -resistant TB, and a more effective vaccine than BCG is immense. New and better tools, greater support for international research, collaborations, and training will be required to dramatically reduce the burden of this devastating disease which still kills 1.6 million people annually.

"Doubt No More": Two Sizes Fit All

This Pillars of Immunology article is a commentary on “Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones,” a pivotal article written by P. Salgame, J. S. Abrams, C. Clayberger, H. Goldstein, J. Convit, R. L. Modlin, and B. R. Bloom, and published in Science, in 1991. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.254.5029.279.

The role of cytokines and vitamin D in vitiligo pathogenesis

Vitiligo is a pigment-related disease with a global prevalence of 0.2% to 1.8% associated with considerable burden on quality of life. The treatment is still a challenge because of relapses and/or incomplete re-pigmentation. Although the exact cause is still unclear, its pathogenesis seems to be justifiable with the autoimmune theory, supported by the results of clinical research. In this narrative review, we aimed to summarize the evidence related to cytokines and vitiligo development. This review is consisted of English articles published in PubMed and Google Scholar concerning levels of inflammatory mediators, especially interleukins, in vitiligo patients over the last 20 years. References of relevant articles were also considered for review. Crucial role of dysregulated levels of interleukins and their synergistic function to each other, in the onset or progression of the disease is evident. The theory of autoimmune vitiligo is reinforced by the results of the studies in the literature, due to the association of pathogenesis with increased secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators and reduction of anti-inflammatory mediators. Decreased vitamin D levels may have a considerable role in vitiligo development by affecting Th1- and Th17-related immune responses. Cytokines play an important role in the pathogenesis or progression of the disease. Moreover, we believe that decreased vitamin D level has a considerable role in vitiligo development by affecting Th1- and Th17-related immune responses.

Detection of anti-M. leprae antibodies in healthy children in China: A systematic review of Chinese literature

Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae) that mainly involves the skin and peripheral nerves, causing lifelong deformities and social stigma. As evident from the practically stable number of new cases reported worldwide during the past decade, transmission is still ongoing. On route to leprosy elimination, an appropriate tool is needed to monitor M. leprae transmission. M. leprae-specific antibodies indicate infection with M. leprae, but do not differentiate between present and past infection. Nevertheless, detection of M. leprae infection in young children per definition indicates recent infection. Hence, seroprevalence in young children can be used to monitor recent M. leprae transmission. Despite having eliminated leprosy in most parts of the country, studies on transmission conducted in China are not sufficiently reported in the English literature. Therefore, we performed a systematic review of Chinese literature describing serological studies in healthy children in (former) leprosy endemic areas in China, available in the Chinese databases: China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), China Science and Technology Journal Database (VIP), and Wanfang Database. From the 710 articles identified in these three Chinese databases, only four full-text articles fulfilled all inclusion criteria regarding sufficiently detailed descriptions of anti-M. leprae antibodies in healthy children. Two additional papers were identified through snowballing, resulting in a total of six articles considered for this review reporting quantitative serological data from three Chinese provinces between 1987 and 2003. All studies used ELISAs to quantify antibody levels. Seroprevalence in healthy children ranged from 7.93% (Yunnan) to 32.35% (Jiangsu). If the same method was used (in Jiangsu), direct comparison of studies at different time points indicated that decrease in disease prevalence (0.28 to 0.16 per 100,000) or new case detection rate (2.6 to 1.0 per 100,000) from 1987-1991 corresponded to decrease in anti-M. leprae antibody seroprevalence (30.86% to 22.61%) in healthy children. Thus, these findings are consistent with the previous finding that anti-M. leprae antibody seroprevalence in young children represents a surrogate indicator to monitor transmission.

Detection and Monitoring of Mycobacterium leprae Infection in Nine Banded Armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) Using a Quantitative Rapid Test

Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae with tropism for skin and peripheral nerves. Incessant transmission in endemic areas is still impeding elimination of leprosy. Although detection of M. leprae infection remains a challenge in asymptomatic individuals, the presence of antibodies specific for phenolglycolipid-I (PGL-I) correlate with bacterial load. Therefore, serosurveillance utilizing field-friendly tests detecting anti-PGL-I antibodies, can be applied to identify those who may transmit bacteria and to study (reduction of) M. leprae transmission. However, serology based on antibody detection cannot discriminate between past and present M. leprae infection in humans, nor can it detect individuals carrying low bacillary loads. In humans, anti-PGL-I IgM levels are long-lasting and usually detected in more individuals than anti-PGL-I IgG levels. Inherent to the characteristically long incubation time of leprosy, IgM/IgG relations (antibody kinetics) in leprosy patients and infected individuals are not completely clear. To investigate the antibody response directly after infection, we have measured antibody levels by ELISA, in longitudinal samples of experimentally M. leprae infected, susceptible nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). In addition, we assessed the user- and field-friendly, low-cost lateral flow assay (LFA) utilizing upconverting reporter particles (UCP), developed for quantitative detection of human anti-PGL-I IgM (UCP-LFA), to detect treatment- or vaccination-induced changes in viable bacterial load. Our results show that serum levels of anti-PGL-I IgM, and to a lesser extent IgG, significantly increase soon after experimental M. leprae infection in armadillos. In view of leprosy phenotypes in armadillos, this animal model can provide useful insight into antibody kinetics in early infection in the various spectral forms of human leprosy. The UCP-LFA for quantitative detection of anti-PGL-I IgM allows monitoring the efficacy of vaccination and rifampin-treatment in the armadillo leprosy model, thereby providing a convenient tool to evaluate the effects of drugs and vaccines and new diagnostics.

The Mechanism of CD8+ T Cells for Reducing Myofibroblasts Accumulation during Renal Fibrosis

Renal fibrosis is a hallmark of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and a common manifestation of end-stage renal disease that is associated with multiple types of renal insults and functional loss of the kidney. Unresolved renal inflammation triggers fibrotic processes by promoting the activation and expansion of extracellular matrix-producing fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. Growing evidence now indicates that diverse T cells and macrophage subpopulations play central roles in the inflammatory microenvironment and fibrotic process. The present review aims to elucidate the role of CD8⁺ T cells in renal fibrosis, and identify its possible mechanisms in the inflammatory microenvironment.

