Novel Role for Interleukin-17 in Enhancing Type 1 Helper T Cell Immunity in the Female Genital Tract following Mucosal Herpes Simplex Virus 2 Vaccination

Disruption of IL-17-mediated immunosurveillance in the respiratory mucosa results in invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infection

Introduction

Streptococcus pyogenes is a Gram-positive pathogen that causes a significant global burden of skin pyoderma and pharyngitis. In some cases, infection can lead to severe invasive streptococcal diseases. Previous studies have shown that IL-17 deficiency in mice (IL-17-/-) can reduce S. pyogenes clearance from the mucosal surfaces. However, the effect of IL-17 on the development of severe invasive streptococcal disease has not yet been assessed.

Methods

Here, we modeled single or repeated non-lethal intranasal (IN) S. pyogenes M1 strain infections in immunocompetent and IL-17-/- mice to assess bacterial colonization following a final IN or skin challenge.

Results

Immunocompetent mice that received a single S. pyogenes infection showed long-lasting immunity to subsequent IN infection, and no bacteria were detected in the lymph nodes or spleens. However, in the absence of IL-17, a single IN infection resulted in dissemination of S. pyogenes to the lymphoid organs, which was accentuated by repeated IN infections. In contrast to what was observed in the respiratory mucosa, skin immunity did not correlate with the systemic levels of IL-17. Instead, it was found to be associated with the activation of germinal center responses and accumulation of neutrophils in the spleen.

Discussion

Our results demonstrated that IL-17 plays a critical role in preventing invasive disease following S. pyogenes infection of the respiratory tract.

The IL-17 family in diseases: from bench to bedside

The interleukin-17 (IL-17) family comprises six members (IL-17A-17F), and recently, all of its related receptors have been discovered. IL-17 was first discovered approximately 30 years ago. Members of this family have various biological functions, including driving an inflammatory cascade during infections and autoimmune diseases, as well as boosting protective immunity against various pathogens. IL-17 is a highly versatile proinflammatory cytokine necessary for vital processes including host immune defenses, tissue repair, inflammatory disease pathogenesis, and cancer progression. However, how IL-17 performs these functions remains controversial. The multifunctional properties of IL-17 have attracted research interest, and emerging data have gradually improved our understanding of the IL-17 signaling pathway. However, a comprehensive review is required to understand its role in both host defense functions and pathogenesis in the body. This review can aid researchers in better understanding the mechanisms underlying IL-17's roles in vivo and provide a theoretical basis for future studies aiming to regulate IL-17 expression and function. This review discusses recent progress in understanding the IL-17 signaling pathway and its physiological roles. In addition, we present the mechanism underlying IL-17's role in various pathologies, particularly, in IL-17-induced systemic lupus erythematosus and IL-17-related tumor cell transformation and metastasis. In addition, we have briefly discussed promising developments in the diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune diseases and tumors.

Effect of Pre-Treatment with a Recombinant Chicken Interleukin-17A on Vaccine Induced Immunity against a Very Virulent Marek's Disease Virus

The host response to pathogenic microbes can lead to expression of interleukin (IL)-17, which has antimicrobial and anti-viral activity. However, relatively little is known about the basic biological role of chicken IL-17A against avian viruses, particularly against Marek's disease virus (MDV). We demonstrate that, following MDV infection, upregulation of IL-17A mRNA and an increase in the frequency of IL-17A+ T cells in the spleen occur compared to control chickens. To elaborate on the role of chIL-17A in MD, the full-length chIL-17A coding sequence was cloned into a pCDNA3.1-V5/HIS TOPO plasmid. The effect of treatment with pcDNA:chIL-17A plasmid in combination with a vaccine (HVT) and very virulent(vv)MDV challenge or vvMDV infection was assessed. In combination with HVT vaccination, chickens that were inoculated with the pcDNA:chIL-17A plasmid had reduced tumor incidence compared to chickens that received the empty vector control or that were vaccinated only (66.6% in the HVT + empty vector group and 73.33% in HVT group versus 53.3% in the HVT + pcDNA:chIL-17A). Further analysis demonstrated that the chickens that received the HVT vaccine and/or plasmid expressing IL-17A had lower MDV-Meq transcripts in the spleen. In conclusion, chIL-17A can influence the immunity conferred by HVT vaccination against MDV infection in chickens.

Comparison of Effects of Multiple Adjuvants and Immunization Routes on the Immunogenicity and Protection of HSV-2 gD Subunit Vaccine

Genital herpes caused by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) poses a global health issue. HSV-2 infection increases the risk of acquiring HIV infection. Studies have demonstrated that HSV-2 subunit vaccines have potential benefits, but require adjuvants to induce a balanced Th1/Th2 response. To develop a novel, effective vaccine, in this study, a truncated glycoprotein D (aa 1-285) of HSV-2 was formulated with an Al(OH)₃ adjuvant, three squalene adjuvants, MF59, AS03, and AS02, or a mucosal adjuvant, bacterium-like particles (BLPs). The immunogenicity of these subunit vaccines was evaluated in mice. After three immunizations, vaccines formulated with Al(OH)_3, MF59, AS03, and AS02 (intramuscularly) induced higher titers of neutralizing antibody than that formulated without adjuvant, and in particular, mice immunized with the vaccine plus AS02 had the highest neutralizing antibody titers and tended to produce a more balanced immune reaction than others. Intranasal gD2-PA-BLPs also induced excellent IgA levels and a more balanced Th1 and Th2 responses than intranasal gD2. After challenge with a lethal dose of HSV-2, all five adjuvants exhibited a positive effect in improving the survival rate. AS02 and gD2-PA-BLPs enhanced survival by 50% and 25%, respectively, when compared with the vaccine without adjuvant. AS02 was the only adjuvant that resulted in complete vaginal virus clearance and genital lesion healing within eight days. These results demonstrate the potential of using AS02 as a subunit vaccine adjuvant, and BLPs as a mucosal vaccine adjuvant.

Kaposi's Varicelliform Eruption After Treatment With Ixekizumab in a Patient With Pityriasis Rubra Pilaris

Pityriasis rubra pilaris (PRP) is a rare condition characterized by red-orange plaques with islands of sparing with follicular and palmoplantar hyperkeratosis. The disease can be difficult to treat and often requires patients to trial multiple therapeutic options. In recent years, targeted biologic therapies have increasingly been trialed due to their relative efficacy and favorable safety profile. Ixekizumab, an interleukin-17 inhibitor, is one such therapy that has demonstrated efficacy in PRP with few reported adverse events. We present a PRP patient who developed Kaposi's varicelliform eruption followed by a pseudomonal superinfection three months after initiation of ixekizumab.

