The intracellular environment of human macrophages that produce nitric oxide promotes growth of mycobacteria

Nitric oxide is a host cue for Salmonella Typhimurium systemic infection in mice

Nitric oxide (NO) is produced as an innate immune response against microbial infections. Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), the major causative pathogen of human gastroenteritis, induces more severe systemic disease in mice. However, host factors contributing to the difference in species-related virulence are unknown. Here, we report that host NO production promotes S. Typhimurium replication in mouse macrophages at the early infection stage by activating Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 (SPI-2). The NO signaling-induced SPI-2 activation is mediated by Fnr and PhoP/Q two-component system. NO significantly induced fnr transcription, while Fnr directly activated phoP/Q transcription. Mouse infection assays revealed a NO-dependent increase in bacterial burden in systemic organs during the initial days of infection, indicating an early contribution of host NO to virulence. This study reveals a host signaling-mediated virulence activation pathway in S. Typhimurium that contributes significantly to its systemic infection in mice, providing further insights into Salmonella pathogenesis and host-pathogen interaction.

Peptide-pulsed dendritic cells' immunomodulating effect regarding Mycobacterium tuberculosis growth in macrophages

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the most successful pathogens affecting humans, being the main cause of tuberculosis. It accounts for most infectious agent-related deaths worldwide; it has been estimated that a third of the world's population are bacillus carriers. This pathogen's evolutionary adaptation is mainly due to its ability to block a host's immune system by preventing it using an effective immune response in cases of active tuberculosis. Peptide-based synthetic vaccines represent an alternative for counteracting tuberculosis; however, although peptide antigens can be identified, they are not recognised by a host's immune system. An approach using dendritic cells as immunomodulating agents for increasing synthetic peptides' antigenic capacity has thus been advanced. Dendritic cells obtained from IL to 4- and GM-CSF-treated peripheral blood mononuclear cells were pulsed with synthetic Mtb protein peptides which have been reported as participating in mycobacteria-host interactions; their amino acid sequences were modified to improve MHC-II coupling and thus increase their recognition by a host's immune system. pMHC-II/TCR interaction triggered a lymphocyte response which controlled Mtb intracellular growth in infected macrophages. This work has been aimed at contributing to understanding dendritic cells' role in Mycobacterium tuberculosis protein peptide antigen presentation, thereby increasing individuals' immune response as a means of controlling the disease.

The Problem of Host and Pathogen Genetic Variability for Developing Strategies of Universally Efficacious Vaccination against and Personalised Immunotherapy of Tuberculosis: Potential Solutions?

Rational vaccination against and immunotherapy of any infectious disease requires knowledge of how protective and non-protective immune responses differ, and how immune responses are regulated, so their nature can be controlled. Strong Th1 responses are likely protective against M tuberculosis. Understanding how immune class regulation is achieved is pertinent to both vaccination and treatment. I argue that variables of infection, other than PAMPs, primarily determine the class of immunity generated. The alternative, non-PAMP framework I favour, allows me to propose strategies to achieve efficacious vaccination, transcending host and pathogen genetic variability, to prevent tuberculosis, and personalised protocols to treat disease.

Delineating transcriptional crosstalk between Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and human THP-1 cells at the early stage of infection via dual RNA-seq analysis

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of Johne’s disease, a chronic debilitating disease in ruminants. To control this disease, it is crucial to understand immune evasion and the mechanism of persistence by analyzing the early phase interplays of the intracellular pathogens and their hosts. In the present study, host–pathogen interactions at the transcriptomic level were investigated in an in vitro macrophage infection model. When differentiated human THP-1 cells were infected with MAP, the expression of various genes associated with stress responses and metabolism was altered in both host and MAP at 3 h post-infection. MAP upregulates stress-responsive global gene regulators, such as two-component systems and sigma factors, in response to oxidative and cell wall stress. Downstream genes involved in type VII secretion systems, cell wall synthesis (polyketide biosynthesis proteins), and iron uptake were changed in response to the intracellular environment of macrophages. On the host side, upregulation of inflammatory cytokine genes was observed along with pattern recognition receptor genes. Notably, alterations in gene sets involved in arginine metabolism were observed in both the host and MAP, along with significant downregulation of NOS2 expression. These observations suggest that the utilization of metabolites such as arginine by intracellular MAP might affect host NO production. Our dual RNA-seq data can provide novel insights by capturing the global transcriptome with higher resolution, especially in MAP, thus enabling a more systematic understanding of host–pathogen interactions.

Anthelmintic and antimycobacterial activity of fractions and compounds isolated from Cissampelos mucronata

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich., a perennial climber belonging to the family Menispermaceae, has been used traditionally to treat parasites and tuberculosis-related symptoms. Co-infection of helminth parasites and tuberculosis-causing pathogens heightens the risk of developing active tuberculosis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim was to isolate and characterize antimycobacterial compounds from Cissampelos mucronata and to investigate their antibiofilm and anthelmintic efficacy as well as cytotoxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The acetone extract of C. mucronata leaves and stems was fractionated by vacuum liquid chromatography using hexane, ethyl acetate, acetone and methanol:chloroform (3:7). Separation of the active ethyl acetate fraction by column and preparative thin layer chromatography led to the isolation and identification of five compounds using NMR and LC-MS, as well as GC-MS for non-polar compounds. The anthelmintic, antimycobacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects as well as cytotoxicity of the fractions and compounds were determined.

RESULTS

The ethyl acetate fraction had the best antimycobacterial activity (MIC = 0.015-0.08 mg/ml). The fractions were relatively non-toxic to Vero cells (0.03-0.79 mg/ml) and had good anti-inflammatory and antibiofilm effects. Five compounds were identified as stigmasterol, hentriacontane, simiarenol, nonacosene and carbonic acid. Nonacosene had moderate anthelmintic effects but poor antimycobacterial activity (MIC = 0.375 mg/ml). Nonacosene and hentriacontane had good biofilm inhibitory effect (90-100%).

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that C. mucronata is a potential source of promising compounds with a range of useful bioactivities that support its use in traditional medicine. Development of plant-based remedies may assist in reducing the impact of co-infections with helminth parasites and tuberculosis-causing mycobacteria.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors 2 and 3 reprogram resting human macrophages into M1 phenotype following mycobacteria infection

Mycobacteria tuberculosis (M.tb) the causative agent for tuberculosis has been accredited for a high rate of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The rise in MDR and XDR cases has further created new obstacles in achieving the "End TB Strategy", which is aimed for 2035. In this article, we have demonstrated the potential of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) analogs in providing an anti-mycobacterial effector response by altering macrophage polarity into M1. Among S1PR1 and S1PR3 analogs, S1PR2 analogs proficiently favor selective polarization of infected human macrophages into M1 phenotypes, marked by increased expression of M1 markers and decreased M2 markers. Furthermore, S1PR1-3 analogs treated macrophages were also able to decrease the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and can induce NO secretion in infected macrophages. Lastly, only S1PR2-3 analogs were able to restrict the growth of mycobacteria in human macrophages. Taken together our study reflects the potential of S1PR2-3 analogs in providing host defenses following mycobacterial infection by favoring M1 macrophage polarization.