Diversified Stimuli-Induced Inflammatory Pathways Cause Skin Pigmentation

The production of melanin pigments by melanocytes and their quantity, quality, and distribution play a decisive role in determining human skin, eye, and hair color, and protect the skin from adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and oxidative stress from various environmental pollutants. Melanocytes reside in the basal layer of the interfollicular epidermis and are compensated by melanocyte stem cells in the follicular bulge area. Various stimuli such as eczema, microbial infection, ultraviolet light exposure, mechanical injury, and aging provoke skin inflammation. These acute or chronic inflammatory responses cause inflammatory cytokine production from epidermal keratinocytes as well as dermal fibroblasts and other cells, which in turn stimulate melanocytes, often resulting in skin pigmentation. It is confirmed by some recent studies that several interleukins (ILs) and other inflammatory mediators modulate the proliferation and differentiation of human epidermal melanocytes and also promote or inhibit expression of melanogenesis-related gene expression directly or indirectly, thereby participating in regulation of skin pigmentation. Understanding of mechanisms of skin pigmentation due to inflammation helps to elucidate the relationship between inflammation and skin pigmentation regulation and can guide development of new therapeutic pathways for treating pigmented dermatosis. This review covers the mechanistic aspects of skin pigmentation caused by inflammation.

Localized Sampling Enables Monitoring of Cell State via Inline Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Nascent advanced therapies, including regenerative medicine and cell and gene therapies, rely on the production of cells in bioreactors that are highly heterogeneous in both space and time. Unfortunately, advanced therapies have failed to reach a wide patient population due to unreliable manufacturing processes that result in batch variability and cost prohibitive production. This can be attributed largely to a void in existing process analytical technologies (PATs) capable of characterizing the secreted critical quality attribute (CQA) biomolecules that correlate with the final product quality. The Dynamic Sampling Platform (DSP) is a PAT for cell bioreactor monitoring that can be coupled to a suite of sensor techniques to provide real-time feedback on spatial and temporal CQA content in situ. In this study, DSP is coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and direct-from-culture sampling to obtain measures of CQA content in bulk media and the cell microenvironment throughout the entire cell culture process (≈3 weeks). Post hoc analysis of this real-time data reveals that sampling from the microenvironment enables cell state monitoring (e.g., confluence, differentiation). These results demonstrate that an effective PAT should incorporate both spatial and temporal resolution to serve as an effective input for feedback control in biomanufacturing.

Hacking the host: exploitation of macrophage polarization by intracellular bacterial pathogens

Macrophages play an integral role in host defenses against intracellular bacterial pathogens. A remarkable plasticity allows for adaptation to the needs of the host to orchestrate versatile innate immune responses to a variety of microbial threats. Several bacterial pathogens have adapted to macrophage plasticity and modulate the classical (M1) or alternative (M2) activation bias towards a polarization state that increases fitness for intracellular survival. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the host macrophage and intracellular bacterial interface; highlighting the roles of M1/M2 polarization in host defense and the mechanisms employed by several important intracellular pathogens to modulate macrophage polarization to favor persistence or proliferation. Understanding macrophage polarization in the context of disease caused by different bacterial pathogens is important for the identification of targets for therapeutic intervention.

Astragali Radix (Huangqi): A promising edible immunomodulatory herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Astragali Radix (AR, Huangqi in Chinese), the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao or A. membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge., possesses diverse therapeutic effects against fatigue, dyspepsia, diarrhea, heart diseases, hepatitis, and anemia. In recent years, increasing evidence has indicated the multiple immunomodulatory activities of AR in preclinical and clinical studies.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review attempts to elaborate the immunomodulatory effects of AR and its potential application in the treatment of immune related diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search AR was carried out using multiple internationally recognized databases (including Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Wiley, ACS, Springer, Taylor & Francis, and CNKI).

RESULTS

The immunomodulatory effects of AR are closely attributed to its active constituents such as polysaccharides, saponins, and flavonoids. We also demonstrate that AR can be used as a potential therapeutic intervention for immune related diseases through regulating immune organs, mucosal immune, and immune system (innate immunity and acquired immunity).

CONCLUSION

AR promotes the development of immune organs, enhances mucosal immune function, increases the quantity and phagocytic capacity of innate immunity, promotes the maturation and differentiation of acquired immunity cells, and improves the expression of antibodies in acquired immunity. We believe that AR has a broad research space in the adjuvant treatment of immune related diseases, which could be a breakthrough point to improve the application value of AR.

Genetic polymorphisms in the Interleukins IL1B, IL4, and IL6 are associated with concomitant periodontitis and type 2 diabetes mellitus in Brazilian patients

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IL10, IL1A, IL1B, IL4, TNFA, IL6, OPG, RANK, and RANKL genes, "classically" related with periodontitis, could be associated with susceptibility to T2DM, and also with both diseases concomitantly.

BACKGROUND

There are common pathogenic mechanisms in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and periodontitis, but the knowledge of the genetic aspect of this is limited. In patients affected by concomitant T2DM and periodontitis, whose incidence is increasing, there is scarce information regarding the gene-phenotype association, including whether there are genes able to influence both diseases as comorbidities.

METHODS

Periodontal clinical parameters and biochemical profile (Insulin, Fasting Glycemia, HbA1c, Triglycerides, Total Cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, and LDL-cholesterol) data were obtained from 894 individuals divided into following three groups: Healthy (H; n = 347), Periodontitis (P; n = 348), and Periodontitis + T2DM (P + T2DM; n = 199). DNA from oral epithelial cells was collected for genotyping. Associations between SNPs and pathologies were tested by multiple logistic regression models, adjusting for age, sex, and smoking habits. We also investigated whether there are sex or smoking effects of each SNP in these phenotypes.

RESULTS

The rs1143634-GA (IL1B) SNP showed significantly less likely to develop P + T2DM for all population and mainly for women (adjusted OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.16-0.88), while women carrying the rs224320 CT (IL4) were more susceptible to develop P + T2DM (adjusted OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.04-3.15). Men carrying the rs1800795-CC (IL6) genotype were less likely to develop T2DM (adjusted OR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.02-0.70, P = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Some SNPs in the IL1B, IL4, and IL6 genes demonstrated sex-influenced association with concomitant periodontitis and T2DM, increasing the evidence of a common genetic component between these diseases and contributing with the understanding of their common pathogenic mechanisms.

The Roles of CD8+ T Cell Subsets in Antitumor Immunity

Effector CD8⁺ T cells are typically thought to be a homogenous group of cytotoxic cells that produce interferon-(IFN) γ. However, recent findings have challenged this notion because multiple subsets of CD8⁺ T cells have been described, each with distinct effector functions and cytotoxic potential. These subsets, referred to as the Tc subsets, have also been detected in tumor microenvironments (TMEs), where they potentially influence the antitumor response and patient outcomes. In this review, we highlight the prevalence and roles of Tc subsets in the TME. We also discuss their therapeutic applications in the context of adoptive immunotherapy to treat cancer.

