Cyclin D3/CDK11p58 complex is involved in the repression of androgen receptor

Androgen receptor post-translational modifications and their implications for pathology

A major mechanism to modulate the biological activities of the androgen receptor (AR) involves a growing number of post-translational modifications (PTMs). In this review we summarise the current knowledge on the structural and functional impact of PTMs that affect this major transcription factor. Next, we discuss the cross-talk between these different PTMs and the presence of clusters of modified residues in the AR protein. Finally, we discuss the implications of these covalent modifications for the aetiology of diseases such as spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy's disease) and prostate cancer, and the perspectives for pharmacological intervention.

Regulating Androgen Receptor Function in Prostate Cancer: Exploring the Diversity of Post-Translational Modifications

Androgen receptor (AR) transcriptional activity significantly influences prostate cancer (PCa) progression. In addition to ligand stimulation, AR transcriptional activity is also influenced by a variety of post-translational modifications (PTMs). A number of oncogenes and tumor suppressors have been observed leveraging PTMs to influence AR activity. Subjectively targeting these post-translational modifiers based on their impact on PCa cell proliferation is a rapidly developing area of research. This review elucidates the modifiers, contextualizes the effects of these PTMs on AR activity, and connects these cellular interactions to the progression of PCa.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CXIII: Nuclear Receptor Superfamily-Update 2023

The NR superfamily comprises 48 transcription factors in humans that control a plethora of gene network programs involved in a wide range of physiologic processes. This review will summarize and discuss recent progress in NR biology and drug development derived from integrating various approaches, including biophysical techniques, structural studies, and translational investigation. We also highlight how defective NR signaling results in various diseases and disorders and how NRs can be targeted for therapeutic intervention via modulation via binding to synthetic lipophilic ligands. Furthermore, we also review recent studies that improved our understanding of NR structure and signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-regulated transcription factors that are critical regulators of myriad physiological processes. NRs serve as receptors for an array of drugs, and in this review, we provide an update on recent research into the roles of these drug targets.

Molecular Profile Changes in Patients with Castrate-Resistant Prostate Cancer Pre- and Post-Abiraterone/Prednisone Treatment

We identified resistance mechanisms to abiraterone acetate/prednisone (AA/P) in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) in the Prostate Cancer Medically Optimized Genome-Enhanced Therapy (PROMOTE) study.

We analyzed whole-exome sequencing (WES) and RNA-sequencing data from 83 patients with metastatic biopsies before (V1) and after 12 weeks of AA/P treatment (V2). Resistance was determined by time to treatment change (TTTC).

At V2, 18 and 11 of 58 patients had either short-term (median 3.6 months; range 1.4-4.5) or long-term (median 29 months; range 23.5-41.7) responses, respectively. Nonresponders had low expression of TGFBR3 and increased activation of the Wnt pathway, cell cycle, upregulation of AR variants, both pre- and posttreatment, with further deletion of AR inhibitor CDK11B posttreatment. Deletion of androgen processing genes, HSD17B11, CYP19A1 were observed in nonresponders posttreatment. Genes involved in cell cycle, DNA repair, Wnt-signaling, and Aurora kinase pathways were differentially expressed between the responder and non-responder at V2. Activation of Wnt signaling in nonresponder and deactivation of MYC or its target genes in responders was detected via SCN loss, somatic mutations, and transcriptomics. Upregulation of genes in the AURKA pathway are consistent with the activation of MYC regulated genes in nonresponders. Several genes in the AKT1 axis had increased mutation rate in nonresponders. We also found evidence of resistance via PDCD1 overexpression in responders.

IMPLICATIONS

Finally, we identified candidates drugs to reverse AA/P resistance: topoisomerase inhibitors and drugs targeting the cell cycle via the MYC/AURKA/AURKB/TOP2A and/or PI3K_AKT_MTOR pathways.