A bioinorganic chemistry perspective on the roles of metals as drugs and targets against Mycobacterium tuberculosis - a journey of opportunities

Medicinal inorganic chemists have provided many strategies to tackle a myriad of diseases, pushing forward the frontiers of pharmacology. As an example, the fight against tuberculosis (TB), an infectious bacterial disease, has led to the development of metal-based compounds as potential drugs. This disease remains a current health issue causing over 1.4 million of deaths per year. The emergence of multi- (MDR) and extensively-drug resistant (XDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains along with a long dormancy process, place major challenges in developing new therapeutic compounds. Isoniazid is a front-line prodrug used against TB with appealing features for coordination chemists, which have been explored in a series of cases reported here. An isoniazid iron-based compound, called IQG-607, has caught our attention, whose in vitro and in vivo studies are advanced and thoroughly discussed, along with other metal complexes. Isoniazid is inactive against dormant Mtb, a hard to eliminate state of this bacillus, found in one-fourth of the world's population and directly implicated in the lengthy treatment of TB (ca. 6 months). Thus, our understanding of this phenomenon may lead to a rational design of new drugs. Along these lines, we describe how metals as targets can cross paths with metals used as selective therapeutics, where we mainly review heme-based sensors, DevS and DosT, as a key system in the Mtb dormancy process and a current drug target. Overall, we report new opportunities for bioinorganic chemists to tackle this longstanding and current threat.

Molecular mechanism of interaction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with host macrophages under high glucose conditions

Mycobacterium tuberculosis has the potential to escape various cellular defense mechanisms for its survival which include various oxidative stress responses, inhibition of phagosome-lysosomes fusion and alterations in cell death mechanisms of host macrophages that are crucial for its infectivity and dissemination. Diabetic patients are more susceptible to developing tuberculosis because of impairement of innate immunity and prevailing higher glucose levels. Our earlier observations have demonstrated alterations in the protein profile of M. tuberculosis exposed to concurrent high glucose and tuberculosis conditions suggesting a crosstalk between host and pathogen under high glucose conditions. Since high glucose environment plays crucial role in the interaction of mycobacterium with host macrophages which provide a niche for the survival of M. tuberculosis, it is important to understand various interactive mechanisms under such conditions. Initial phagocytosis and containment of M. tuberculosis by macrophages, mode of macrophage cell death, respiratory burst responses, Mycobacterium and lysosomal co-localization were studied in M. tuberculosis H37Rv infected cells in the presence of varied concentrations of glucose in order to mimic diabetes like conditions. It was observed that initial attachment, phagocytosis and later containment were less effective under high glucose conditions in comparison to normal glucose. Mycobacterium infected cells showed more necrosis than apoptosis as cell death mechanism during the course of infection under high glucose concentrations. Co-localization and respiratory burst assay also indicated evasion strategies adopted by M. tuberculosis under such conditions. This study by using THP1 macrophage model of tuberculosis and high glucose conditions showed immune evasion strategies adapted during co-pathogenesis of tuberculosis and diabetes.

The interplay between airway epithelium and the immune system - A primer for the respiratory clinician

The respiratory epithelium is one of the primary interfaces between the body's immune system and the external environment. This review discusses the innate and adaptive immunomodulatory effects of the respiratory epithelium, highlighting the physiologic immune responses associated with health and the disease-causing sequelae when these physiologic responses go awry. Airway macrophages, dendritic cells, and innate lymphoid cells are discussed as orchestrators of physiological and pathological innate immune responses and T cells, B cells, mast cells, and granulocytes (eosinophils and neutrophils) as orchestrators of physiologic and pathologic adaptive immune responses. The interplay between the airway epithelium and the varied immune cells as well as the interplay between these immune cells is discussed, highlighting the importance of the dose of noxious stimuli and pathogens in immune programming and the timing of their interaction with the immune cells that determine the pattern of immune responses. Although each cell type has been researched individually, this review highlights the need for simultaneous temporal investigation of immune responses from these varied cells to noxious stimuli and pathogens.

Promotion of Anti-Tuberculosis Macrophage Activity by L-Arginine in the Absence of Nitric Oxide

Macrophages are indispensable immune cells tasked at eliminating intracellular pathogens. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), one of the most virulent intracellular bacterial pathogens known to man, infects and resides within macrophages. While macrophages can be provoked by extracellular stimuli to inhibit and kill Mtb bacilli, these host defense mechanisms can be blocked by limiting nutritional metabolites, such as amino acids. The amino acid L-arginine has been well described to enhance immune function, especially in the context of driving macrophage nitric oxide (NO) production in mice. In this study, we aimed to establish the necessity of L-arginine on anti-Mtb macrophage function independent of NO. Utilizing an in vitro system, we identified that macrophages relied on NO for only half of their L-arginine-mediated host defenses and this L-arginine-mediated defense in the absence of NO was associated with enhanced macrophage numbers and viability. Additionally, we observed macrophage glycolysis to be driven by both L-arginine and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), and inhibition of glycolysis or mTOR reduced macrophage control of Mtb as well as macrophage number and viability in the presence of L-arginine. Our data underscore L-arginine as an essential nutrient for macrophage function, not only by fueling anti-mycobacterial NO production, but also as a central regulator of macrophage metabolism and additional host defense mechanisms.

M. tuberculosis infection of human iPSC-derived macrophages reveals complex membrane dynamics during xenophagy evasion

Xenophagy is an important cellular defence mechanism against cytosol-invading pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Activation of xenophagy in macrophages targets Mtb to autophagosomes; however, how Mtb is targeted to autophagosomes in human macrophages at a high spatial and temporal resolution is unknown. Here, we use human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived macrophages (iPSDMs) to study the human macrophage response to Mtb infection and the role of the ESX-1 type VII secretion system. Using RNA-seq, we identify ESX-1-dependent transcriptional responses in iPSDMs after infection with Mtb. This analysis revealed differential inflammatory responses and dysregulated pathways such as eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2) signalling and protein ubiquitylation. Moreover, live-cell imaging revealed that Mtb infection in human macrophages induces dynamic ESX-1-dependent, LC3B-positive tubulovesicular autophagosomes (LC3-TVS). Through a correlative live-cell and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB SEM) approach, we show that upon phagosomal rupture, Mtb induces the formation of LC3-TVS, from which the bacterium is able to escape to reside in the cytosol. Thus, iPSDMs represent a valuable model for studying spatiotemporal dynamics of human macrophage-Mtb interactions, and Mtb is able to evade capture by autophagic compartments.

Macrophage Signaling Pathways in Pulmonary Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Infections

The incidence and prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) lung disease is rising worldwide and accounts for most clinical cases of NTM disease. NTM infections occur in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. Macrophages are the primary host cells that initiate an immune response to NTM. Defining the molecular events that govern the control of infection within macrophages is fundamental to understanding the pathogenesis of NTM disease. Here, we review key macrophage host signaling pathways that contribute to the host immune response to pulmonary NTM infections. In this review, we focus primarily on NTM that are known to cause lung disease, including Mycobacterium avium intracellulare, M. abscessus, and M. kansasii.