Novel scientific approaches and future research directions in understanding ITP

Diagnosis of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) and prediction of response to therapy remain significant and constant challenges in hematology. In patients who present with ITP, the platelet count is frequently used as a surrogate marker for disease severity, and so often determines the need for therapy. Although there is a clear link between thrombocytopenia and hemostasis, a direct correlation between the extent of thrombocytopenia and bleeding symptoms, especially at lower platelet counts is lacking. Thus, bleeding in ITP is heterogeneous, unpredictable, and nearly always based on a multitude of risk factors, beyond the platelet count. The development of an evidence-based, validated risk stratification model for ITP treatment is a major goal in the ITP community and this review discusses new laboratory approaches to evaluate the various pathobiologies of ITP that may inform such a model.

Roles of inflammation factors in melanogenesis (Review)

The occurrence of hyperpigmentation or hypopigmentation after inflammation is a common condition in dermatology and cosmetology. Since the exact mechanism of its occurrence is not yet known, prevention and treatment are troublesome. Previous studies have confirmed that α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, stem cell factor and other factors can promote melanogenesis-related gene expression through the activation of signaling pathways. Recent studies have revealed that a variety of inflammatory mediators can also participate in the regulation of melanogenesis in melanocytes. In this review, we summarized that interleukin-18, interleukin-33, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, interferon-γ, prostaglandin E2 have the effect of promoting melanogenesis, while interleukin-1, interleukin-4, interleukin-6, interleukin-17 and tumor necrosis factor can inhibit melanogenesis. Further studies have found that these inflammatory factors may activate or inhibit melanogenesis-related signaling pathways (such as protein kinase A and mitogen activated protein kinase) by binding to corresponding receptors, thereby promoting or inhibiting the expression of melanogenesis-related genes and regulating skin pigmentation processes. This suggests that the development of drugs or treatment methods from the perspective of regulating inflammation can provide new ideas and new targets for the treatment of pigmented dermatosis. This review outlines the current understanding of the inflammation factors' roles in melanogenesis.

Single-cell transcriptomics of human T cells reveals tissue and activation signatures in health and disease

Human T cells coordinate adaptive immunity in diverse anatomic compartments through production of cytokines and effector molecules, but it is unclear how tissue site influences T cell persistence and function. Here, we use single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) to define the heterogeneity of human T cells isolated from lungs, lymph nodes, bone marrow and blood, and their functional responses following stimulation. Through analysis of >50,000 resting and activated T cells, we reveal tissue T cell signatures in mucosal and lymphoid sites, and lineage-specific activation states across all sites including distinct effector states for CD8+ T cells and an interferon-response state for CD4+ T cells. Comparing scRNA-seq profiles of tumor-associated T cells to our dataset reveals predominant activated CD8+ compared to CD4+ T cell states within multiple tumor types. Our results therefore establish a high dimensional reference map of human T cell activation in health for analyzing T cells in disease.

Identification of a systemic interferon-γ inducible antimicrobial gene signature in leprosy patients undergoing reversal reaction

Reversal reactions (RRs) in leprosy are characterized by a reduction in the number of bacilli in lesions associated with an increase in cell-mediated immunity against the intracellular bacterium Mycobacterium leprae, the causative pathogen of leprosy. To identify the mechanisms that contribute to cell-mediated immunity in leprosy, we measured changes in the whole blood-derived transcriptome of patients with leprosy before, during and after RR. We identified an ‘RR signature’ of 1017 genes that were upregulated at the time of the clinical diagnosis of RR. Using weighted gene correlated network analysis (WGCNA), we detected a module of 794 genes, bisque4, that was significantly correlated with RR, of which 434 genes were part of the RR signature. An enrichment for both IFN-γ and IFN-β downstream gene pathways was present in the RR signature as well as the RR upregulated genes in the bisque4 module, including those encoding proteins of the guanylate binding protein (GBP) family that contributes to antimicrobial responses against mycobacteria. Specifically, GBP1, GBP2, GBP3 and GBP5 mRNAs were upregulated in the RR peripheral blood transcriptome, with GBP1, GBP2 and GBP5 mRNAs also upregulated in the RR disease lesion transcriptome. These data indicate that RRs involve a systemic upregulation of IFN-γ downstream genes including GBP family members as part of the host antimicrobial response against mycobacteria.

Reversal reaction (RR) is a major cause of tissue injury and disabilities in leprosy, resulting from the rapid onset of cell-mediated immune responses to the intracellular bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. To identify the mechanisms related to the increase in cell-mediated immunity in RR, we measured changes in the whole blood-derived transcriptome of patients with leprosy before, during and after RR. We identified that RRs are associated with an IFN-γ induced inflammatory response including an antimicrobial gene network containing the GBP1, GBP2, GBP3 and GBP5 mRNAs in the peripheral blood. Furthermore, we show that GBP1, GBP2 and GBP5 mRNAs are also upregulated at the site of disease in RR patients. In summary, our study suggests that RR involves a systemic induction of IFN-γ regulated genes that contributes to an antimicrobial response against the pathogen, releasing ligands and antigens that can further amplify the inflammatory response.

Diet and nutrition: An important risk factor in leprosy

Leprosy, once considered as poor man's disease may cause severe neurological complications and physical disabilities. Classification of leprosy depends upon the cell mediated and humoral immune responses of the host, from tuberculoid to lepromatous stage. Current therapy to prevent the disease is not only very lengthy but also consists of expensive multiple antibiotics in combination. Treatment and the duration depend on the bacillary loads, from six months in paucibacillary to a year in multibacillary leprosy. Although as per WHO recommendations, these antibiotics are freely available but still out of reach to patients of many rural areas of the world. In this review, we have focused on the nutritional aspect during the multi-drug therapy of leprosy along with the role of nutrition, particularly malnutrition, on susceptibility of Mycobacterium leprae and development of clinical symptoms. We further discussed the diet plan for the patients and how diet plans can affect the immune responses during the disease.

Potential role of regulatory B cells in immunological diseases

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) are immune-modulating cells that affect the immune system by producing cytokines or cellular interactions. These cells have immunomodulatory effects on the immune system by cytokine production. The abnormalities in Bregs could be involved in various disorders such as autoimmunity, chronic infectious disease, malignancies, allergies, and primary immunodeficiencies are immune-related scenarios. Ongoing investigation could disclose the biology and the exact phenotype of these cells and also the assigned mechanisms of action of each subset, as a result, potential therapeutic strategies for treating immune-related anomalies. In this review, we collect the findings of human and mouse Bregs and the therapeutic efforts to change the pathogenicity of these cells in diverse disease.