IL-17 and IL-17-producing cells in protection versus pathology

IL-17 cytokine family members have diverse biological functions, promoting protective immunity against many pathogens but also driving inflammatory pathology during infection and autoimmunity. IL-17A and IL-17F are produced by CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, γδ T cells, and various innate immune cell populations in response to IL-1β and IL-23, and they mediate protective immunity against fungi and bacteria by promoting neutrophil recruitment, antimicrobial peptide production and enhanced barrier function. IL-17-driven inflammation is normally controlled by regulatory T cells and the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10, TGFβ and IL-35. However, if dysregulated, IL-17 responses can promote immunopathology in the context of infection or autoimmunity. Moreover, IL-17 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many other disorders with an inflammatory basis, including cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Consequently, the IL-17 pathway is now a key drug target in many autoimmune and chronic inflammatory disorders; therapeutic monoclonal antibodies targeting IL-17A, both IL-17A and IL-17F, the IL-17 receptor, or IL-23 are highly effective in some of these diseases. However, new approaches are needed to specifically regulate IL-17-mediated immunopathology in chronic inflammation and autoimmunity without compromising protective immunity to infection.

The Double Game Played by Th17 Cells in Infection: Host Defense and Immunopathology

T-helper 17 (Th17) cells represent a subpopulation of CD4+ T lymphocytes that play an essential role in defense against pathogens. Th17 cells are distinguished from Th1 and Th2 cells by their ability to produce members of the interleukin-17 (IL-17) family, namely IL-17A and IL-17F. IL-17 in turn induces several target cells to synthesize and release cytokines, chemokines, and metalloproteinases, thereby amplifying the inflammatory cascade. Th17 cells reside predominantly in the lamina propria of the mucosa. Their main physiological function is to maintain the integrity of the mucosal barrier against the aggression of infectious agents. However, in an appropriate inflammatory microenvironment, Th17 cells can transform into immunopathogenic cells, giving rise to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This review aims to analyze the complex mechanisms through which the interaction between Th17 and pathogens can be on the one hand favorable to the host by protecting it from infectious agents, and on the other hand harmful, potentially generating autoimmune reactions and tissue damage.

Deficiency of C-reactive protein or human C-reactive protein transgenic treatment aggravates influenza A infection in mice

C-reactive protein (CRP) has been shown to be a potential candidate target in the immunotherapy of severe influenza A infection. However, it is unclear on the pathogenesis associated with CRP in influenza infections. Here, we used influenza A H1N1 CA04 to infect human CRP transgenic mice (KI), CRP knockout mice (KO), and wild-type mice (WT), respectively, and compared the viral pathogenicity and associated immune response in those mice. The results showed that CA04 infection resulted in 100%, 80%, and 60% death in KO, KI, and WT mice, respectively. Compared to WT mice, CA04 infection resulted in higher TCID50 in lungs on day 3 after infection but lowered HI antibody titers in sera of survivors on day 21 after infection in KI mice. ELISA assay showed that IFN-γ concentration was significantly increased in sera of WT, KI, or KO mice on day 7 after infection, and IL-17 was remarkably increased in sera of WT mice but decreased in sera of KI mice while no significant change in sera of KO mice on day 3 or 7 after infection. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that the relative expression levels of immune checkpoint CTLA-4, LAIR-1, GITR, BTLA, TIM-3, or PD-1 mRNA in the lung presented decreased levels on day 3 or 7 after infection in KI or KO mice. The correlation analysis showed that mRNA expression levels of the 6 molecules positively correlated with viral TICD50 in WT mice but negatively correlated with viral TCID50 in KI or KO mice. However, only LAIR-1 presented a significant correlation in each lung tissue of WT, KI, or KO mice with CA07 infection statistically. IHC results showed that LAIR-1 positive cells could be found in WT, KO, or KI mice lung tissues with CA04 infection, and the positive cells were mainly distributed in an inflammatory dense area. Our results suggested that deficiency of CRP or human CRP transgenic treatment aggravates influenza A virus infection in mice. CRP is a double sword in immune regulation of influenza infection in which IL-17 and immune checkpoint may be involved.

Chlamydia trachomatis vaccine development - a view on the current challenges and how to move forward

INTRODUCTION

Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common sexually transmitted bacterial pathogen in the world. A licensed vaccine is not yet available, but the first vaccines have entered clinical trials.

AREAS COVERED

: We describe the progress that has been made in our understanding of the type of immunity that a protective vaccine should induce, and the challenges that vaccine developers face. We also focus on the clinical development of a chlamydia vaccine. The first chlamydia vaccine candidate has now been tested in a clinical phase-I trial, and another phase-I trial is currently running. We discuss what it will take to continue this development and what future trial setups could look like.

EXPERT OPINION

The chlamydia field is coming of age and the first phase I clinical trial of a C. trachomatis vaccine has been successfully completed. We expect and hope that this will motivate various stakeholders to support further development of chlamydia vaccines in humans.

Systemic Neutralizing Antibodies and Local Immune Responses Are Critical for the Control of SARS-CoV-2

Antibody measurements are primarily used to evaluate experimental and approved COVID-19 vaccines, which is unilateral considering our immune responses’ complex nature. Previously, we showed that nanoparticle plasmid DNA adjuvant system, QAC, and MVA based vaccines were immunogenic against SARS-CoV-2. Here, we report on the protective efficacy of systemic humoral and mucosal cell-mediated immune responses in transgenic mice models against SARS-CoV-2 following nanoparticle immunization. Parenteral, intramuscular administration of QAC-based plasmid DNA vaccine-encoding SARS-CoV-2 S and N led to the induction of significant serum neutralizing humoral responses, which reduced viral burden in the lungs and prevented viral dissemination to the brain. In contrast, the mucosal, intranasal administration of a heterologous vaccine elicited significant mucosal cell-mediated immune responses in the lungs that limited lung viral replication. The presented results demonstrate that serum neutralizing humoral and local lung T-cell immune responses are critical for the control of SARS-CoV-2 replication.