Analysis of Tuberculosis Meningitis Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Tuberculosis (TB) is the most prevalent infectious disease in the world. In recent years there has been a significant increase in the incidence of TB due to the emergence of multidrug resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) and the increased numbers of highly susceptible immuno-compromised individuals. Central nervous system TB, includes TB meningitis (TBM-the most common presentation), intracranial tuberculomas, and spinal tuberculous arachnoiditis. Individuals with TBM have an initial phase of malaise, headache, fever, or personality change, followed by protracted headache, stroke, meningismus, vomiting, confusion, and focal neurologic findings in two to three weeks. If untreated, mental status deteriorates into stupor or coma. Delay in the treatment of TBM results in, either death or substantial neurological morbidity. This review provides latest developments in the biomedical research on TB meningitis mainly in the areas of host immune responses, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of this disease.

Immunology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infections

Tuberculosis (TB) is a serious global public health challenge that results in significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. TB is caused by infection with the bacilli Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), which has evolved a wide variety of strategies in order to thrive within its host. Understanding the complex interactions between M. tuberculosis and host immunity can inform the rational design of better TB vaccines and therapeutics. This chapter covers innate and adaptive immunity against M. tuberculosis infection, including insights on bacterial immune evasion and subversion garnered from animal models of infection and human studies. In addition, this chapter discusses the immunology of the TB granuloma, TB diagnostics, and TB comorbidities. Finally, this chapter provides a broad overview of the current TB vaccine pipeline.

Porcine Alveolar Macrophages' Nitric Oxide Synthase-Mediated Generation of Nitric Oxide Exerts Important Defensive Effects against Glaesserella parasuis Infection

Glaesserella parasuis is a habitual bacterium of pigs' upper respiratory tracts. Its infection initiates with the invasion and colonization of the lower respiratory tracts of pigs, and develops as the bacteria survive host pulmonary defenses and clearance by alveolar macrophages. Alveolar macrophage-derived nitric oxide (NO) is recognized as an important mediator that exerts antimicrobial activity as well as immunomodulatory effects. In this study, we investigated the effects and the signaling pathway of NO generation in porcine alveolar macrophages 3D4/21 during G. parasuis infection. We demonstrated a time and dose-dependent generation of NO in 3D4/21 cells by G. parasuis, and showed that NO production required bacterial viability and nitric oxide synthase 2 upregulation, which was largely contributed by G. parasuis-induced nuclear factor-κB signaling's activation. Moreover, the porcine alveolar macrophage-derived NO exhibited prominent bacteriostatic effects against G. parasuis and positive host immunomodulation effects by inducing the production of cytokines and chemokines during infection. G. parasuis in turn, selectively upregulated several nitrate reductase genes to better survive this NO stress, revealing a battle of wits during the bacteria-host interactions. To our knowledge, this is the first direct demonstration of NO production and its anti-infection effects in alveolar macrophages with G. parasuis infection.

Phenothiazinium Dyes Are Active against Trypanosoma cruzi In Vitro

Chagas disease is a tropical illness caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. The disease affects populations of the Americas and has been spread to other continents due to the migration process. The disease is partially controlled by two drugs, Benznidazole and Nifurtimox. These molecules are active in the acute phase of the infection but are usually ineffective during the symptomatic chronic phase. Several research groups have developed novel candidates to control Chagas disease; however, no novel commercial formulation is available. In this article, we described the anti-T. cruzi effects of phenothiazinium dyes in amastigote and trypomastigote forms of the parasite. Methylene Blue, New Methylene Blue, Toluidine Blue O, and 1,9-Dimethyl Methylene Blue inhibited the parasite proliferation at nanomolar concentrations and also demonstrated low toxicity in host cells. Moreover, combinations of phenothiazinium dyes indicated a synergic pattern against amastigotes compared to the Benznidazole counterparts. Phenothiazinium dyes levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased the mitochondrial potential in trypomastigotes, indicating the mechanism of action of the dyes in T. cruzi. Our article offers a basis for future strategies for the control of Chagas disease using low-cost formulations, an important point for endemic underdeveloped regions.

A combined metabolomic and bioinformatic approach to investigate the function of transport proteins of the important pathogen Mycoplasma bovis

Mycoplasma bovis is an economically important pathogen of the cattle industry worldwide, and there is an urgent need for a more effective vaccine to control the diseases caused by this organism. Although the M. bovis genome sequence is available, very few gene functions of M. bovis have been experimentally determined, and a better understanding of the genes involved in pathogenesis are required for vaccine development. In this study, we compared the metabolite profiles of wild type M. bovis to a number of strains that each contained a transposon insertion into a putative transporter gene. Transport systems are thought to play an important role in survival of mycoplasmas, as they rely on the host for many nutrients. We also performed 13C-stable isotope labelling on strains with transposon insertions into putative glycerol transporters. Integration of metabolomic and bioinformatic analyses revealed unexpected results (when compared to genome annotation) for two mutants, with a putative amino acid transporter (MBOVPG45_0533) appearing more likely to transport nucleotide sugars, and a second mutant, a putative dicarboxylate/amino acid:cation (Na+ or H+) symporter (DAACS), more likely to function as a biopterin/folate transporter. This study also highlighted the apparent redundancy in some transport and metabolic pathways, such as the glycerol transport systems, even in an organism with a reduced genome. Overall, this study highlights the value of metabolomics for revealing the likely function of a number of transporters of M. bovis.

Comparing the Metabolic Capabilities of Bacteria in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

Pathogenic mycobacteria are known for their ability to maintain persistent infections in various mammals. The canonical pathogen in this genus is Mycobacterium tuberculosis and this bacterium is particularly successful at surviving and replicating within macrophages. Here, we will highlight the metabolic processes that M. tuberculosis employs during infection in macrophages and compare these findings with what is understood for other pathogens in the M. tuberculosis complex.

Characterisation of genes differentially expressed in macrophages by virulent and attenuated Mycobacterium tuberculosis through RNA-Seq analysis

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a global healthcare issue. Understanding the host-pathogen interactions in TB is vital to develop strategies and therapeutic tools for the control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). In this study, transcriptome analyses of macrophages infected with either the virulent Mtb strain H37Rv (Rv) or the avirulent Mtb strain H37Ra (Ra) were carried out and 750 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. As expected, the DEGs were mainly involved in the induction of innate immune responses against mycobacterial infections. Among the DEGs, solute carrier family 7 member 2 (Slc7a2) was more strongly expressed in Ra-infected macrophages. Induction of SLC7A2 was important for macrophages to control the intracellular survival of Mtb. Our results imply that SLC7A2 plays an important role in macrophages during Mtb infection. Our findings could prove useful for the development of new therapeutic strategies to control TB infection.

Murine myeloid-derived suppressor cells are a source of elevated levels of interleukin-27 in early life and compromise control of bacterial infection

Microbial infections early in life remain a major cause of infant mortality worldwide. This is consistent with immune deficiencies in this population. Interleukin (IL)-27 is suppressive toward a variety of immune cell types, and we have shown that the production of IL-27 is elevated in humans and mice early in life. We hypothesize that elevated levels of IL-27 oppose protective responses to infection during the neonatal period. In this study, we extended previous findings in neonatal mice to identify a population of IL-27 producers that express Gr-1 and were further identified as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) based on the expression of surface markers and functional studies. In neonates, MDSCs are more abundant and contribute to the elevated pool of IL-27 in this population. Although the ability of MDSCs to regulate T lymphocyte activation has been well-studied, sparingly few studies have investigated the influence of MDSCs on innate immune function during bacterial infection. We demonstrate that macrophages are impaired in their ability to control growth of Escherichia coli when cocultured with MDSCs. This bacterium is a significant concern for neonates as a common cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis. The suppressive effect of MDSCs on macrophage function is mediated by IL-27; inclusion of a reagent to neutralize IL-27 promotes improved control of bacterial growth. Taken together, these results suggest that the increased abundance of MDSCs may contribute to early life susceptibility to infection and further highlight production of IL-27 as a novel MDSC mechanism to suppress immunity.