Effect of sulfated yeast beta-glucan on cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in chickens

Immunosuppression is a condition that causes large economic losses in the poultry industry. To investigate the effect of sulfated yeast beta-glucan on immunosuppression, two hundred and fifty 11-day-old chickens were randomly assigned to five groups, and except for the normal control group, injected with cyclophosphamide once a day for 3 successive days. At 14 days of age, sulfated yeast beta-glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae(sGSC) was orally administered at three doses to the chickens in three experimental groups for 14 days. On days 7 and 14 after the first sGSC dose, serum cytokine concentrations and peripheral lymphocyte proliferation were measured. Gut microbiota, organ index, and histopathological changes in the bursa were investigated on day 14. The results demonstrated that at 4 mg/kg, sGSC could significantly enhance the bursa index and IFN-γ and IL-6 concentrations, decrease TGF-β1 concentration, and promote lymphocyte proliferation; it could effectively decrease histopathological changes in the bursa and improve gut Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus populations in cecal digesta of chickens compared with the model control group. This indicated that sGSC could effectively alleviate immunosuppression and regulate the beneficial microbiota in the gut.

Influence of chemokines on the endothelial permeability and cellular transmigration during dengue

During a pathogenic infection, an inflammatory process is triggered in which several inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, complement system components, nitric oxide, and others induce integrity alteration on the endothelial barrier. Chemokines are responsible for regulating leukocyte trafficking under homeostatic conditions as well as activating immune system cells under inflammatory conditions. They are crucial molecules in the early stages of infection, leading to the recruitment of immune cells, namely neutrophils, monocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, natural killer T cells (NKT), dendritic cells (DC), T lymphocytes and all cells expressing chemokine receptors for inflammatory sites. Other functions, such as collagen production, tissue repair, a proliferation of hematopoietic precursors and angiogenesis, are also performed by these molecules. Chemokines, amongst inflammatory mediators, play a key role in dengue immunopathogenesis. Dengue fever is a disease caused by the dengue virus (DENV). It is characterized by a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic cases to mild and severe symptomatic ones. As for the latter, the appearance of hemorrhagic manifestations and changes in vascular permeability may lead the patient to develop cavitary effusions, organ involvement, and even death. As chemokines exert an influence on various homeostatic and inflammatory processes, acting vigorously on vascular endothelial activation and cell migration, the main purpose of this chapter is to discuss the influence of chemokines on the alteration of endothelial permeability and migration of T lymphocytes in DENV infection.

Polymorphisms in Th17-related genes and the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease

The prognosis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) including Graves' disease (GD) and Hashimoto's disease (HD) is difficult to predict. We previously suggested that Th17 cells may be associated with the pathogenesis of AITD. However, the association between gene polymorphisms in Th17-related genes and the prognosis of AITD was not clarified. To clarify this association, we genotyped 12 polymorphisms in 11 Th17-related genes (IL1Ra, IL6R, IL17R, IL21R, IL23R, CCR6, SOCS3, RORC, IL17A, IL17F and IL21) in 142 HD patients including 58 patients with severe HD and 48 patients with mild HD, 170 patients with GD including 81 patients with intractable GD and 49 patients with GD in remission, and 84 healthy volunteers. The frequency of the IL17F rs763780 T allele was higher in patients with severe HD than in patients with mild HD (p = .008). The frequency of the IL17R rs9606615 T allele was higher in patients with HD than in normal subjects (p = .011). The frequencies of the SOCS3 rs4969170 AA genotype, CCR6 rs3093024 AA genotype, and IL21 rs907715 AA genotype were higher in patients with intractable GD than in patients with GD in remission (p = .035, p = .002 and p = .030, respectively). In conclusion, IL17R rs9607715 and IL17F rs763780 polymorphisms are associated with the susceptibility and severity of HD, respectively. IL21 rs907715, SOCS3 rs4969170 and CCR6 rs3093024 polymorphisms are associated with the intractability of GD.

Association of the polymorphisms in Th2 chemotaxis-related genes with the development and prognosis of autoimmune thyroid diseases

The prognosis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) is difficult to predict. Th2 cells suppress the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells, which are associated with the prognosis of AITD. However, there are few reports as to whether Th2 chemotaxis-related genes, such as CRTH2 (chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells), IL-25, TARC/CCL17 (Thymus and activation regulated chemokine/chemokine ligand 17) or STAT6 (Signal transducer and activator of transcription 6), affect the pathology of and/or susceptibility to AITD. Therefore, in this study, we genotyped functional SNPs in these genes to clarify the association of the genetic differences of genes related to Th2 differentiation and chemotaxis with the development and the prognosis of AITDs. The frequencies of the AA genotype of the CRTH2 rs545659 SNP and the CC genotype and the C allele of the CRTH2 rs634681 SNP were higher in patients with severe HD than in patients with mild HD. The frequency of the CC genotype in the TARC rs223828 SNP was higher in patients with intractable GD than in patients with GD in remission. In conclusion, the CRTH2 rs545659 and rs634681 SNPs were associated with the severity of HD, and the TARC/CCL17 rs223828 SNP was associated with the intractability of GD.

The role of interleukins in vitiligo: a systematic review

Vitiligo is a disorder of the skin that causes depigmentation and asymptomatic macules whose exact cause is still unclear. Although its aetiology is not fully elucidated, the main theory of its pathomechanism is that it is associated with the autoimmune process. There is few summarized information about the role of inflammatory mediators, as interleukins, in vitiligo, so our aim was to present a systematic review of the role of interleukins in vitiligo, focusing on interleukins. In this review, we included all studies assessing interleukin levels in vitiligo patients conducted up to June 2017. Quality assessment of these studies was performed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). The interleukins mainly involved were IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-17. The studies highlight the crucial role of IL-17 in the onset and progression of the disease, and its synergistic action with IL-2, IL-6 and IL-33. Dysregulated levels of the interleukins were also correlated with the stage of disease, the affected skin surface area, and indicated as the main factor for lymphocyte infiltration found in depigmented regions. These findings illustrate the growing need for new therapies targeting vitiligo and further research into the role of interleukins as an area of particular interest.

Interleukin-10 Producing Regulatory B Cells Transformed CD4+CD25- Into Tregs and Enhanced Regulatory T Cells Function in Human Leprosy

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) are known to exhibit their regulatory functions through interleukin-10 (IL-10) cytokine which suppress inflammation. There are only a few studies explaining the phenotype and functioning of these cells in contribution to host immunity in leprosy. Here, we evaluated the role of IL-10 producing Bregs in the pathogenesis of leprosy and assessed their immunoregulatory effects on Tregs and effector T cells. We found an increased frequency of Bregs and increased expression of their immune modulatory molecules (IL-10, FoxP3, and PDL-1) in leprosy patients. The potential immunoregulatory mechanism of Bregs was also investigated using MACS sorted Teff (CD4⁺CD25⁻) and Treg (CD4⁺CD25⁺) cells were cocultured with Bregs to elucidate the effects of Bregs on effector T and regulatory T cells. Cell coculture results showed that purified Bregs cells from leprosy patients convert CD4⁺CD25⁻ cells into CD4⁺CD25⁺ cells. Cell coculture experiments also demonstrated that leprosy derived IL-10 producing Bregs enhance FoxP3 and PD-1 expression in Tregs and enhanced Tregs activity. Blocking of IL-10 receptor confirmed that IL-10 producing Breg has immunomodulatory effect on Tregs and effector T cells as effector T cells are not converted into Tregs and enhanced expression of FoxP3 and PD-1 was not observed on Tregs. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that IL-10 producing Breg cells play an important mechanism in controlling the immunopathogenesis of leprosy and have an immunomodulatory effect on Tregs and effector T cells. Our findings may pave way for novel targets of IL-10 producing Bregs for immunotherapy in leprosy patients.