The Role of IL-17 During Infections in the Female Reproductive Tract

Interleukin-17 (IL-17A) is a cytokine involved in a complex array of both protective and detrimental processes. Although early biological studies focused on the pro-inflammatory function of IL-17 in the context of autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, it has become increasingly evident that the roles of IL-17 are far more nuanced. Recent work has demonstrated that the functions of IL-17 are highly context- and tissue-dependent, and there is a fine balance between the pathogenic and protective functions of IL-17. This is especially evident in mucosal tissues such as the female reproductive tract, where IL-17 has been shown to play an important role in the immune response generated during fungal, bacterial and viral infections associated with protection, but also with inflammation. In this review, we discuss the evolving landscape of IL-17 biology within the context of the vaginal mucosa, focusing on key findings that highlight the importance of this cytokine in genital mucosal immunity.

Global Risk of Bacterial Skin Infections and Herpesviridae Infections with Ustekinumab, Secukinumab, and Tumour Necrosis Factor-alpha Inhibitors: Spontaneous Reports of Adverse Drug Reactions from the World Health Organization Pharmacovigilance Center

Genetic defects in interleukin-12/23/17 immunity are associated with an increased risk of Staphylococcus aureus and herpesvirus skin infections. This study analysed spontaneous safety reports from the WHO Pharmacovigilance Center of bacterial skin or herpesvirus infections associated with secukinumab, ustekinumab and tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors. Associations found in disproportionality analyses were expressed as reporting odds ratios (ROR). For bacterial skin infections, ustekinumab showed the strongest association (ROR 6.09; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 5.44-6.81), and, among the tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors, infliximab showed the strongest association (ROR 4.18; 95% CI 3.97-4.40). Risk was comparable between infliximab and secukinumab (ROR 3.51; 95% CI 3.00-4.09). Secukinumab showed the strongest association with herpes simplex infection (ROR 4.80; 95% CI 3.78-6.10). All biologics were equally associated with herpes zoster. Infliximab was the only biologic associated with cytomegalovirus infection (ROR 5.66; 95% CI 5.08-6.31) and had the strongest association with Epstein-Barr virus infection (ROR 6.90; 95% CI 6.03-7.90). All biologics evaluated were positively associated with bacterial skin infections, herpes simplex, and herpes zoster, compared with all other drugs in the WHO database for which individual case safety reports were collected. The possibility of under-reporting, reporting bias and difference in causality assessment between countries and reporters must be taken into account when interpreting the results of disproportionality analyses.

Concomitant and productive genital infections by HSV-2 and HPV in two young women: A case report

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs), the most oncogenic virus known to humans, are often associated with Herpes Simplex Virus-2 (HSV-2) infections. The involvement of the latter in cervical cancer is controversial but its long-term infections might modulate the mucosal microenvironment in a way that favors carcinogenesis. We know little about coinfections between HSV-2 and HPVs, and studying the immunological and microbiological dynamics in the early stages of these infections may help identify or rule out potential interactions. We report two cases of concomitant productive, although asymptomatic, HSV-2 and HPV infections in young women (aged 20 and 25). The women were followed up for approximately a year, with clinical visits every two months and weekly self-samples. We performed quantitative analyses of their HSV-2 and HPV viral loads, immunological responses (IgG and IgM antibodies and local cytokines expression profiles), vaginal microbiota composition, as well as demographic and behavior data. We detect interactions between virus loads, immune response, and the vaginal microbiota, which improve our understanding of HSV-2 and HPVs’ coinfections and calls for further investigation with larger cohorts.

Th17 cell differentiation induced by cytopathogenic biotype BVDV-2 in bovine PBLCs

Background

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a major pathogen that causes bovine viral diarrhea/mucosal disease (BVD-MD), which has become a global infectious disease due to its wide spread and the lack of effective treatment. The process of BVDV infection is complex. Once infected, host immune cells are activated and modulated. As a major immune cell, peripheral blood lymphocyte cells (PBLCs) are the primary target of BVDV. In order to further understand the mechanism of BVDV- host interaction, the expression profiles of host lymphocytes mRNAs associated with BVDV infection were investigated by transcriptomic sequencing analysis.

Results

The transcriptomic sequencing analysis was performed on bovine PBLCs infected with CP BVDV-2 GS2018 after 12 h of infection. Gene expression profiling demonstrated that 1052 genes were differentially expressed in GS2018 infected PBLCs compared with the control group. Of these genes, 485 genes were up-regulated and 567 were down-regulated. The 19 differential expressed genes (DEGs) were selected for validation using quantitative real-time PCR and the results were consistent with the results of RNA-Seq. Gene ontology enrichment and KEGG pathway analysis showed that 1052 DEGs were significantly enriched in 16 pathways, including cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, IL17, PI3K-Akt, MAPK and TNF signaling pathway. PPI network analysis showed that IL17A, IFN-γ and TNF-α interacted with various proteins and may play crucial roles in BVDV-2 infection. Of note, we confirmed that GS2018 induced Th17 cell differentiation in PBLCs and persistently increased the expression levels of IL17A. In turn, the replication of GS2018 was inhibited by IL17A.

Conclusion

In this study, the transcription changes of DEGs related to host immune responses in bovine PBLCs were caused by CP BVDV-2 infection. In particular, the effector molecules IL17A of Th17 cells were significantly up-regulated, which inhibited viral replication. These results will contribute to exploration and further understanding of the host immune response mechanism and interaction between host and BVDV-2.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-08194-w.

Interleukin-17-A multifaceted cytokine in viral infections

Viral infections are a major threat to the human population due to the lack of selective therapeutic measures. The morbidity and mortality reported worldwide are very alarming against viral pathogens. The proinflammatory environment is required for viral inhibition by initiating the host immune response. The host immune response fights these pathogens by secreting different cytokines. Interleukin-17 (IL-17) a proinflammatory cytokine mainly produced by T helper type 17 cells, plays a vital role in the regulation of host immune response against various pathogens, including viruses. However, dysregulated production of IL-17 induces chronic inflammation, autoimmune disorders, and may lead to cancer. Recent studies suggest that IL-17 is not only involved in the antiviral immune response but also promotes virus-mediated illnesses. In this review, we discuss the protective and pathogenic role of IL-17 against various viral infections. A detailed understanding of IL-17 during viral infections could contribute to improve therapeutic measures and enable the development of an efficient and safe IL-17 based immunotherapy.