The role of cyclins in the development and progression of prostate cancer

The role of cyclins in hormone-dependent neoplasms is crucial in the development of the disease that is resistant to first-line therapy, as the example of breast cancer shows. However, in prostate cancer, cyclins are studied to a lesser extent. There are some well-described molecular pathways, including cyclins A1 and D1 signaling, however the role of other cyclins, e.g., D2, D3, E, and H, still requires further investigation. Recent studies indicate that cyclins regulate various cellular processes, not only the cell cycle. Furthermore, they remain in cross-talk with many other signaling pathways, e.g., MAPK/ERK, PI3K/Akt, and Notch. The androgen signaling axis, which is pivotal in prostate cancer progression, interferes with cyclin pathways at many levels. This article summarizes current knowledge on the influence of cyclins on prostate cancer progression by describing interactions between the androgen receptor and cyclins, as well as mechanisms underlying the development of resistance to currently used therapies.

Mitochondrial ribosomal small subunit (MRPS) MRPS23 protein-protein interaction reveals phosphorylation by CDK11-p58 affecting cell proliferation and knockdown of MRPS23 sensitizes breast cancer cells to CDK1 inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Post-translational modification of some mitoribosomal proteins has been found to regulate their functions. MRPS23 has been reported to be overexpressed in various cancers and has been predicted to be involved in increased cell proliferation. Furthermore, MRPS23 is a driver of luminal subtype breast cancer. However, its exact role and function in cancer remains unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Our previous study identified protein-protein interactions involving MRPS23 and CDK11A. In this study, we confirmed the interaction of MRPS23 with the p110 and p58 isoforms of CDK11A. Phosphoprotein enrichment studies and in vitro kinase assay using CDK11A/cyclin D3 followed by MALDI-ToF/ToF analysis confirmed the phosphorylation of MRPS23 at N-terminal serine 11 residue. Breast cancer cells expressing the MRPS23 (S11G) mutant showed increased cell proliferation, increased expression of PI3-AKT pathway proteins [p-AKT (Ser47), p-AKT (Thr308), p-PDK (Ser241) and p-GSK-3β (Ser9)] and increased antiapoptotic pathway protein expression [Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, p-Bcl2 (Ser70) and MCL-1] when compared with the MRPS23 (S11A) mutant-overexpressing cells. This finding indicated the role of MRPS23 phosphorylation in the proliferation and survival of breast cancer cells. The correlation of inconsistent MRPS23 phosphoserine 11 protein expression with CDK11A in the breast cancer cells suggested phosphorylation by other kinases. In vitro kinase assay showed that CDK1 kinase also phosphorylated MRPS23 and that inhibition using CDK1 inhibitors lowered phospho-MRPS23 (Ser11) levels. Additionally, modulating the expression of MRPS23 altered the sensitivity of the cells to CDK1 inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, phosphorylation of MRPS23 by mitotic kinases might potentially be involved in the proliferation of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, MRPS23 can be targeted for sensitizing the breast cancer cells to CDK1 inhibitors.

The Role of CDK Pathway Dysregulation and Its Therapeutic Potential in Soft Tissue Sarcoma

Soft tissue sarcomas (STSs) are tumors that are challenging to treat due to their pathologic and molecular heterogeneity and their tumor biology that is not yet fully understood. Recent research indicates that dysregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) signaling pathways can be a strong driver of sarcogenesis. CDKs are enzyme forms that play a crucial role in cell-cycle control and transcription. They belong to the protein kinases group and to the serine/threonine kinases subgroup. Recently identified CDK/cyclin complexes and established CDK/cyclin complexes that regulate the cell cycle are involved in the regulation of gene expression through phosphorylation of critical components of transcription and pre-mRNA processing mechanisms. The current and continually growing body of data shows that CDKs play a decisive role in tumor development and are involved in the proliferation and growth of sarcoma cells. Since the abnormal expression or activation of large numbers of CDKs is considered to be characteristic of cancer development and progression, dysregulation of the CDK signaling pathways occurs in many subtypes of STSs. This review discusses how reversal and regulation can be achieved with new therapeutics and summarizes the current evidence from studies regarding CDK modulation for STS treatment.