Redox-Sensing Iron-Sulfur Cluster Regulators

SIGNIFICANCE

Iron-sulfur cluster proteins carry out multiple functions, including as regulators of gene transcription/translation in response to environmental stimuli. In all known cases, the cluster acts as the sensory module, where the inherent reactivity/fragility of iron-sulfur clusters with small/redox-active molecules is exploited to effect conformational changes that modulate binding to DNA regulatory sequences. This promotes an often substantial reprogramming of the cellular proteome that enables the organism or cell to adapt to, or counteract, its changing circumstances. Recent Advances: Significant progress has been made recently in the structural and mechanistic characterization of iron-sulfur cluster regulators and, in particular, the O₂ and NO sensor FNR, the NO sensor NsrR, and WhiB-like proteins of Actinobacteria. These are the main focus of this review.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Striking examples of how the local environment controls the cluster sensitivity and reactivity are now emerging, but the basis for this is not yet fully understood for any regulatory family.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Characterization of iron-sulfur cluster regulators has long been hampered by a lack of high-resolution structural data. Although this still presents a major future challenge, recent advances now provide a firm foundation for detailed understanding of how a signal is transduced to effect gene regulation. This requires the identification of often unstable intermediate species, which are difficult to detect and may be hard to distinguish using traditional techniques. Novel approaches will be required to solve these problems.

Regulation of mycobacterial infection by macrophage Gch1 and tetrahydrobiopterin

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) plays a crucial role in controlling growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), presumably via nitric oxide (NO) mediated killing. Here we show that leukocyte-specific deficiency of NO production, through targeted loss of the iNOS cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), results in enhanced control of M.tb infection; by contrast, loss of iNOS renders mice susceptible to M.tb. By comparing two complementary NO-deficient models, Nos2-/- mice and BH4 deficient Gch1fl/flTie2cre mice, we uncover NO-independent mechanisms of anti-mycobacterial immunity. In both murine and human leukocytes, decreased Gch1 expression correlates with enhanced cell-intrinsic control of mycobacterial infection in vitro. Gene expression analysis reveals that Gch1 deficient macrophages have altered inflammatory response, lysosomal function, cell survival and cellular metabolism, thereby enhancing the control of bacterial infection. Our data thus highlight the importance of the NO-independent functions of Nos2 and Gch1 in mycobacterial control.

Interplay between Plasmodium falciparum haemozoin and L-arginine: implication for nitric oxide production

Background

Plasmodium falciparum haemozoin, a detoxification product of digested haemoglobin from infected erythrocytes, is released into the bloodstream upon schizont rupture and accumulates in leukocytes. High levels of haemozoin correlate with disease severity. Some studies have shown that concentrations of the substrate of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), l-arginine, as well as nitric oxide are low in patients infected with P. falciparum malaria. The present study investigates, in vitro, the role of P. falciparum haemozoin on nitric oxide production, iNOS expression in macrophages, and the possible interaction between l-arginine and haemozoin.

Methods

Plasmodium falciparum haemozoin was obtained from in vitro cultures through magnetic isolation. Phagocytosis of haemozoin by immortalized bone marrow derived macrophages was detected by confocal reflection combined with fluorescence microscopy. Nitrite concentrations in the supernatants was evaluated by Griess assay as a standard indication of nitric oxide production, while iNOS expression was detected on cell extracts by western blotting. Detection of l-arginine in haemozoin-treated or untreated media was achieved by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS).

Results

Haemozoin synergizes in vitro with interferon-gamma to produce nitric oxide. However, when mouse macrophages were stimulated with haemozoin, a proportional increase of nitric oxide was observed up to 25 μM of haemozoin, followed by a decrease with doses up to 100 μM, when nitric oxide release was completely abrogated. This was not due to reactive oxygen species production, nor to an effect on iNOS activity. Interestingly, when at 24 h, haemozoin-treated macrophages were washed and incubated in fresh medium for further 24 h, the nitric oxide production was restored in a dose–response manner. Similar results were seen when l-arginine-enriched media was used in the stimulation. Moreover, muramyldipeptide, a strong nitric oxide inducer, was unable to activate macrophages to release nitric oxide in the presence of haemozoin-treated medium. By LC–MS/MS a complete depletion of l-arginine was observed in this haemozoin-treated, conditioned medium.

Conclusions

It is proposed that haemozoin interacts with l-arginine reducing its availability for iNOS, and thus decreasing nitric oxide production. The clinical (or pathological) implications of these results are discussed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2602-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chlorate Specifically Targets Oxidant-Starved, Antibiotic-Tolerant Populations of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms

The anaerobic growth and survival of bacteria are often correlated with physiological tolerance to conventional antibiotics, motivating the development of novel strategies targeting pathogens in anoxic environments. A key challenge is to identify drug targets that are specific to this metabolic state. Chlorate is a nontoxic compound that can be reduced to toxic chlorite by a widespread enzyme of anaerobic metabolism. We tested the antibacterial properties of chlorate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a pathogen that can inhabit hypoxic or anoxic microenvironments, including those that arise in human infection. Chlorate and the antibiotic tobramycin kill distinct metabolic populations in P. aeruginosa biofilms, where chlorate targets anaerobic cells that tolerate tobramycin. Chlorate is particularly effective against P. aeruginosalasR mutants, which are frequently isolated from human infections and more resistant to some antibiotics. This work suggests that chlorate may hold potential as an anaerobic prodrug.

Nitrate respiration is a widespread mode of anaerobic energy generation used by many bacterial pathogens, and the respiratory nitrate reductase, Nar, has long been known to reduce chlorate to the toxic oxidizing agent chlorite. Here, we demonstrate the antibacterial activity of chlorate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a representative pathogen that can inhabit hypoxic or anoxic host microenvironments during infection. Aerobically grown P. aeruginosa cells are tobramycin sensitive but chlorate tolerant. In the absence of oxygen or an alternative electron acceptor, cells are tobramycin tolerant but chlorate sensitive via Nar-dependent reduction. The fact that chlorite, the product of chlorate reduction, is not detected in culture supernatants suggests that it may react rapidly and be retained intracellularly. Tobramycin and chlorate target distinct populations within metabolically stratified aggregate biofilms; tobramycin kills cells on the oxic periphery, whereas chlorate kills hypoxic and anoxic cells in the interior. In a matrix populated by multiple aggregates, tobramycin-mediated death of surface aggregates enables deeper oxygen penetration into the matrix, benefiting select aggregate populations by increasing survival and removing chlorate sensitivity. Finally, lasR mutants, which commonly arise in P. aeruginosa infections and are known to withstand conventional antibiotic treatment, are hypersensitive to chlorate. A lasR mutant shows a propensity to respire nitrate and reduce chlorate more rapidly than the wild type does, consistent with its heightened chlorate sensitivity. These findings illustrate chlorate’s potential to selectively target oxidant-starved pathogens, including physiological states and genotypes of P. aeruginosa that represent antibiotic-tolerant populations during infections.