Primary HSV-2 Infection in Early Pregnancy Results in Transplacental Viral Transmission and Dose-Dependent Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes in a Novel Mouse Model

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection affects 24 million births annually and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including neonatal herpes; however, the mechanisms underlying in utero transmission of HSV-2 are largely unknown. We examined the effects of primary HSV-2 infection during early pregnancy on gestational outcomes in a novel, clinically relevant mouse model. Pregnant C57BL/6 mice were infected intravaginally with 10²–10⁵ pfu/mL HSV-2 on gestation day (gd) 4.5. Controls were infected, nonpregnant, diestrus-staged mice and pregnant, uninfected mice. Compared to nonpregnant mice, pregnant mice were 100-fold more susceptible to HSV-2 infection. Three days post-inoculation (gd7.5), viral DNA was present in implantation sites, but pregnancy outcomes were largely unaffected by infection. Eight days post-inoculation (gd12.5), HSV-2 DNA persisted in placental tissues, resulting in inflammation and hemorrhage. Fetal and placental weights were reduced and fetal loss was observed with high viral doses. HSV-2 DNA and increased expression of pro-inflammatory mediators were detected in fetal tissues at gd12.5, signifying viral transmission and fetal infection, even with low viral doses. This mouse model shows a dose-dependent effect of primary HSV-2 infection on pregnancy outcomes and suggests that fetal loss may occur due to placental inflammation, thus providing valuable insight into in utero transmission of HSV-2.

Galectin-3 and Interleukin-17: A potential role in the pathogenesis of human papilloma virus infection

BACKGROUND

In many cases, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is self-limiting, as innate and adaptive cell-mediated immunity is needed for infection elimination; however, the inability of the immune system in some patients to clear the infection is a matter of debate. The interleukin-17 (IL-17) family cytokines play an important protective role in host immune response to infections, through maintaining immunity against specific pathogens, induction of antimicrobial proteins, and recruitment of neutrophils to sites of invasion. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) may be considered as a marker of viral infection as many studies reported its increased serum level in viral infections.

AIMS

To evaluate levels of serum Gal-3 and IL-17 in patients with verrucas and to explore the potential role of these markers in the pathogenesis of the disease.

METHODS

Fifty patients suffering from HPV Infection, and fifty healthy controls were included in this study. Serum levels of Gal-3 and IL-17 were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

The patients' serum Gal-3 was significantly higher, while IL-17 was significantly lower than that of the healthy controls (p-value < 0.001). Moreover, a statistically significant positive correlation was found between Gal-3 serum level and disease duration and number of warts. Significant negative correlation exists between IL-17 and Gal-3 levels.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate a potential role of both IL-17 and Gal-3 in the pathogenesis of warts and open a new opportunity in targeting these markers in the future in treating warts.

Expression of the axon guidance factor Slit2 and its receptor Robo1 in patients with Hirschsprung disease: An observational study

ABSTRACT

Hirschsprung disease (HD) is a common form of digestive tract malformation in children. However, the pathogenesis of HD is not very clear. This study aimed to investigate the expression of slit guidance ligand 2 (Slit2) and roundabout 1 (Robo1) in patients with HD.From January 2018 to January 2019, 30 colon specimens from children with HD undergoing surgical resection at the Department of Surgery in Qilu Children's Hospital of Shandong University were obtained. These specimens were divided into the normal segment group, the transitional segment group and the spastic segment group. Immunohistochemical staining, Western blotting, and real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to measure the expression of Slit2 and Robo1 in the intestinal walls of normal, transitional, and spastic segments.Immunohistochemical staining and Western blot analyses showed high levels of the Slit2 and Robo1 proteins in normal ganglion cells in children with HD, lower levels in transitional ganglion cells, and no expression in spastic segments, with significant differences between groups (P < .05). Similarly, the real-time polymerase chain reaction results were consistent with the Western blot analysis results.The expression of Slit2 and Robo1 decreases significantly in the spastic segment of the intestinal tract in patients with HD.

Asymptomatic COVID-19: disease tolerance with efficient anti-viral immunity against SARS-CoV-2

The immune responses and mechanisms limiting symptom progression in asymptomatic cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection remain unclear. We comprehensively characterized transcriptomic profiles, cytokine responses, neutralization capacity of antibodies, and cellular immune phenotypes of asymptomatic patients with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection to identify potential protective mechanisms. Compared to symptomatic patients, asymptomatic patients had higher counts of mature neutrophils and lower proportion of CD169+ expressing monocytes in the peripheral blood. Systemic levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were also lower in asymptomatic patients, accompanied by milder pro-inflammatory gene signatures. Mechanistically, a more robust systemic Th2 cell signature with a higher level of virus-specific Th17 cells and a weaker yet sufficient neutralizing antibody profile against SARS-CoV-2 was observed in asymptomatic patients. In addition, asymptomatic COVID-19 patients had higher systemic levels of growth factors that are associated with cellular repair. Together, the data suggest that asymptomatic patients mount less pro-inflammatory and more protective immune responses against SARS-CoV-2 indicative of disease tolerance. Insights from this study highlight key immune pathways that could serve as therapeutic targets to prevent disease progression in COVID-19.

Is the oral microbiome a source to enhance mucosal immunity against infectious diseases?

Mucosal tissues act as a barrier throughout the oral, nasopharyngeal, lung, and intestinal systems, offering first-line protection against potential pathogens. Conventionally, vaccines are applied parenterally to induce serotype-dependent humoral response but fail to drive adequate mucosal immune protection for viral infections such as influenza, HIV, and coronaviruses. Oral mucosa, however, provides a vast immune repertoire against specific microbial pathogens and yet is shaped by an ever-present microbiome community that has co-evolved with the host over thousands of years. Adjuvants targeting mucosal T-cells abundant in oral tissues can promote soluble-IgA (sIgA)-specific protection to confer increased vaccine efficacy. Th17 cells, for example, are at the center of cell-mediated immunity and evidence demonstrates that protection against heterologous pathogen serotypes is achieved with components from the oral microbiome. At the point of entry where pathogens are first encountered, typically the oral or nasal cavity, the mucosal surfaces are layered with bacterial cohabitants that continually shape the host immune profile. Constituents of the oral microbiome including their lipids, outer membrane vesicles, and specific proteins, have been found to modulate the Th17 response in the oral mucosa, playing important roles in vaccine and adjuvant designs. Currently, there are no approved adjuvants for the induction of Th17 protection, and it is critical that this research is included in the preparedness for the current and future pandemics. Here, we discuss the potential of oral commensals, and molecules derived thereof, to induce Th17 activity and provide safer and more predictable options in adjuvant engineering to prevent emerging infectious diseases.