Exposure of Human CD8+ T Cells to Type-2 Cytokines Impairs Division and Differentiation and Induces Limited Polarization

Effector CD8+ T cells generally produce type-1 cytokines and mediators of the perforin/granzyme cytolytic pathway, yet type-2-polarized CD8+ cells (Tc2) are detected in type-2 (T2) cytokine-driven diseases such as asthma. It is unclear whether T2 cytokine exposure during activation is sufficient to polarize human CD8+ T cells. To address this question, a protocol was developed for high-efficiency activation of human CD8+ T cells in which purified single cells or populations were stimulated with plate-bound anti-CD3 and anti-CD11a mAb for up to 8 days in T2 polarizing or neutral conditions, before functional analysis. Activation of CD8+ naïve T cells (TN) in T2 compared with neutral conditions decreased the size of single-cell clones, although early division kinetics were equivalent, indicating an effect on overall division number. Activation of TN in T2 conditions followed by brief anti-CD3 mAb restimulation favored expression of T2 cytokines, GATA3 and Eomes, and lowered expression of type-1 cytokines, Prf1, Gzmb, T-BET, and Prdm1. However, IL-4 was only weakly expressed, and PMA and ionomycin restimulation favored IFN-γ over IL-4 expression. Activation of TN in T2 compared with neutral conditions prevented downregulation of costimulatory (CD27, CD28) and lymph-node homing receptors (CCR7) and CD95 acquisition, which typically occur during differentiation into effector phenotypes. CD3 was rapidly and substantially induced after activation in neutral, but not T2 conditions, potentially contributing to greater division and differentiation in neutral conditions. CD8+ central memory T cells (TCM) were less able to enter division upon reactivation in T2 compared with neutral conditions, and were more refractory to modulating IFN-γ and IL-4 production than CD8+ TN. In summary, while activation of TN in T2 conditions can generate T2 cytokine-biased cells, IL-4 expression is weak, T2 bias is lost upon strong restimulation, differentiation, and division are arrested, and reactivation of TCM is reduced in T2 conditions. Taken together, this suggests that exposure to T2 cytokines during activation may not be sufficient to generate and retain human Tc2 cells.

Immunological changes of T helper cells in flow cytometer-sorted CD4+ T cells from patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis

Recent incidence rates for Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and hypothyroidism are higher than those of previous studies. Previous studies indicated that T helper cells may have a major role in the pathogenesis and development of HT, but there is no consensus in the literature. The aim of the present study was to explore the peripheral T helper cell response in the different stages of HT. In this cross-sectional study, we performed flow cytometry analysis to determine the various T cell subsets of 389 patients with HT (34 patients with HT who developed overt hypothyroidism, and 148 patients with HT who developed subclinical hypothyroidism), as well as 51 healthy controls. Anti-thyroid antibodies, and thyroid function were measured. The findings demonstrated that the proportion of peripheral Th1 cells was significantly lower in patients with HT than in healthy euthyroid controls (P<0.001), and the proportion of peripheral Th2, Treg cells was significantly higher in patients with HT than in healthy euthyroid controls (P<0.001). Therefore the Th1/Th2 ratio was significantly lower in HT patients than in healthy euthyroid controls (P<0.001). The Th17/Treg ratio in HT patients was significantly lower than that control subjects (P<0.001). Th1 proportions in patients with overt hypothyroidism HT were significantly higher than in subclinical hypothyroidism HT patients (P=0.031). In conclusion, the findings of the present study demonstrated that there is an increased immune deviation of Th1 lymphocytes and compensatory accelerating activity of Treg cells in HT, and the peripheral Th1 cells from the HT patients correlated to the developmental stage of hypothyroidism.

A fluorescent microbead-based microfluidic immunoassay chip for immune cell cytokine secretion quantification

Quantitative and dynamic analyses of immune cell secretory cytokines are essential for precise determination and characterization of the "immune phenotype" of patients for clinical diagnosis and treatment of immune-related diseases. Although multiple methods including the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been applied for cytokine detection, such measurements remain very challenging in real-time, high-throughput, and high-sensitivity immune cell analysis. In this paper, we report a highly integrated microfluidic device that allows for on-chip isolation, culture, and stimulation, as well as sensitive and dynamic cytokine profiling of immune cells. Such a microfluidic sensing chip is integrated with cytometric fluorescent microbeads for real-time and multiplexed monitoring of immune cell cytokine secretion dynamics, consuming a relatively small extracted sample volume (160 nl) without interrupting the immune cell culture. Furthermore, it is integrated with a Taylor dispersion-based mixing unit in each detection chamber that shortens the immunoassay period down to less than 30 minutes. We demonstrate the profiling of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokine secretions (e.g. interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factors) of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with a sensitivity of 20 pg ml-1 and a sample volume of 160 nl per detection. Further applications of this automated, rapid, and high-throughput microfluidic immunophenotyping platform can help unleash the mechanisms of systemic immune responses, and enable efficient assessments of the pathologic immune status for clinical diagnosis and immune therapy.

Functional polymorphisms affecting Th1 differentiation are associated with the severity of autoimmune thyroid diseases

The prognosis for autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs), such as Hashimoto's disease (HD) and Graves' disease (GD), varies among patients. Interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-18 also induce Th1 differentiation, and SOCS1 (Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1) and TIM-3 (T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-3) are known to be negative regulators of Th1 cells. To clarify the association of functional polymorphisms in the IL12, IL12Rβ1, IL18, SOCS1 and TIM3 genes with the intractability and severity of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), we genotyped these polymorphisms in 151 GD patients, including 61 patients with intractable GD and 51 patients with GD in remission, in 140 HD patients, including 59 patients with severe HD and 55 patients with mild HD, and in 74 healthy controls. The frequency of the IL18 -607CC genotype which correlates with a high production of IL-18, was significantly higher in patients with GD in remission than in those with intractable GD (p=0.0178). The -607C allele was significantly higher in patients with severe HD than in those with mild HD (p=0.0050). The -607CC genotype in IL18 gene may be protective against the intractability of GD, and the -607C allele may enhance the severity of HD.