Priming of innate antimycobacterial immunity by heat-killed Listeria monocytogenes induces sterilizing response in the adult zebrafish tuberculosis model

Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains one of the most problematic infectious agents, owing to its highly developed mechanisms to evade host immune responses combined with the increasing emergence of antibiotic resistance. Host-directed therapies aiming to optimize immune responses to improve bacterial eradication or to limit excessive inflammation are a new strategy for the treatment of tuberculosis. In this study, we have established a zebrafish-Mycobacterium marinum natural host-pathogen model system to study induced protective immune responses in mycobacterial infection. We show that priming adult zebrafish with heat-killed Listeria monocytogenes (HKLm) at 1 day prior to M. marinum infection leads to significantly decreased mycobacterial loads in the infected zebrafish. Using rag1^−/− fish, we show that the protective immunity conferred by HKLm priming can be induced through innate immunity alone. At 24 h post-infection, HKLm priming leads to a significant increase in the expression levels of macrophage-expressed gene 1 (mpeg1), tumor necrosis factor α (tnfa) and nitric oxide synthase 2b (nos2b), whereas superoxide dismutase 2 (sod2) expression is downregulated, implying that HKLm priming increases the number of macrophages and boosts intracellular killing mechanisms. The protective effects of HKLm are abolished when the injected material is pretreated with nucleases or proteinase K. Importantly, HKLm priming significantly increases the frequency of clearance of M. marinum infection by evoking sterilizing immunity (25 vs 3.7%, P=0.0021). In this study, immune priming is successfully used to induce sterilizing immunity against mycobacterial infection. This model provides a promising new platform for elucidating the mechanisms underlying sterilizing immunity and to develop host-directed treatment or prevention strategies against tuberculosis.

This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Summary: Heat-killed Listeria monocytogenes induces immune responses that lead to increased clearance of mycobacterial infection in the adult zebrafish tuberculosis model via innate immune mechanisms.

Regulation of Three Virulence Strategies of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Success Story

Tuberculosis remains one of the deadliest diseases. Emergence of drug-resistant and multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains makes treating tuberculosis increasingly challenging. In order to develop novel intervention strategies, detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the success of this pathogen is required. Here, we review recent literature to provide a systems level overview of the molecular and cellular components involved in divalent metal homeostasis and their role in regulating the three main virulence strategies of M. tuberculosis: immune modulation, dormancy and phagosomal rupture. We provide a visual and modular overview of these components and their regulation. Our analysis identified a single regulatory cascade for these three virulence strategies that respond to limited availability of divalent metals in the phagosome.

Oxidative Phosphorylation as a Target Space for Tuberculosis: Success, Caution, and Future Directions

The emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogens, and our inability to develop new antimicrobials to combat resistance, have inspired scientists to seek out new targets for drug development. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex is a group of obligately aerobic bacteria that have specialized for inhabiting a wide range of intracellular and extracellular environments. Two fundamental features in this adaptation are the flexible utilization of energy sources and continued metabolism in the absence of growth. M. tuberculosis is an obligately aerobic heterotroph that depends on oxidative phosphorylation for growth and survival. However, several studies are redefining the metabolic breadth of the genus. Alternative electron donors and acceptors may provide the maintenance energy for the pathogen to maintain viability in hypoxic, nonreplicating states relevant to latent infection. This hidden metabolic flexibility may ultimately decrease the efficacy of drugs targeted against primary dehydrogenases and terminal oxidases. However, it may also open up opportunities to develop novel antimycobacterials targeting persister cells. In this review, we discuss the progress in understanding the role of energetic targets in mycobacterial physiology and pathogenesis and the opportunities for drug discovery.

Redox-sensing iron-sulfur cluster regulators

SIGNIFICANCE

Iron-sulfur cluster proteins carry out a wide range of functions, including as regulators of gene transcription/translation in response to environmental stimuli. In all known cases, the cluster acts as the sensory module, where the inherent reactivity/fragility of iron-sulfur clusters towards small/redox active molecules is exploited to effect conformational changes that modulate binding to DNA regulatory sequences. This promotes an often substantial re-programming of the cellular proteome that enables the organism or cell to adapt to, or counteract, its changing circumstances. Recent Advances. Significant progress has been made recently in the structural and mechanistic characterization of iron-sulfur cluster regulators and, in particular, the O2 and NO sensor FNR, the NO sensor NsrR, and WhiB-like proteins of Actinobacteria. These are the main focus of this review.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Striking examples of how the local environment controls the cluster sensitivity and reactivity are now emerging, but the basis for this is not yet fully understood for any regulatory family.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Characterization of iron-sulfur cluster regulators has long been hampered by a lack of high resolution structural data. Though this still presents a major future challenge, recent advances now provide a firm foundation for detailed understanding of how a signal is transduced to effect gene regulation. This requires the identification of often unstable intermediate species, which are difficult to detect and may be hard to distinguish using traditional techniques. Novel approaches will be required to solve these problems.

The NO-heme signaling hypothesis

While the biological role of nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) is appreciated, several fundamental aspects of the NOS/NO-related signaling pathway(s) remain incompletely understood. Canonically, the NOS-derived NO diffuses through the (inter)cellular milieu to bind the prosthetic ferro(Fe²⁺)-heme group of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC). The formation of ternary NO-ferroheme-sGC complex results in the enzyme activation and accelerated production of the second messenger, cyclic GMP. This paper argues that cells dynamically generate mobile/exchangeable NO-ferroheme species, which activate sGC and regulate the function of some other biomolecules. In contrast to free NO, the mobile NO-ferroheme may ensure safe, efficient and coordinated delivery of the signal within and between cells. The NO-heme signaling may contribute to a number of NOS/NO-related phenomena (e.g. nitrite bioactivity, selective protein S-(N-)nitrosation, endothelium and erythrocyte-dependent vasodilation, some neural and immune NOS functions) and predicts new NO-related discoveries, diagnostics and therapeutics.

Nitric Oxide in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), is globally known as one of the most important human pathogens. Mtb is estimated to infect nearly one third of the world's population with many subjects having a latent infection. Thus, from an estimated 2 billion people infected with Mtb, less than 10% may develop symptomatic TB. This indicates that the host immune system may constrain pathogen replication in most infected individuals. On entering the lungs of the host, Mtb initially encounters resident alveolar macrophages which can engulf and subsequently eliminate intracellular microbes via a plethora of bactericidal mechanisms including the generation of free radicals such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Nitric oxide (NO), a key anti-mycobacterial molecule, is detected in the exhaled breath of patients infected with Mtb. Recent knowledge regarding the regulatory role of NO in airway function and Mtb proliferation paves the way of exploiting the beneficial effects of this molecule for the treatment of airway diseases. Here, we discuss the importance of NO in the pathogenesis of TB, the diagnostic use of exhaled and urinary NO in Mtb infection and the potential of NO-based treatments.