Th17 Cells in Viral Infections-Friend or Foe?

Th17 cells are recognized as indispensable in inducing protective immunity against bacteria and fungi, as they promote the integrity of mucosal epithelial barriers. It is believed that Th17 cells also play a central role in the induction of autoimmune diseases. Recent advances have evaluated Th17 effector functions during viral infections, including their critical role in the production and induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and in the recruitment and activation of other immune cells. Thus, Th17 is involved in the induction both of pathogenicity and immunoprotective mechanisms seen in the host's immune response against viruses. However, certain Th17 cells can also modulate immune responses, since they can secrete immunosuppressive factors, such as IL-10; these cells are called non-pathogenic Th17 cells. Here, we present a brief review of Th17 cells and highlight their involvement in some virus infections. We cover these notions by highlighting the role of Th17 cells in regulating the protective and pathogenic immune response in the context of viral infections. In addition, we will be describing myocarditis and multiple sclerosis as examples of immune diseases triggered by viral infections, in which we will discuss further the roles of Th17 cells in the induction of tissue damage.

Gammaherpesvirus Usurps Host IL-17 Signaling To Support the Establishment of Chronic Infection

Gammaherpesviruses establish lifelong infections in a majority of humans and are associated with B cell lymphomas. IL-17A is a host cytokine that plays a well-established role in the clearance of bacterial and fungal infections; however, the role of IL-17A in viral infections is poorly understood.

Gammaherpesviruses establish lifelong infection and are associated with a variety of cancers, including B cell lymphomas. These viruses manipulate the B cell differentiation process to establish lifelong infection in memory B cells. Specifically, gammaherpesviruses infect naive B cells and promote entry of both infected and uninfected naive B cells into germinal centers, where the virus usurps rapid proliferation of germinal center B cells to exponentially increase its cellular latent reservoir. In addition to facilitating the establishment of latent infection, germinal center B cells are thought to be the target of viral transformation. In this study, we have uncovered a novel proviral role of host interleukin 17A (IL-17A), a well-established antibacterial and antifungal factor. Loss of IL-17A signaling attenuated the establishment of chronic gammaherpesvirus infection and gammaherpesvirus-driven germinal center response in a route of inoculation-dependent manner. Further, IL-17A treatment directly supported gammaherpesvirus reactivation and de novo lytic infection. This study is the first demonstration of a multifaceted proviral role of IL-17 signaling.

IL-17 in the Pathogenesis of Disease: Good Intentions Gone Awry

The IL-17 family is an evolutionarily old cytokine family consisting of six members (IL-17A through IL-17F). IL-17 family cytokines signal through heterodimeric receptors that include the shared IL-17RA subunit, which is widely expressed throughout the body on both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells. The founding family member, IL-17A, is usually referred to as IL-17 and has received the most attention for proinflammatory roles in autoimmune diseases like psoriasis. However, IL-17 is associated with a wide array of diseases with perhaps surprisingly variable pathologies. This review focuses on recent advances in the roles of IL-17 during health and in disease pathogenesis. To decipher the functions of IL-17 in diverse disease processes it is useful to first consider the physiological functions that IL-17 contributes to health. We then discuss how these beneficial functions can be diverted toward pathogenic amplification of deleterious pathways driving chronic disease.

Localized and Systemic Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2 Following Mucosal Immunization

The rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the USA and worldwide necessitates the development of multiple vaccines to combat the COVID-19 global pandemic. Previously, we showed that a particulate adjuvant system, quil-A-loaded chitosan (QAC) nanoparticles, can elicit robust immunity combined with plasmid vaccines when used against avian coronavirus. Here, we report on the immune responses elicited by mucosal homologous plasmid and a heterologous immunization strategy using a plasmid vaccine and a Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA) expressing SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) antigens. Only the heterologous intranasal immunization strategy elicited neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage of mice, suggesting a protective vaccine. The same prime/boost strategy led to the induction of type 1 and type 17 T-cell responses and polyfunctional T-cells expressing multiple type 1 cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, TNFα, IL-2) in the lungs and spleens of vaccinated mice. In contrast, the plasmid homologous vaccine strategy led to the induction of local mono and polyfunctional T-cells secreting IFN-γ. Outcomes of this study support the potential of QAC-nano vaccines to elicit significant mucosal immune responses against respiratory coronaviruses.

Serum Amyloid P inhibits single stranded RNA-induced lung inflammation, lung damage, and cytokine storm in mice

SARS-CoV-2 is a single stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus and contains GU-rich sequences distributed abundantly in the genome. In COVID-19, the infection and immune hyperactivation causes accumulation of inflammatory immune cells, blood clots, and protein aggregates in lung fluid, increased lung alveolar wall thickness, and upregulation of serum cytokine levels. A serum protein called serum amyloid P (SAP) has a calming effect on the innate immune system and shows efficacy as a therapeutic for fibrosis in animal models and clinical trials. Here we show that aspiration of the GU-rich ssRNA oligonucleotide ORN06 into mouse lungs induces all of the above COVID-19-like symptoms. Men tend to have more severe COVID-19 symptoms than women, and in the aspirated ORN06 model, male mice tended to have more severe symptoms than female mice. Intraperitoneal injections of SAP starting from day 1 post ORN06 aspiration attenuated the ORN06-induced increase in the number of inflammatory cells and formation of clot-like aggregates in the mouse lung fluid, reduced ORN06-increased alveolar wall thickness and accumulation of exudates in the alveolar airspace, and attenuated an ORN06-induced upregulation of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12p70, IL-23, and IL-27 in serum. SAP also reduced D-dimer levels in the lung fluid. In human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, SAP attenuated ORN06-induced extracellular accumulation of IL-6. Together, these results suggest that aspiration of ORN06 is a simple model for both COVID-19 as well as cytokine storm in general, and that SAP is a potential therapeutic for diseases with COVID-19-like symptoms and/or a cytokine storm.