Mechanisms of Defense against Intracellular Pathogens Mediated by Human Macrophages

The key question our work has sought to address has been, "What are the necessary and sufficient conditions that engender protection from intracellular pathogens in the human host?" The origins of this work derive from a long-standing interest in the mechanisms of protection against two such paradigmatic intracellular pathogens, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, that have brilliantly adapted to the human host. It was obvious that these pathogens, which cause chronic diseases and persist in macrophages, must have acquired subtle strategies to resist host microbicidal mechanisms, yet since the vast majority of individuals infected with M. tuberculosis do not develop disease, there must be some potent human antimicrobial mechanisms. What follows is not a comprehensive review of the vast literature on the role of human macrophages in protection against infectious disease, but a summary of the research in our two laboratories with collaborators that we hope has contributed to some understanding of mechanisms of resistance and pathogenesis. While mouse models revealed some necessary conditions for protection, e.g., innate immunity, Th1 cells and their cytokines, and major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted T cells, here we emphasize multiple antimicrobial mechanisms that exist in human macrophages that differ from those of most experimental animals. Prominent here is the vitamin D-dependent antimicrobial pathway common to human macrophages activated by innate and acquired immune responses, mediated by antimicrobial peptides, e.g., cathelicidin, through an interleukin-15- and interleukin-32-dependent common pathway that is necessary for macrophage killing of M. tuberculosis in vitro.

Sulforaphane inhibits the interferon-γ-induced expression of MIG, IP-10 and I-TAC in INS‑1 pancreatic β-cells through the downregulation of IRF-1, STAT-1 and PKB

Sulforaphane (SFN) is a dietary isothiocyanate abundantly available in cruciferous vegetables and has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. Chemokines are important mediators of inflammation and immune responses due to their ability to recruit and activate macrophages and leukocytes. To date, little is known about the SFN-mediated regulation of chemokine expression in pancreatic β-cells. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects and mechanisms of SFN on the interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-induced expression of a subset of chemokines, including monokine induced by IFN-γ (MIG), IFN-inducible protein of 10 kDa (IP-10) and IFN-inducible T‑cell alpha chemoattractant (I-TAC), in INS‑1 cells, a rat pancreatic β-cell line. Notably, IFN-γ treatment led to an increase in the mRNA expression levels of MIG, IP-10 and I-TAC in the INS‑1 cells. However, SFN strongly blocked the mRNA expressions of MIG, IP-10 and I-TAC induced by IFN-γ in INS‑1 cells. On the mechanistic level, SFN significanlty decreased not only the mRNA expression levels of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), but also the phosphorylation levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT-1) and protein kinase B (PKB) which were induced by IFN-γ in the INS‑1 cells. Pharmacological inhibition experiments further revealed that treatment with JAK inhibitor I weakly inhibited the IFN-γ-induced expression of IP-10, whereas it strongly suppressed the IFN-γ-induced expression of MIG and I-TAC in the INS‑1 cells. Moreover, treatment with LY294002, a PI3K/PKB inhibitor, was able to slightly repress IFN‑γ‑induced expressions of MIG and I-TAC, but not IP-10, in INS‑1 cells. Importantly, the IFN-γ-induced increase in the expression levels of MIG, IP-10 and I-TAC in the INS-1 cells was strongly inhibited by SFN, but not by other natural substances, such as curcumin, sanguinarine, resveratrol, triptolide and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), suggesting the specificity of SFN in downregulating the levels of these chemokines. To the best of our knowledge, these results collectively demonstrate for the first time that SFN strongly inhibits the IFN-γ-induced expression of MIG, IP-10 and I-TAC in INS‑1 cells and this inhibition is, at least in part, mediated through the reduced expression and phosphorylation levels of IRF-1, STAT-1 and PKB.

Characterization of MicroRNA Expression Profiles and Identification of Potential Biomarkers in Leprosy

Leprosy is an important cause of disability in the developing world. Early diagnosis is essential to allow for cure and to interrupt transmission of this infection. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important factors for host-pathogen interaction and they have been identified as biomarkers for various infectious diseases. The expression profile of 377 microRNAs were analyzed by TaqMan low-density array (TLDA) in skin lesions of tuberculoid and lepromatous leprosy patients as well as skin specimens from healthy controls. In a second step, 16 microRNAs were selected for validation experiments with reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) in skin samples from new individuals. Principal-component analysis followed by logistic regression model and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were performed to evaluate the diagnostic potential of selected miRNAs. Four patterns of differential expression were identified in the TLDA experiment, suggesting a diagnostic potential of miRNAs in leprosy. After validation experiments, a combination of four miRNAs (miR-101, miR-196b, miR-27b, and miR-29c) was revealed as able to discriminate between healthy control and leprosy patients with 80% sensitivity and 91% specificity. This set of miRNAs was also able to discriminate between lepromatous and tuberculoid patients with a sensitivity of 83% and 80% specificity. In this work, it was possible to identify a set of miRNAs with good diagnostic potential for leprosy.

Molecular markers for resistance against infectious diseases of economic importance

Huge livestock population of India is under threat by a large number of endemic infectious (bacterial, viral, and parasitic) diseases. These diseases are associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality, particularly in exotic and crossbred cattle. Beside morbidity and mortality, economic losses by these diseases occur through reduced fertility, production losses, etc. Some of the major infectious diseases which have great economic impact on Indian dairy industries are tuberculosis (TB), Johne's disease (JD), mastitis, tick and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs), foot and mouth disease, etc. The development of effective strategies for the assessment and control of infectious diseases requires a better understanding of pathogen biology, host immune response, and diseases pathogenesis as well as the identification of the associated biomarkers. Indigenous cattle (Bos indicus) are reported to be comparatively less affected than exotic and crossbred cattle. However, genetic basis of resistance in indigenous cattle is not well documented. The association studies of few of the genes associated with various diseases, namely, solute carrier family 11 member 1, Toll-like receptors 1, with TB; Caspase associated recruitment domain 15, SP110 with JD; CACNA2D1, CD14 with mastitis and interferon gamma, BoLA--DRB3.2 alleles with TTBDs, etc., are presented. Breeding for genetic resistance is one of the promising ways to control the infectious diseases. High host resistance is the most important method for controlling such diseases, but till today no breed is total immune. Therefore, work may be undertaken under the hypothesis that the different susceptibility to these diseases are exhibited by indigenous and crossbred cattle is due to breed-specific differences in the dealing of infected cells with other immune cells, which ultimately influence the immune response responded against infections. Achieving maximum resistance to these diseases is the ultimate goal, is technically possible to achieve, and is permanent. Progress could be enhanced through introgression of resistance genes to breeds with low resistance. The quest for knowledge of the genetic basis for infectious diseases in indigenous livestock is strongly warranted.