Transcription associated cyclin-dependent kinases as therapeutic targets for prostate cancer

Transcriptional deregulation has emerged as a hallmark of several cancer types. In metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, a stage in which systemic androgen deprivation therapies fail to show clinical benefit, transcriptional addiction to the androgen receptor is maintained in most patients. This has led to increased efforts to find novel therapies that prevent oncogenic transactivation of the androgen receptor. In this context, a group of druggable protein kinases, known as transcription associated cyclin-dependent kinases (tCDKs), show great potential as therapeutic targets. Despite initial reservations about targeting tCDKs due to their ubiquitous and prerequisite nature, preclinical studies showed that selectively inhibiting such kinases could provide sufficient therapeutic window to exert antitumour effects in the absence of systemic toxicity. As a result, several highly specific inhibitors are currently being trialled in solid tumours, including prostate cancer. This article summarises the roles of tCDKs in regulating gene transcription and highlights rationales for their targeting in prostate cancer. It provides an overview of the most recent developments in this therapeutic area, including the most recent clinical advances, and discusses the utility of tCDK inhibitors in combination with established cancer agents.

Unravelling the Role of Kinases That Underpin Androgen Signalling in Prostate Cancer

The androgen receptor (AR) signalling pathway is the key driver in most prostate cancers (PCa), and is underpinned by several kinases both upstream and downstream of the AR. Many popular therapies for PCa that target the AR directly, however, have been circumvented by AR mutation, such as androgen receptor variants. Some upstream kinases promote AR signalling, including those which phosphorylate the AR and others that are AR-regulated, and androgen regulated kinase that can also form feed-forward activation circuits to promotes AR function. All of these kinases represent potentially druggable targets for PCa. There has generally been a divide in reviews reporting on pathways upstream of the AR and those reporting on AR-regulated genes despite the overlap that constitutes the promotion of AR signalling and PCa progression. In this review, we aim to elucidate which kinases—both upstream and AR-regulated—may be therapeutic targets and require future investigation and ongoing trials in developing kinase inhibitors for PCa.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (CDK) and Their Role in Diseases Development-Review

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are involved in many crucial processes, such as cell cycle and transcription, as well as communication, metabolism, and apoptosis. The kinases are organized in a pathway to ensure that, during cell division, each cell accurately replicates its DNA, and ensure its segregation equally between the two daughter cells. Deregulation of any of the stages of the cell cycle or transcription leads to apoptosis but, if uncorrected, can result in a series of diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease), and stroke. This review presents the current state of knowledge about the characteristics of cyclin-dependent kinases as potential pharmacological targets.

CDK11 Promotes Cytokine-Induced Apoptosis in Pancreatic Beta Cells Independently of Glucose Concentration and Is Regulated by Inflammation in the NOD Mouse Model

Background

Pancreatic islets are exposed to strong pro-apoptotic stimuli: inflammation and hyperglycemia, during the progression of the autoimmune diabetes (T1D). We found that the Cdk11(Cyclin Dependent Kinase 11) is downregulated by inflammation in the T1D prone NOD (non-obese diabetic) mouse model. The aim of this study is to determine the role of CDK11 in the pathogenesis of T1D and to assess the hierarchical relationship between CDK11 and Cyclin D3 in beta cell viability, since Cyclin D3, a natural ligand for CDK11, promotes beta cell viability and fitness in front of glucose.

Methods

We studied T1D pathogenesis in NOD mice hemideficient for CDK11 (N-HTZ), and, in N-HTZ deficient for Cyclin D3 (K11HTZ-D3KO), in comparison to their respective controls (N-WT and K11WT-D3KO). Moreover, we exposed pancreatic islets to either pro-inflammatory cytokines in the presence of increasing glucose concentrations, or Thapsigargin, an Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-stress inducing agent, and assessed apoptotic events. The expression of key ER-stress markers (Chop, Atf4 and Bip) was also determined.