Microbiota-dependent expansion of testicular IL-17-producing Vγ6+ γδ T cells upon puberty promotes local tissue immune surveillance

γδT cells represent the majority of lymphocytes in several mucosal tissues where they contribute to tissue homoeostasis, microbial defence and wound repair. Here we characterise a population of interleukin (IL) 17-producing γδ (γδ17) T cells that seed the testis of naive C57BL/6 mice, expand at puberty and persist throughout adulthood. We show that this population is foetal-derived and displays a T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire highly biased towards Vγ6-containing rearrangements. These γδ17 cells were the major source of IL-17 in the testis, whereas αβ T cells mostly provided interferon (IFN)-γ in situ. Importantly, testicular γδ17 cell homoeostasis was strongly dependent on the microbiota and Toll-like receptor (TLR4)/IL-1α/IL-23 signalling. We further found that γδ17 cells contributed to tissue surveillance in a model of experimental orchitis induced by intra-testicular inoculation of Listeria monocytogenes, as Tcrδ-/- and Il17-/- infected mice displayed higher bacterial loads than wild-type (WT) controls and died 3 days after infection. Altogether, this study identified a previously unappreciated foetal-derived γδ17 cell subset that infiltrates the testis at steady state, expands upon puberty and plays a crucial role in local tissue immune surveillance.

Estradiol Enhances Antiviral CD4+ Tissue-Resident Memory T Cell Responses following Mucosal Herpes Simplex Virus 2 Vaccination through an IL-17-Mediated Pathway

Estradiol (E2) is a sex hormone which has been shown to be protective against sexually transmitted infections such as herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2). However, few studies have examined the underlying mechanisms by which this occurs. Here, we investigated the effect of E2 on the establishment of memory T cells post-intranasal immunization with HSV-2. CD4⁺ T cell responses first appeared in the upper respiratory tract (URT) within 3 days postimmunization before being detected in the female reproductive tract (FRT) at 7 days. E2 treatment resulted in greater and earlier T_h17 responses, which preceded augmented T_h1 responses at these sites. The CD4⁺ T cells persisted in the URT for up to 28 days, and E2 treatment resulted in higher frequencies of memory T cells. Intranasal immunization also led to the establishment of CD4⁺ tissue-resident memory T cells (T_RM cells) in the FRT, and E2 treatment resulted in increased T_h1 and T_h17 T_RM cells. When the migration of circulating T cells into the FRT was blocked by FTY720, immunized E2-treated mice remained completely protected against subsequent genital HSV-2 challenge compared to non-E2 controls, confirming that T_RM cells alone are adequate for protection in these mice. Finally, the enhanced vaginal T_h1 T_RM cells present in E2-treated mice were found to be modulated through an interleukin 17 (IL-17)-mediated pathway, as E2-treated IL-17A-deficient mice had impaired establishment of T_h1 T_RM cells. This study describes a novel role for E2 in enhancing CD4⁺ memory T cells and provides insight on potential strategies for generating optimal immunity during vaccination.IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) is a highly prevalent sexually transmitted infection for which there is currently no vaccine available. Interestingly, the female sex hormone estradiol has been shown to be protective against HSV-2. However, the underlying mechanisms by which this occurs remains relatively unknown. Our study demonstrates that under the influence of estradiol treatment, intranasal immunization with an attenuated strain of HSV-2 leads to enhanced establishment of antiviral memory T cell responses in the upper respiratory tract and female reproductive tract. In these sites, estradiol treatment leads to greater T_h17 memory cells, which precede enhanced T_h1 memory responses. Consequently, the T cell responses mounted by tissue-resident memory cells in the female reproductive tract of estradiol-treated mice are sufficient to protect mice against vaginal HSV-2 challenge. This study offers important insights regarding the regulation of mucosal immunity by hormones and on potential strategies for generating optimal immunity during vaccination.

Interleukin-17A Facilitates Chikungunya Virus Infection by Inhibiting IFN-α2 Expression

Interferons (IFNs) are the key components of innate immunity and are crucial for host defense against viral infections. Here, we report a novel role of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) in inhibiting IFN-α2 expression thus promoting chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection. CHIKV infected IL-17A deficient (Il17a^-/- ) mice expressed a higher level of IFN-α2 and developed diminished viremia and milder footpad swelling in comparison to wild-type (WT) control mice, which was also recapitulated in IL-17A receptor-deficient (Il17ra^-/- ) mice. Interestingly, IL-17A selectively blocked IFN-α2 production during CHIKV, but not West Nile virus (WNV) or Zika virus (ZIKV), infections. Recombinant IL-17A treatment inhibited CHIKV-induced IFN-α2 expression and enhanced CHIKV replication in both human and mouse cells. We further found that IL-17A inhibited IFN-α2 production by modulating the expression of Interferon Regulatory Factor-5 (IRF-5), IRF-7, IFN-stimulated gene 49 (ISG-49), and Mx1 expression during CHIKV infection. Neutralization of IL-17A in vitro leads to the increase of the expression of these antiviral molecules and decrease of CHIKV replication. Collectively, these results suggest a novel function of IL-17A in inhibiting IFN-α2-mediated antiviral responses during CHIKV infection, which may have broad implications in viral infections and other inflammatory diseases.

IL-17 regulates DC migration to the peribronchial LNs and allergen presentation in experimental allergic asthma

IL-17 is associated with different phenotypes of asthma, however, it is not fully elucidated how it influences induction and maintenance of asthma and allergy. In order to determine the role of IL-17 in development of allergic asthma, we used IL-17A/F double KO (IL-17A/F KO) and WT mice with or without neutralization of IL-17 in an experimental allergic asthma model and analyzed airway hyperresponsiveness, lung inflammation, T helper cell polarization, and DCs influx and activation. We report that the absence of IL-17 reduced influx of DCs into lungs and lung draining LNs. Compared to WT mice, IL-17A/F KO mice or WT mice after neutralization of IL-17A showed reduced airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilia, mucus hypersecretion, and IgE levels. DCs from draining LNs of allergen-challenged IL-17A/F KO mice showed a reduction in expression of migratory and costimulatory molecules CCR7, CCR2, MHC-II, and CD40 compared to WT DCs. Moreover, in vivo stimulation of adoptively transferred antigen-specific cells was attenuated in lung-draining LNs in the absence of IL-17. Thus, we report that IL-17 enhances airway DC activation, migration, and function. Consequently, lack of IL-17 leads to reduced antigen-specific T cell priming and impaired development of experimental allergic asthma.