Technical Considerations for the Generation of Adoptively Transferred T Cells in Cancer Immunotherapy

A significant function of the immune system is the surveillance and elimination of aberrant cells that give rise to cancer. Even when tumors are well established and metastatic, immune-mediated spontaneous regressions have been documented. While there are have been various forms of immunotherapy, one of the most widely studied for almost 40 years is adoptive cellular immunotherapy, but its success has yet to be fully realized. Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) is a therapeutic modality that has intrigued physicians and researchers for its many theoretical benefits. Preclinical investigations and human trials have utilized natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, T-cells or B-cells for ACT with the most intense research focused on T-cell ACT. T-cells are exquisitely specific to the target of its T-cell receptor (TCR), thus potentially reducing the amount of collateral damage and off-target effects from treatment. T-cells also possess a memory subset that may reduce the risk of recurrence of a cancer after the successful treatment of the primary disease. There are several options for the source of T-cells used in the generation of cells for ACT. Perhaps the most widely known source is T-cells generated from tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). However, studies have also employed peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), lymph nodes, and even induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) as a source of T-cells. Several important technical considerations exist regarding benefits and limitations of each source of T-cells. Unique aspects of T-cells factor into their ability to be efficacious in ACT including the total number of cells available for ACT, the anti-tumor efficacy on a per cell basis, the repertoire of TCRs specific to tumor cells, and their ability to traffic to various organs that harbor tumor. Current research is attempting to unlock the full potential of these cells to effectively and safely treat cancer.

Tuberculosis and Leprosy: Classical Granulomatous Diseases in the Twenty-First Century

Leprosy and tuberculosis are chronic mycobacterial infections that elicit granulomatous inflammation. Both infections are curable, but granulomatous injury to cutaneous structures, including cutaneous nerves in leprosy, may cause permanent damage. Both diseases are major global concerns: tuberculosis for its high prevalence and mortality, and leprosy for its persistent global presence and high rate of neuropathic disability. Cutaneous manifestations of both leprosy and tuberculosis are frequently subtle and challenging in dermatologic practice and often require a careful travel and social history and a high index of suspicion.

α-NAC-Specific Autoreactive CD8+ T Cells in Atopic Dermatitis Are of an Effector Memory Type and Secrete IL-4 and IFN-γ

Autoreactivity may play a critical role in the chronification of atopic dermatitis (AD). Several studies showed that AD patients produce IgE Abs specific for autoantigens, and we described Th as well as CD8(+) T cells specific for the autoallergen Hom s 2, the α-chain of the nascent polypeptide-associated complex (α-NAC). This study aimed to investigate the frequency and inflammatory phenotype of autoallergen-specific CD8(+) T cells. CD8(+) T cell immunodominant epitopes of α-NAC were mapped by applying prediction softwares, and binding affinity was confirmed by stabilization of empty MHC complexes. MHC class I tetramers were assembled and binding cells were analyzed directly ex vivo by flow cytometry and in terms of single-cell assessment by ChipCytometry. We report significantly elevated numbers of α-NAC-specific peripheral T cells in sensitized patients compared with nonatopic controls. These cells secrete IL-4 and IFN-γ, and surface markers revealed significantly elevated frequencies of circulating terminally differentiated α-NAC-specific CD8(+) T cells in patients with AD compared with nonatopic donors. The observed phenotype of α-NAC-specific CD8(+) T cells indicates a role in the pathogenesis of AD.

CD4+, CD8+, CD3+ cell counts and CD4+/CD8+ ratio among patients with mycobacterial diseases (leprosy, tuberculosis), HIV infections, and normal healthy adults: a comparative analysis of studies in different regions of India

In this study, we estimated the CD4+, CD8+, CD3+ cell counts and the CD4/CD8 ratio among normal healthy controls (adults and children), leprosy patients (without any complications and during reactional states), TB patients (with and without HIV), and HIV-positive patients (early infection and full-blown AIDS) and correlated the changes with disease progression. In our study, it was observed that among adults, CD4+ cell counts ranged from 518-1098, CD8+ from 312-952, whereas CD4/CD8 ratio from 0.75-2.30. Among children, both CD4+ and CD8+ cells were more and the CD4/CD8 ratio varied from 0.91-3.17. With regard to leprosy patients, we observed that CD4+ and CD8+ cell counts were lower among PB (pauci-bacillary) and MB (multi-bacillary) patients. CD4/CD8 ratio was 0.99 ± 0.28 among PB patients while the ratio was lower, 0.78 ± 0.20, among MB patients. CD4+ cell counts were raised during RR (reversal reactions) and ENL (erythema nodosum leprosum) among the PB and MB patients whereas the CD8+ cell counts were lower among PB and MB patients. CD4/CD8 ratio doubled during reactional episodes of RR and ENL. Among the HIV-negative tuberculosis (TB) patients, both the CD4+ and CD8+ cell counts were found to be less and the CD4/CD8 ratio varied between 0.53-1.75. Among the HIV-positive TB patients and HIV-positive patients, both the CD4+ and CD8+ cells were very less and ratio drops significantly. In the initial stages of infection, as CD4+ counts drop, an increase in the CD8+ cell counts was observed and the ratio declines. In full-blown cases, CD4+ cell counts were very low, 3-4 to 54 cells, CD8+ cells from 12-211 and the ratio drops too low. This study is the first of its kind in this region of the country and assumes importance since no other study has reported the values of CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocyte counts among patients with mycobacterial diseases (leprosy and TB), HIV infections along with normal healthy individuals of the region, and correlation with clinical presentations of patients.

Differential expression of mRNA for T-bet and GATA-3 transcription factors in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with vitiligo

BACKGROUND

There is accumulating evidence that aberrant T helper (Th)1 and Th2 cell responses play critical roles in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. However, their importance in the pathobiology of vitiligo have yet to be elucidated.

AIM

To evaluate the expression profile of two transcription factors, namely, T-bet, a Th1-specific T box transcription factor and GATA binding protein 3 (GATA-3), a Th2-specific transcription factor, and to measure expression levels of interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-4 mRNAs as the signature cytokines of Th1 and Th2 cells, respectively.

METHODS

Gene expression analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was performed using real-time reverse transcriptase PCR.

RESULTS

In patients with vitiligo compared with controls, mRNA expression was significantly higher for T-bet and IFN-γ, and significantly lower for GATA-3 and IL-4 mRNAs (P ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These data suggest additional implications for the role of Th1/Th2 balance in the immunopathogenesis of vitiligo.