Results

N-HTZ mice were significantly protected against T1D, and NS-HTZ pancreatic islets exhibited an impaired sensitivity to cytokine-induced apoptosis, regardless of glucose concentration. However, thapsigargin-induced apoptosis was not altered. Furthermore, CDK11 hemideficiency did not attenuate the exacerbation of T1D caused by Cyclin D3 deficiency.

Conclusions

This study is the first to report that CDK11 is repressed in T1D as a protection mechanism against inflammation-induced apoptosis and suggests that CDK11 lies upstream Cyclin D3 signaling. We unveil the CDK11/Cyclin D3 tandem as a new potential intervention target in T1D.

A cyclin-dependent kinase, CDK11/p58, represses cap-dependent translation during mitosis

During mitosis, translation of most mRNAs is strongly repressed; none of the several explanatory hypotheses suggested can fully explain the molecular basis of this phenomenon. Here we report that cyclin-dependent CDK11/p58-a serine/threonine kinase abundantly expressed during M phase-represses overall translation by phosphorylating a subunit (eIF3F) of the translation factor eIF3 complex that is essential for translation initiation of most mRNAs. Ectopic expression of CDK11/p58 strongly repressed cap-dependent translation, and knockdown of CDK11/p58 nullified the translational repression during M phase. We identified the phosphorylation sites in eIF3F responsible for M phase-specific translational repression by CDK11/p58. Alanine substitutions of CDK11/p58 target sites in eIF3F nullified its effects on cell cycle-dependent translational regulation. The mechanism of translational regulation by the M phase-specific kinase, CDK11/p58, has deep evolutionary roots considering the conservation of CDK11 and its target sites on eIF3F from C. elegans to humans.

IKBKE activity enhances AR levels in advanced prostate cancer via modulation of the Hippo pathway

Resistance to androgen receptor (AR) targeting therapeutics in prostate cancer (PC) is a significant clinical problem. Mechanisms by which this is accomplished include AR amplification and expression of AR splice variants, demonstrating that AR remains a key therapeutic target in advanced disease. For the first time we show that IKBKE drives AR signalling in advanced PC. Significant inhibition of AR regulated gene expression was observed upon siRNA-mediated IKBKE depletion or pharmacological inhibition due to inhibited AR gene expression in multiple cell line models including a LNCaP derivative cell line resistant to the anti-androgen, enzalutamide (LNCaP-EnzR). Phenotypically, this resulted in significant inhibition of proliferation, migration and colony forming ability suggesting that targeting IKBKE could circumvent resistance to AR targeting therapies. Indeed, pharmacological inhibition in the CWR22Rv1 xenograft mouse model reduced tumour size and enhanced survival. Critically, this was validated in patient-derived explants where enzymatic inactivation of IKBKE reduced cell proliferation and AR expression. Mechanistically, we provide evidence that IKBKE regulates AR levels via Hippo pathway inhibition to reduce c-MYC levels at cis-regulatory elements within the AR gene. Thus, IKBKE is a therapeutic target in advanced PC suggesting repurposing of clinically tested IKBKE inhibitors could be beneficial to castrate resistant PC patients.

AR phosphorylation and CHK2 kinase activity regulates IR-stabilized AR-CHK2 interaction and prostate cancer survival

We have previously demonstrated that checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2) is a critical negative regulator of androgen receptor (AR) transcriptional activity, prostate cancer (PCa) cell growth, and androgen sensitivity. We have now uncovered that the AR directly interacts with CHK2 and ionizing radiation (IR) increases this interaction. This IR-induced increase in AR-CHK2 interactions requires AR phosphorylation and CHK2 kinase activity. PCa associated CHK2 mutants with impaired kinase activity reduced IR-induced AR-CHK2 interactions. The destabilization of AR - CHK2 interactions induced by CHK2 variants impairs CHK2 negative regulation of cell growth. CHK2 depletion increases transcription of DNAPK and RAD54, increases clonogenic survival, and increases resolution of DNA double strand breaks. The data support a model where CHK2 sequesters the AR through direct binding decreasing AR transcription and suppressing PCa cell growth. CHK2 mutation or loss of expression thereby leads to increased AR transcriptional activity and survival in response to DNA damage.