Parenteral vaccination protects against transcervical infection with Chlamydia trachomatis and generate tissue-resident T cells post-challenge

The optimal protective immunity against Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) is still not fully resolved. One of the unresolved issues concerns the importance of resident immunity, since a recent study showed that optimal protection against a transcervical (TC) infection required genital tissue-resident memory T cells. An important question in the Chlamydia field is therefore if a parenteral vaccine strategy, inducing only circulating immunity primed at a nonmucosal site, should be pursued by Chlamydia vaccine developers. To address this question we studied the protective efficacy of a parenteral Chlamydia vaccine, formulated in the Th1/Th17 T cell-inducing adjuvant CAF01. We found that a parenteral vaccination induced significant protection against a TC infection and against development of chronic pathology. Protection correlated with rapid recruitment of Th1/Th17 T cells to the genital tract (GT), which efficiently prevented infection-driven generation of low quality Th1 or Th17 T cells, and instead maintained a pool of high quality multifunctional Th1/Th17 T cells in the GT throughout the infection. After clearance of the infection, a pool of these cells settled in the GT as tissue-resident Th1 and Th17 cells expressing CD69 but not CD103, CD49d, or CCR7, where they responded rapidly to a reinfection. These results show that a nonmucosal parenteral strategy inducing Th1 and Th17 T cells mediates protection against both infection with C.t. as well as development of chronic pathology, and lead to post-challenge protective tissue-resident memory immunity in the genital tract.

Herpes simplex virus mucocutaneous tumoural lesions - Systematic review

The goal was to characterize the clinical-epidemiological profile of patients with mucocutaneous tumoural herpes simplex virus (MCT HSV) lesions across the world. Two researchers extracted and independently reviewed data from the literature search engine PubMed/MEDLINE through October 2018. From 110 reported patients, the following data were available: the patients' ages ranged from 7 to 76 years; the majority was male (62.73 %-69/110) and immunosuppression was found in 97.25 % (106/109, missing 1) cases, of whom 88 were HIV- related. Lesions size varied from 0.2-13 cm, settling in the anogenital region in 76.36 % (84/110) patients; 84.13 % (53/63, missing 47) complained of pain and multiple recurrences were found in 44.94 % (40/89, missing 21) cases. On clinical basis, the initial hypothesis was neoplasia in 36/53 patients. Histopathological diagnosis was achieved in 90 % (90/100, missing 10) cases and was sample size-dependent. Type 2 HSV was detected in 86.07 % (68/79, missing 31) lesions. MCT HSV lesions recurrence after treatment was reported in 33.96 % (18/53, missing 57) patients. Pathophysiology is poorly understood. Physicians should be aware of MCT HSV lesions in immunosuppressed patients to avoid inappropriate therapeutic strategies.

Immunization of BLT Humanized Mice Redirects T Cell Responses to Gag and Reduces Acute HIV-1 Viremia

BLT (bone marrow-liver-thymus) humanized mice, which reconstitute a functional human immune system, develop prototypic human virus-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses following infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). We explored the utility of the BLT model for HIV-1 vaccine development by immunizing BLT mice against the conserved viral Gag protein, utilizing a rapid prime-boost protocol of poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid microparticles and a replication-defective herpes simplex virus (HSV) recombinant vector. After HIV-1 challenge, the mice developed broad, proteome-wide gamma interferon-positive (IFN-γ⁺) T cell responses against HIV-1 that reached magnitudes equivalent to what is observed in HIV-1-infected individuals. The functionality of these responses was underscored by the consistent emergence of escape mutations in multiple CD8⁺ T cell epitopes during the course of infection. Although prechallenge vaccine-induced responses were largely undetectable, the Gag immunization increased both the magnitude and the kinetics of anamnestic Gag-specific T cell responses following HIV-1 infection, and the magnitude of these postchallenge Gag-specific responses was inversely correlated with acute HIV-1 viremia. Indeed, Gag immunization was associated with a modest but significant 0.5-log reduction in HIV-1 viral load when analyzed across four experimental groups of BLT mice. Notably, the HSV vector induced elevated plasma concentrations of polarizing cytokines and chemotactic factors, including interleukin-12p70 (IL-12p70) and MIP-1α, which were positively correlated with the magnitude of Gag-specific responses. Overall, these results support the ability of BLT mice to recapitulate human pathogen-specific T cell responses and to respond to immunization; however, additional improvements to the model are required to develop a robust system for testing HIV-1 vaccine efficacy.IMPORTANCE Advances in the development of humanized mice have raised the possibility of a small-animal model for preclinical testing of an HIV-1 vaccine. Here, we describe the capacity of BLT humanized mice to mount broadly directed HIV-1-specific human T cell responses that are functionally active, as indicated by the rapid emergence of viral escape mutations. Although immunization of BLT mice with the conserved viral Gag protein did not result in detectable prechallenge responses, it did increase the magnitude and kinetics of postchallenge Gag-specific T cell responses, which was associated with a modest but significant reduction in acute HIV-1 viremia. Additionally, the BLT model revealed immunization-associated increases in the plasma concentrations of immunomodulatory cytokines and chemokines that correlated with more robust T cell responses. These data support the potential utility of the BLT humanized mouse for HIV-1 vaccine development but suggest that additional improvements to the model are warranted.

The protective and pathogenic roles of IL-17 in viral infections: friend or foe?

Viral infections cause substantial human morbidity and mortality, and are a significant health burden worldwide. Following a viral infection, the host may initiate complex antiviral immune responses to antagonize viral invasion and replication. However, proinflammatory antiviral immune responses pose a great threat to the host if not properly held in check. Interleukin (IL)-17 is a pleiotropic cytokine participating in a variety of physiological and pathophysiological conditions, including tissue integrity maintenance, cancer progression, autoimmune disease development and, more intriguingly, infectious diseases. Abundant evidence suggests that while IL-17 plays a crucial role in enhancing effective antiviral immune responses, it may also promote and exacerbate virus-induced illnesses. Accumulated experimental and clinical evidence has broadened our understanding of the seemingly paradoxical role of IL-17 in viral infections and suggests that IL-17-targeted immunotherapy may be a promising therapeutic option. Herein, we summarize current knowledge regarding the protective and pathogenic roles of IL-17 in viral infections, with emphasis on underlying mechanisms. The various and critical roles of IL-17 in viral infections necessitate the development of therapeutic strategies that are uniquely tailored to both the infectious agent and the infection environment.