Thioaptamer targeted discoidal microparticles increase self immunity and reduce Mycobacterium tuberculosis burden in mice

Worldwide, tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the most prevalent infectious diseases causing morbidity and death in >1.5 million patients annually. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the etiologic agent of TB, usually resides in the alveolar macrophages. Current tuberculosis treatment methods require more than six months, and low compliance often leads to therapeutic failure and multidrug resistant strain development. Critical to improving TB-therapy is shortening treatment duration and increasing therapeutic efficacy. In this study, we sought to determine if lung hemodynamics and pathological changes in Mtb infected cells can be used for the selective targeting of microparticles to infected tissue(s). Thioaptamers (TA) with CD44 (CD44TA) targeting moiety were conjugated to discoidal silicon mesoporous microparticles (SMP) to enhance accumulation of these agents/carriers in the infected macrophages in the lungs. In vitro, CD44TA-SMP accumulated in macrophages infected with mycobacteria efficiently killing the infected cells and decreasing survival of mycobacteria. In vivo, increased accumulations of CD44TA-SMP were recorded in the lung of M. tuberculosis infected mice as compared to controls. TA-targeted carriers significantly diminished bacterial load in the lungs and caused recruitment of T lymphocytes. Proposed mechanism of action of the designed vector accounts for a combination of increased uptake of particles that leads to infected macrophage death, as well as, activation of cellular immunity by the TA, causing increased T-cell accumulation in the treated lungs. Based on our data with CD44TA-SMP, we anticipate that this drug carrier can open new avenues in TB management.

Macrophage NOS2 in Tumor Leukocytes

SIGNIFICANCE

Leukocytes and especially macrophages are a major cellular constituent of the tumor mass. The tumor microenvironment not only determines their activity but in turn these cells also contribute to tumor initiation and progression. Recent Advances: Proinflammatory stimulated macrophages upregulate inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) and produce high steady-state NO concentrations. NO provokes tumor cell death by initiating apoptosis and/or necrosis. Mechanisms may comprise p53 accumulation, immunestimulatory activities, and an increased efficacy of chemo- and/or radiotherapy. However, the potential cytotoxic activity of macrophages often is compromised in the tumor microenvironment and instead a protumor activity of macrophages dominates. Contributing factors are signals generated by viable and dying tumor cells, attraction and activation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and hypoxia. Limited oxygen availability not only attenuates NOS2 activity but also causes accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factors 1 and 2 (HIF-1/HIF-2). Activation of the HIF system is tightly linked to NO formation and affects the expression of macrophage phenotype markers that in turn add to tumor progression.

CRITICAL ISSUES

To make use of the cytotoxic arsenal of activated macrophages directed against tumor cells, it will be critical to understand how, when, and where these innate immune responses are blocked and whether it will be possible to reinstall their full capacity to kill tumor cells.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Low-dose irradiation or proinflammatory activation of macrophages in the tumor microenvironment may open options to boost NOS2 expression and activity and to initiate immunestimulatory features of NO that may help to restrict tumor growth. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 1023-1043.

Endogenous and Exogenous KdpF Peptide Increases Susceptibility of Mycobacterium bovis BCG to Nitrosative Stress and Reduces Intramacrophage Replication

Emerging antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria like Mycobacterium sp., poses a threat to human health and therefore calls for the development of novel antibacterial strategies. We have recently discovered that bacterial membrane peptides, such as KdpF, possess anti-virulence properties when overproduced in pathogenic bacterial species. Overproduction of the KdpF peptide in Mycobacterium bovis BCG decreased bacterial replication within macrophages, without presenting antibacterial activity. We propose that KdpF functions as a regulatory molecule and interferes with bacterial virulence, potentially through interaction with the PDIM transporter MmpL7. We demonstrate here that KdpF overproduction in M. bovis BCG, increased bacterial susceptibility to nitrosative stress and thereby was responsible for lower replication rate within macrophages. Moreover, in a bacterial two-hybrid system, KdpF was able to interact not only with MmpL7 but also with two membrane proteins involved in nitrosative stress detoxification (NarI and NarK2), and a membrane protein of unknown function that is highly induced upon nitrosative stress (Rv2617c). Interestingly, we showed that the exogenous addition of KdpF synthetic peptide could affect the stability of proteins that interact with this peptide. Finally, the exogenous KdpF peptide presented similar biological effects as the endogenously expressed peptide including nitrosative stress susceptibility and reduced intramacrophage replication rate for M. bovis BCG. Taken together, our results establish a link between high levels of KdpF and nitrosative stress susceptibility to further highlight KdpF as a potent molecule with anti-virulence properties.

Mycobacterial Dormancy Systems and Host Responses in Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) caused by the intracellular pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), claims more than 1.5 million lives worldwide annually. Despite promulgation of multipronged strategies to prevent and control TB, there is no significant downfall occurring in the number of new cases, and adding to this is the relapse of the disease due to the emergence of antibiotic resistance and the ability of Mtb to remain dormant after primary infection. The pathology of Mtb is complex and largely attributed to immune-evading strategies that this pathogen adopts to establish primary infection, its persistence in the host, and reactivation of pathogenicity under favorable conditions. In this review, we present various biochemical, immunological, and genetic strategies unleashed by Mtb inside the host for its survival. The bacterium enables itself to establish a niche by evading immune recognition via resorting to masking, establishment of dormancy by manipulating immune receptor responses, altering innate immune cell fate, enhancing granuloma formation, and developing antibiotic tolerance. Besides these, the regulatory entities, such as DosR and its regulon, encompassing various putative effector proteins play a vital role in maintaining the dormant nature of this pathogen. Further, reactivation of Mtb allows relapse of the disease and is favored by the genes of the Rtf family and the conditions that suppress the immune system of the host. Identification of target genes and characterizing the function of their respective antigens involved in primary infection, dormancy, and reactivation would likely provide vital clues to design novel drugs and/or vaccines for the control of dormant TB.

Phosphocholine-containing ligands direct CRP induction of M2 macrophage polarization independent of T cell polarization: Implication for chronic inflammatory states

INTRODUCTION

We studied monocyte transendothelial migration and subsequent polarization into M1/M2 macrophages in response to C-reactive protein (CRP) with two disease-related ligands: (1) phosphocholine (PC) and (2) multilamellar liposomes containing both unoxidized and oxidized forms of the lipid, phosphatidylcholine. These ligands differ in biological origin: PC is present on bacterial cell walls while oxidized lipids are present in atherogenic lipids.

METHODS

We used an in vitro model of human monocyte transendothelial migration and assessed the polarization of monocytes and T cells and signaling through Fcγ receptors in monocytes.

RESULTS

CRP without ligands did not promote M2 macrophage differentiation over background levels. However, when paired with either ligand, it increased M2 numbers. M2 differentiation was dependent on IL-13, and in the case of CRP with PC, was associated with a Th2 response. Paradoxically, while CRP with PC initiated a Th2 response, the combination of liposomes with CRP resulted in a Th1 response without any change in Th2 numbers despite association with M2 macrophage polarization. To resolve the conundrum of an anti-inflammatory macrophage response coexisting with a proinflammatory T cell response, we investigated signaling of CRP and its ligands through Fcγ receptors, which leads to macrophage activation independent of T cell signaling. We found that CRP plus PC acted via FcγRI, whereas CRP with liposomes bound to FcγRII. Both were activating signals as evidenced by SYK phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that CRP with ligands can promote M2 macrophage differentiation to fibroblasts through FcγR activation, and this may result in an anti-inflammatory influence despite a proinflammatory T cell environment caused by oxidized lipids. The potential relationship of this mechanism to chronic inflammatory disease is discussed.