Posttranslational regulation of androgen dependent and independent androgen receptor activities in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer among men in western countries. Androgen receptor (AR) signaling plays key roles in the development of PCa. Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) remains the standard therapy for advanced PCa. In addition to its ligand androgen, accumulating evidence indicates that posttranscriptional modification is another important mechanism to regulate AR activities during the progression of PCa, especially in castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). To date, a number of posttranscriptional modifications of AR have been identified, including phosphorylation (e.g. by CDK1), acetylation (e.g. by p300 and recognized by BRD4), methylation (e.g. by EZH2), ubiquitination (e.g. by SPOP), and SUMOylation (e.g. by PIAS1). These modifications are essential for the maintenance of protein stability, nuclear localization and transcriptional activity of AR. This review summarizes posttranslational modifications that influence androgen-dependent and -independent activities of AR, PCa progression and therapy resistance. We further emphasize that in addition to androgen, posttranslational modification is another important way to regulate AR activity, suggesting that targeting AR posttranslational modifications, such as proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) of AR, represents a potential and promising alternate for effective treatment of CRPC. Potential areas to be investigated in the future in the field of AR posttranslational modifications are also discussed.

Cadmium exposure alters steroid receptors and proinflammatory cytokine levels in endothelial cells in vitro: a potential mechanism of endocrine disruptor atherogenic effect

BACKGROUND

Cadmium (Cd) is a widespread environmental pollutant that causes alterations in human health acting as endocrine disruptor. Recent data suggest that cardiovascular system might be a contamination target tissue, since Cd is found in atheromatic plaques. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the consequence of Cd exposure of endothelial cells in vitro to evaluate detrimental effect in vascular system by a potential sex-steroid hormone receptor-dependent mechanism(s).

METHODS

To this aim, Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) were cultured and exposed to several concentrations of cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) for different interval times.

RESULTS

CdCl₂ exposure of HUVECs induced a significant increase of ERβ and Cyp19a1 at both mRNA and protein levels, while a drastic dose-dependent decrease of AR expression level was observed after 24 h of exposure. On the contrary, an increase of PhAR^ser308 as well as a reduction of PhGSK-3β^ser9 and PhAKT^ser473 was detected after 1 h treatment. This effect was consistently reduced by GSK inhibition. Furthermore, CdCl₂ abolished DHT-induced cell proliferation in HUVECs suggesting an antagonist-like effect of Cd on AR-mediated signaling. Remarkable, after 6 h CdCl₂-treatment, a relevant increase in TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA was observed and this effect was blocked by the presence of an ERβ-selective antagonist. Moreover, Cd-induced TxR1 overexpression, likely, correlated with the activation of p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our study demonstrates for the first time that Cd alters sex-steroid hormone receptors level and activity likely affecting intracellular signaling linked to a proinflammatory state in endothelial cells. This alteration might possibly lead to endothelial cell injury and vascular dysfunction and could be a mechanism of gender-specific atherogenic damages induced by endocrine disruptors and, thus, induce atherogenic events with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases in individuals exposed to this endocrine disruptor.

Genome-wide Analysis of Common Copy Number Variation and Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Risk

BACKGROUND

Germline DNA copy number variation (CNV) is a ubiquitous source of genetic variation and remains largely unexplored in association with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) risk.

METHODS

CNV was quantified in the DNA of approximately 3,500 cases and controls genotyped with the Illumina 610k and HumanOmni2.5M arrays. We performed a genome-wide association study of common (>1%) CNV regions (CNVRs) with EOC and high-grade serous (HGSOC) risk and, using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), performed in silico analyses of tumor-gene expression.