Identification and functional characterization of a novel fungal immunomodulatory protein from Postia placenta

In this study, a previously unknown fungal immunomodulatory protein (FIP), here called FIP-ppl, was identified from the basidiomycete fungus Postia placenta by searching its genome sequence database using known FIPs as baits, which was the first basidiomycete FIP to be identified outside the order of edible macro fungi. The gene FIP-ppl was synthesized and expressed in Escherichia coli to produce a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein. The fusion protein was purified on a GST affinity column and the protein tag was removed using in situ thrombin cleavage. The purified recombinant protein (rFIP-ppl) displayed hemagglutination activity toward rabbit red blood cells but not against human red blood cells. RFIP-ppl stimulated mouse splenocyte cell proliferation and enhanced interleukin-2 (IL-2) release. Antitumor assays indicated that rFIP-ppl had significant cell proliferation inhibitory activity and apoptotic effects in human tumor cells with more pronounced inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptotic effects on gastric tumor cells (MGC823) than against hepatoma (HepG2) cells. This study confirms an alternative means of identifying, producing, and isolating new FIPs. It may provide convenient access to FIP-ppl with potential human therapeutic applications.

Effect of selenylation modification on immune-enhancing activity of Atractylodes macrocephala polysaccharide

The Atractylodes macrocephala polysaccharide (AMP) was extracted purified and modified in selenylation by Nitric acid-sodium selenite method to get nine selenizing AMPs (sAMPs), sAMP(1)-sAMP(9). In vitro test their effects on chicken peripheral lymphocyte proliferation were determined by MTT assay. The results showed that nine sAMPs and AMP at five concentrations could significantly promote lymphocyte proliferation, the actions in six sAMPs were significantly stronger than that in AMP, and in sAMP(9) was the strongest. In vivo test, 14-day-old chickens vaccinated with ND vaccine were injected respectively with sAMP(9) and AMP, the peripheral lymphocytes proliferation, serum antibody titer, IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-6 contents were determined. The results displayed that the sAMP could significantly promote lymphocyte proliferation and elevate the antibody titers and content of IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-6 in comparison with unmodified AMP. These results indicate that selenylation modification can significantly enhance the immune-enhancing activity of AMP.

Immuno-enhancement effects of ethanol extract from Cyrtomium macrophyllum (Makino) Tagawa on cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in BALB/c mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cyrtomium macrophyllum (Makino) Tagawa has been traditionally used as a herbal medicine for the treatment of various infectious diseases such as tapeworm infestation, colds, and viral diseases. However, no systematic study of the immunity of Cyrtomium macrophyllum ethanol extracts (CM) has yet been reported. The present work evaluates these traits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

120 male BALB/c mice were divided into 6 groups of 20 mice each: (1) normal group (sterile physiological saline), which served as a blank control; (2) model group (Cyclophosphamide, CY) group (sterile physiological saline), which served as a negative control; (3) low-dose CM (50 mg/kg BW); (4) intermediate-dose CM (100 mg/kg BW); (5) high-dose CM (200 mg/kg BW); (6) CM group (200 mg/kg BW). CY (0.2 ml) was administered via intraperitoneal injection. The other regimens were administered via gavage in 0.2 ml solution. Phytochemical of CM was characterized by HPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap. The acute toxicity effect of the ethanol extract of Cyrtomium macrophyllum was also investigated.

RESULTS

The spleen and thymus indices of mice receiving low, intermediate, and high doses of CM recovered more quickly than those of CY mice, and they did so in a dose-dependent manner. These mice also showed higher T cell and B cell proliferation responses and macrophage function than those of CY mice, and their serum levels of interleukin-6 and interferon-γ had become normal. In acute toxicity test, CM exhibited no mortality and behavioral changes in mice. Quantitative phytochemical analysis showed flavonoids, polyphenols, and tannins to be the major compounds present in the extract, at 27.64%, 30.87%, and 11.22%, respectively. We found that 16 compounds were characterized by the interpretation of their mass spectra obtained by the MS/MS.

CONCLUSION

The current study demonstrates that Cyrtomium macrophyllum ethanol extract improved immune function in CY-treated mice.

TB or not TB: that is no longer the question

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a devastating infectious disease and, with the emergence of multidrug-resistant forms, represents a major global threat. Much of our understanding of pathogenic and immunologic mechanisms in TB has derived from studies in experimental animals. However, it is becoming increasingly clear in TB as well as in other inflammatory diseases that there are substantial differences in immunological responses of humans not found or predicted by animal studies. Thus, it is critically important to understand mechanisms of pathogenesis and immunological protection in humans. In this review, we will address the key immunological question: What are the necessary and sufficient immune responses required for protection against TB infection and disease in people-specifically protection against infection, protection against the establishment of latency or persistence, and protection against transitioning from latent infection to active disease.

microRNAs in mycobacterial disease: friend or foe?

As the role of microRNA in all aspects of biology continues to be unraveled, the interplay between microRNAs and human disease is becoming clearer. It should come of no surprise that microRNAs play a major part in the outcome of infectious diseases, since early work has implicated microRNAs as regulators of the immune response. Here, we provide a review on how microRNAs influence the course of mycobacterial infections, which cause two of humanity’s most ancient infectious diseases: tuberculosis and leprosy. Evidence derived from profiling and functional experiments suggests that regulation of specific microRNAs during infection can either enhance the immune response or facilitate pathogen immune evasion. Now, it remains to be seen if the manipulation of host cell microRNA profiles can be an opportunity for therapeutic intervention for these difficult-to-treat diseases.

P selectin and T cell profiles provide verification to understand the pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis in HCV and Schistosoma mansoni infections

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and Schistosoma mansoni are two major causes of chronic liver disease (CLD). Both immune alteration and thrombocytopenia are common complications in the majority of cirrhotic patients. The current study aimed to monitor the effect of T cell profile and platelets activation on the pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis in patients suffered from single or concomitant schistosomiasis and HCV infections. The subjects were divided into 4 groups: Group I, patients infected with schistosomiasis; Group II, patients infected with HCV; Group III, patients with combined liver diseases and Group IV: healthy individuals. All groups were subjected to full clinical evaluation as well as laboratory examination including ELISA anti-HCV antibodies screening, parasitological examination, and complete blood picture as well as flow cytometry for CD41, CD42, CD62P (P selectin), CD63, CD4 and CD8. The platelets count was significantly decreased in HCV and/or schistosoma infected patients compared to controls. The percentage of the total T-lymphocytes and T-helper was significantly reduced in all infected groups, while the percentage of T-cytotoxic was increased. The patients possessed a significantly higher percentage of the platelets activation markers than control group. There were considerable correlations between the platelets counts and P selectin and MFI. Thrombocytopenia was a common finding in patients with CLD. Patients with CLD showed increased platelets activation which may contribute to the occurrence of thrombocytopenia and play a role in the pathogenesis of CLD. Infected patient showed reduction in the cell-mediated-immunity as evidenced by low T -helper cells.