Genetic background affects the expansion of macrophage subsets in the lungs of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected hosts

M1 macrophages are more effective in the induction of the inflammatory response and clearance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis than M2 macrophages. Infected C57BL/6 mice generate a stronger cellular immune response compared with BALB/c mice. We hypothesized that infected C57BL/6 mice would exhibit a higher frequency and function of M1 macrophages than infected BALB/c mice. Our findings show a higher ratio of macrophages to M2 macrophages in the lungs of chronically infected C57BL/6 mice compared with BALB/c mice. However, there was no difference in the functional ability of M1 and M2 macrophages for the two strains in vitro. In vivo, a deleterious role for M2 macrophages was confirmed by M2 cell transfer, which rendered the infected C57BL/6, but not the BALB/c mice, more susceptible and resulted in mild lung inflammation compared with C57BL/6 mice that did not undergo cell transfer. M1 cell transfer induced a higher inflammatory response, although not protective, in infected BALB/c mice compared with their counterparts that did not undergo cell transfer. These findings demonstrate that an inflammation mediated by M1 macrophages may not induce bacterial tolerance because protection depends on the host genetic background, which drives the magnitude of the inflammatory response against M. tuberculosis in the pulmonary microenvironment. The contribution of our findings is that although M1 macrophage is an effector leucocyte with microbicidal machinery, its dominant role depends on the balance of M1 and M2 subsets, which is driven by the host genetic background.

STAT3 Represses Nitric Oxide Synthesis in Human Macrophages upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a successful intracellular pathogen. Numerous host innate immune responses signaling pathways are induced upon mycobacterium invasion, however their impact on M. tuberculosis replication is not fully understood. Here we reinvestigate the role of STAT3 specifically inside human macrophages shortly after M. tuberculosis uptake. We first show that STAT3 activation is mediated by IL-10 and occurs in M. tuberculosis infected cells as well as in bystander non-colonized cells. STAT3 activation results in the inhibition of IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ and MIP-1β. We further demonstrate that STAT3 represses iNOS expression and NO synthesis. Accordingly, the inhibition of STAT3 is detrimental for M. tuberculosis intracellular replication. Our study thus points out STAT3 as a key host factor for M. tuberculosis intracellular establishment in the early stages of macrophage infection.

Sharpening nature's tools for efficient tuberculosis control: A review of the potential role and development of host-directed therapies and strategies for targeted respiratory delivery

Centuries since it was first described, tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global public health issue. Despite ongoing holistic measures implemented by health authorities and a number of new oral treatments reaching the market, there is still a need for an advanced, efficient TB treatment. An adjunctive, host-directed therapy designed to enhance endogenous pathways and hence compliment current regimens could be the answer. The integration of drug repurposing, including synthetic and naturally occurring compounds, with a targeted drug delivery platform is an attractive development option. In order for a new anti-tubercular treatment to be produced in a timely manner, a multidisciplinary approach should be taken from the outset including stakeholders from academia, the pharmaceutical industry, and regulatory bodies keeping the patient as the key focus. Pre-clinical considerations for the development of a targeted host-directed therapy are discussed here.

Hypoxia causes increased monocyte nitric oxide synthesis which is mediated by changes in dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 2 expression in animal and human models of normobaric hypoxia

BACKGROUND

Tissue hypoxia is a cardinal feature of inflammatory diseases and modulates monocyte function. Nitric oxide is a crucial component of the immune cell response. This study explored the metabolism of the endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide production asymmetric dimethylarginine(ADMA) by monocyte dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 2(DDAH2), and the role of this pathway in the regulation of the cellular response and the local environment during hypoxia.

METHODS

Peritoneal macrophages were isolated from a macrophage-specific DDAH2 knockout mouse that we developed and compared with appropriate controls. Cells were exposed to 3% oxygen followed by reoxygenation at 21%. Healthy volunteers underwent an 8 h exposure to normobaric hypoxia with an inspired oxygen percentage of 12%. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from blood samples taken before and at the end of this exposure.

RESULTS

Intracellular nitrate plus nitrite(NOx) concentration was higher in wild-type murine monocytes after hypoxia and reoxygenation than in normoxia-treated cells (mean(SD) 13·2(2·4) vs 8·1(1·7) pmols/mg protein, p = 0·009). DDAH2 protein was 4·5-fold (SD 1·3) higher than in control cells (p = 0·03). This increase led to a 24% reduction in ADMA concentration, 0·33(0.04) pmols/mg to 0·24(0·03), p = 0·002). DDAH2-deficient murine monocytes demonstrated no increase in nitric oxide production after hypoxic challenge. These findings were recapitulated in a human observational study. Mean plasma NOx concentration was elevated after hypoxic exposure (3·6(1.8)μM vs 6·4(3·2), p = 0·01), which was associated with a reduction in intracellular ADMA in paired samples from 3·6(0.27) pmols/mg protein to 3·15(0·3) (p < 0·01). This finding was associated with a 1·9-fold(0·6) increase in DDAH2 expression over baseline(p = 0·03).

DISCUSSION

This study shows that in both human and murine models of acute hypoxia, increased DDAH2 expression mediates a reduction in intracellular ADMA concentration which in turn leads to elevated nitric oxide concentrations both within the cell and in the local environment. Cells deficient in DDAH2 were unable to mount this response.

Role of Alanine Dehydrogenase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during Recovery from Hypoxic Nonreplicating Persistence

Mycobacterium tuberculosis can maintain a nonreplicating persistent state in the host for decades, but must maintain the ability to efficiently reactivate and produce active disease to survive and spread in a population. Among the enzymes expressed during this dormancy is alanine dehydrogenase, which converts pyruvate to alanine, and glyoxylate to glycine concurrent with the oxidation of NADH to NAD. It is involved in the metabolic remodeling of M. tuberculosis through its possible interactions with both the glyoxylate and methylcitrate cycle. Both mRNA levels and enzymatic activities of isocitrate lyase, the first enzyme of the glyoxylate cycle, and alanine dehydrogenase increased during entry into nonreplicating persistence, while the gene and activity for the second enzyme of the glyoxylate cycle, malate synthase were not. This could suggest a shift in carbon flow away from the glyoxylate cycle and instead through alanine dehydrogenase. Expression of ald was also induced in vitro by other persistence-inducing stresses such as nitric oxide, and was expressed at high levels in vivo during the initial lung infection in mice. Enzyme activity was maintained during extended hypoxia even after transcription levels decreased. An ald knockout mutant of M. tuberculosis showed no reduction in anaerobic survival in vitro, but resulted in a significant lag in the resumption of growth after reoxygenation. During reactivation the ald mutant had an altered NADH/NAD ratio, and alanine dehydrogenase is proposed to maintain the optimal NADH/NAD ratio during anaerobiosis in preparation of eventual regrowth, and during the initial response during reoxygenation.