Origins of CD4+ circulating and tissue-resident memory T-cells

In response to infection, naive CD4+ T-cells proliferate and differentiate into several possible effector subsets, including conventional T helper effector cells (TH 1, TH 2, TH 17), T regulatory cells (Treg ) and T follicular helper cells (TFH ). Once infection is cleared, a small population of long-lived memory cells remains that mediate immune defenses against reinfection. Memory T lymphocytes have classically been categorized into central memory cell (TCM ) and effector memory cell (TEM ) subsets, both of which circulate between blood, secondary lymphoid organs and in some cases non-lymphoid tissues. A third subset of memory cells, referred to as tissue-resident memory cells (TRM ), resides in tissues without recirculation, serving as 'first line' of defense at barrier sites, such as skin, lung and intestinal mucosa, and augmenting innate immunity in the earliest phases of reinfection and recruiting circulating CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. The presence of multiple CD4+ T helper subsets has complicated studies of CD4+ memory T-cell differentiation, and the mediators required to support their function. In this review, we summarize recent investigations into the origins of CD4+ memory T-cell populations and discuss studies addressing CD4+  TRM differentiation in barrier tissues.

Impact of HIV-ART on the restoration of Th17 and Treg cells in blood and female genital mucosa

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment (ART) on the proportion and functions of Th17 and Treg cells in peripheral blood and female genital tract (FGT) respectively. To this aim, samples from 41 HIV-neg, 33 HIV+ ART-naïve and 32 HIV+ ART+ subjects were obtained. In peripheral blood, altered Th17 and Th17/Treg proportions were normalized in HIV+ ART+, but certain abnormal Treg and activated T-cell proportions were still observed. In FGT, abnormal patterns of secretion for Th17-related cytokines were observed in cervical mononuclear cells (CMCs) from HIV+ women, even in those from HIV+ ART+, compared to the HIV-neg group. Moreover, these altered patterns of secretion were associated with diminished levels of CXCL5 and CXCL1 chemokines and with an immunoregulatory skew in the CCL17/CCL20 ratio in ectocervix samples of these women. Finally, ART did not restore proportions of Th17-precursor cells with gut-homing potential in PBMCs, and positive correlations between these cells and the levels of IL-17F and IL-21 production by CMCs may suggest that a better homing of these cells to the intestine could also imply a better restoration of these cells in the female genital tract. These results indicate that antiretroviral treatment did not restore Th17-related immune functions completely at the female mucosal level.

IL-17A contributes to HSV1 infection-induced acute lung injury in a mouse model of pulmonary fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) often experience acute exacerbation (AE) after an episode of common cold.

AIMS

To establish a mouse model of virus infection-induced AE-IPF and investigate the mechanism underlying the AE-IPF.

METHODS

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1) was inoculated intranasally to wild-type (WT) and IL-17A gene knockout (IL-17A^-/- ) mice 21 days after intratracheal administration of bleomycin (BLM).

RESULTS

HSV1 infection caused acute exacerbation in mice with BLM-induced fibrosis. Compared with the BLM+Saline mice, the mice with BLM+HSV1 showed significantly higher acute lung injury (ALI) score (P < 0.0001), lower survival rate (100% vs 21.4%, P < 0.0001), poorer lung function and higher inflammatory response representing by increased total inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) (P = 0.0323), increased proportion of Th17 cells in peripheral blood (P = 0.0004) and higher inflammatory factors in BALF. In addition, HSV1 infection increased the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related proteins in mice with BLM-induced fibrosis. The inhibition of ERS by tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA, an ERS inhibitor) significantly reduced the IL-17A levels in BALF (P = 0.0140) and TH17 cells in the peripheral blood (P = 0.0084) of mice with BLM+HSV1, suggesting that suppression of ERS may reduce TH17 response in mice with AE-IPF. Compared with WT mice with BLM+HSV1, IL-17A^-/- mice with BLM+HSV1 had lower ALI score (P = 0.0119), higher survival rate (78.6% vs 21.4%, P = 0.004), improved lung function, and milder inflammatory response.

CONCLUSIONS

HSV1 infection in addition to BLM-induced IPF can successfully establish AE-IPF in mice. IL-17A and ERS promote lung inflammation in AE-IPF development.

Intramuscular vaccination of guinea pigs with the live-attenuated human herpes simplex vaccine VC2 stimulates a transcriptional profile of vaginal Th17 and regulatory Tr1 responses

Herpes simplex virus is a common causative agent of oral and genital diseases. Novel vaccines and therapeutics are needed to combat herpes infections especially after the failure of subunit vaccines in human clinical trials. We have shown that the live-attenuated HSV-1 VC2 vaccine strain is unable to establish latency in vaccinated animals and produces a robust immune response capable of completely protecting mice against lethal vaginal HSV-1 or HSV-2 infections. The guinea pig represents the best small animal model of genital HSV-2 disease. Reported here, twenty-one female Hartley guinea pigs received intramuscular injection with either the VC2 vaccine, or equal volume of conditioned tissue culture media. Animals received 2 booster vaccinations at 21 day intervals following the initial vaccination. After vaccination, animals were challenged with the highly virulent HSV-2 (G) strain. Histologically, VC2 vaccinated animals had little to no apparent inflammation/disease following challenge. Unvaccinated animals developed moderate to severe erosive and ulcerative vaginitis. Quantitative reverse-transcriptase PCR analysis in VC2 vaccinated and challenged animals identified transcriptional signatures of Th17 and regulatory Tr1 cells associated with the inflammatory response primed by VC2 vaccination. Treatment of cultured human vaginal epithelial cells (VK2 cells) with a combination of IL-17A and IL-22 resulted in the significant induction of beta-defensin 3 expression. Further, treatment of VK2 cells with IL-17A, IL-22, IL-36 or beta-defensin 3 resulted in diminished HSV-2 replication. Overall, these results suggest that intramuscular vaccination with the live-attenuated vaccine VC2 primes a mucosal immune response predisposing the adaptive expression of transcripts associated with a Th17 response to challenge and these responses contribute to antiviral immunity.