Trypanosoma cruzi Needs a Signal Provided by Reactive Oxygen Species to Infect Macrophages

Background

During Trypanosoma cruzi infection, macrophages produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a process called respiratory burst. Several works have aimed to elucidate the role of ROS during T. cruzi infection and the results obtained are sometimes contradictory. T. cruzi has a highly efficiently regulated antioxidant machinery to deal with the oxidative burst, but the parasite macromolecules, particularly DNA, may still suffer oxidative damage. Guanine (G) is the most vulnerable base and its oxidation results in formation of 8-oxoG, a cellular marker of oxidative stress.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In order to investigate the contribution of ROS in T. cruzi survival and infection, we utilized mice deficient in the gp91^phox (Phox KO) subunit of NADPH oxidase and parasites that overexpress the enzyme EcMutT (from Escherichia coli) or TcMTH (from T. cruzi), which is responsible for removing 8-oxo-dGTP from the nucleotide pool. The modified parasites presented enhanced replication inside murine inflammatory macrophages from C57BL/6 WT mice when compared with control parasites. Interestingly, when Phox KO macrophages were infected with these parasites, we observed a decreased number of all parasites when compared with macrophages from C57BL/6 WT. Scavengers for ROS also decreased parasite growth in WT macrophages. In addition, treatment of macrophages or parasites with hydrogen peroxide increased parasite replication in Phox KO mice and in vivo.

Conclusions

Our results indicate a paradoxical role for ROS since modified parasites multiply better inside macrophages, but proliferation is significantly reduced when ROS is removed from the host cell. Our findings suggest that ROS can work like a signaling molecule, contributing to T. cruzi growth inside the cells.

The parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas’ disease, which affects 10 million people, mainly in Latin American. Macrophages are one of the first cellular actors facing the invasion of pathogens and during T. cruzi infection, produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). To deal with oxidative stress, T. cruzi has an antioxidant machinery and, to repair DNA damage triggered by ROS, this parasite possesses enzymes of the oxidized guanine DNA repair system. The understanding of the role of ROS in the infection by T. cruzi can provide us with good insights on T. cruzi biology and virulence. While some studies suggest that ROS is related to parasite control, others have demonstrated that ROS is important for proliferation of this parasite. To investigate the contribution of ROS in T. cruzi infection, we utilized mice deficient in the production of ROS (Phox KO) and parasites that overexpress the enzymes related to DNA repair. Our results show that ROS is not only important for the battle against pathogens, but suggest that ROS can also work as a signal that contributes to the growth of this parasite.

Game of 'Somes: Protein Destruction for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Pathogenesis

The proteasome system of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is required for causing disease. Proteasomes are multisubunit chambered proteases and, until recently, were only known to participate in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-dependent proteolysis in bacteria. In this review, we discuss the latest advances in understanding how both ATP-dependent and ATP-independent proteasome-regulated pathways contribute to M. tuberculosis virulence.

Nitrate, nitrite and nitric oxide reductases: from the last universal common ancestor to modern bacterial pathogens

The electrochemical gradient that ensues from the enzymatic activity of cytochromes such as nitrate reductase, nitric oxide reductase, and quinol oxidase contributes to the bioenergetics of the bacterial cell. Reduction of nitrogen oxides by bacterial pathogens can, however, be uncoupled from proton translocation and biosynthesis of ATP or NH4(+), but still linked to quinol and NADH oxidation. Ancestral nitric oxide reductases, as well as cytochrome c oxidases and quinol bo oxidases evolved from the former, are capable of binding and detoxifying nitric oxide to nitrous oxide. The NO-metabolizing activity associated with these cytochromes can be a sizable source of antinitrosative defense in bacteria during their associations with host cells. Nitrosylation of terminal cytochromes arrests respiration, reprograms bacterial metabolism, stimulates antioxidant defenses and alters antibiotic cytotoxicity. Collectively, the bioenergetics and regulation of redox homeostasis that accompanies the utilization of nitrogen oxides and detoxification of nitric oxide by cytochromes of the electron transport chain increases fitness of many Gram-positive and -negative pathogens during their associations with invertebrate and vertebrate hosts.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Is a Natural Ornithine Aminotransferase (rocD) Mutant and Depends on Rv2323c for Growth on Arginine

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) possesses a genetic repertoire for metabolic pathways, which are specific and fit to its intracellular life style. Under in vitro conditions, Mtb is known to use arginine as a nitrogen source, but the metabolic pathways for arginine utilization have not been identified. Here we show that, in the presence of arginine, Mtb upregulates a gene cluster which includes an ornithine aminotransferase (rocD) and Rv2323c, a gene of unknown function. Isotopologue analysis by using ¹³C- or ¹⁵N-arginine revealed that in Mtb arginine is not only used as nitrogen source but also as carbon source for the formation of amino acids, in particular of proline. Surprisingly, rocD, which is widespread in other bacteria and is part of the classical arginase pathway turned out to be naturally deleted in Mtb, but not in non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Mtb lacking Rv2323c showed a growth defect on arginine, did not produce proline from arginine, and incorporated less nitrogen derived from arginine in its core nitrogen metabolism. We conclude that the highly induced pathway for arginine utilization in Mtb differs from that of other bacteria including non-tuberculous mycobacteria, probably reflecting a specific metabolic feature of intracellular Mtb.

Innate Immune Defenses in Human Tuberculosis: An Overview of the Interactions between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Innate Immune Cells

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious global public health problem that results in up to 2 million deaths each year. TB is caused by the human pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which infects primarily innate immune cells patrolling the lung. Innate immune cells serve as barometers of the immune response against Mtb infection by determining the inflammatory milieu in the lungs and promoting the generation of adaptive immune responses. However, innate immune cells are also potential niches for bacterial replication and are readily manipulated by Mtb. Our understanding of the early interactions between Mtb and innate immune cells is limited, especially in the context of human infection. This review will focus on Mtb interactions with human macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and NK cells and detail evidence that Mtb modulation of these cells negatively impacts Mtb-specific immune responses. Furthermore, this review will emphasize important innate immune pathways uncovered through human immunogenetic studies. Insights into the human innate immune response to Mtb infection are necessary for providing a rational basis for the augmentation of immune responses against Mtb infection, especially with respect to the generation of effective anti-TB immunotherapeutics and vaccines.

Phylogenomics of Mycobacterium Nitrate Reductase Operon

NarGHJI operon encodes a nitrate reductase that can reduce nitrate to nitrite. This process enhances bacterial survival by nitrate respiration under anaerobic conditions. NarGHJI operon exists in many bacteria, especially saprophytic bacteria living in soil which play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. Most actinomycetes, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, possess NarGHJI operons. M. tuberculosis is a facultative intracellular pathogen that expands in macrophages and has the ability to persist in a non-replicative form in granuloma lifelong. Nitrogen and nitrogen compounds play crucial roles in the struggle between M. tuberculosis and host. M. tuberculosis can use nitrate as a final electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions to enhance its survival. In this article, we reviewed the mechanisms regulating nitrate reductase expression and affecting its activity. Potential genes involved in regulating the nitrate reductase expression in M. tuberculosis were identified. The conserved NarG might be an alternative mycobacterium taxonomic marker.