RESULTS

Three CNVRs were associated (P < 0.01) with EOC risk: two large (∼100 kb) regions within the 610k set and one small (<5 kb) region with the higher resolution 2.5M data. Large CNVRs included a duplication at LILRA6 (OR = 2.57; P = 0.001) and a deletion at CYP2A7 (OR = 1.90; P = 0.007) that were strongly associated with HGSOC risk (OR = 3.02; P = 8.98 × 10^-5). Somatic CYP2A7 alterations correlated with EGLN2 expression in tumors (P = 2.94 × 10^-47). An intronic ERBB4/HER4 deletion was associated with reduced EOC risk (OR = 0.33; P = 9.5 × 10^-2), and somatic deletions correlated with ERBB4 downregulation (P = 7.05 × 10^-5). Five CNVRs were associated with HGSOC, including two reduced-risk deletions: one at 1p36.33 (OR = 0.28; P = 0.001) that correlated with lower CDKIIA expression in TCGA tumors (P = 2.7 × 10^-7), and another at 8p21.2 (OR = 0.52; P = 0.002) that was present somatically where it correlated with lower GNRH1 expression (P = 5.9 × 10^-5).

CONCLUSIONS

Though CNV appears to not contribute largely to EOC susceptibility, a number of low-to-common frequency variants may influence the risk of EOC and tumor-gene expression.

IMPACT

Further research on CNV and EOC susceptibility is warranted, particularly with CNVs estimated from high-density arrays.

Recent advances in CDK inhibitors for cancer therapy

Inhibition of CDKs is an attractive approach to cancer therapy due to their vital role in cell growth and transcription. Pan-CDK inhibitors have shown some clinical benefit, and trials are ongoing. Selective CDK4 and CDK6 inhibitors have been licensed for the treatment of hormone responsive, RB-positive breast cancer in combination with antihormonal agents. Selective inhibitors of CDKs 5, 7, 8, 9 and 12 have been identified across a range of chemotypes.

GADD45α and γ interaction with CDK11p58 regulates SPDEF protein stability and SPDEF-mediated effects on cancer cell migration

The epithelium-specific Ets transcription factor, SPDEF, plays a critical role in metastasis of prostate and breast cancer cells. While enhanced SPDEF expression blocks migration and invasion, knockdown of SPDEF expression enhances migration, invasion, and metastasis of cancer cells. SPDEF expression and activation is tightly regulated in cancer cells; however, the precise mechanism of SPDEF regulation has not been explored in detail. In this study we provide evidence that the cell cycle kinase CDK11p58, a protein involved in G2/M transition and degradation of several transcription factors, directly interacts with and phosphorylates SPDEF on serine residues, leading to subsequent ubiquitination and degradation of SPDEF through the proteasome pathway. As a consequence of CDK11p58 mediated degradation of SPDEF, this loss of SPDEF protein results in increased prostate cancer cell migration and invasion. In contrast, knockdown of CDK11p58 protein expression by interfering RNA or SPDEF overexpression inhibit migration and invasion of cancer cells. We demonstrate that CDK11p58 mediated degradation of SPDEF is attenuated by Growth Arrest and DNA damage-inducible 45 (GADD45) α and, two proteins inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest. We show that GADD45 α and γ, directly interact with CDK11p58 and thereby inhibit CDK11p58 activity, and consequentially SPDEF phosphorylation and degradation, ultimately reducing prostate cancer cell migration and invasion. Our findings provide new mechanistic insights into the complex regulation of SPDEF activity linked to cancer metastasis and characterize a previously unidentified SPDEF/CDK11p58/GADD45α/γ pathway that controls SPDEF protein stability and SPDEF-mediated effects on cancer cell migration and invasion.

Androgen receptor is a potential novel prognostic marker and oncogenic target in osteosarcoma with dependence on CDK11

Osteosarcoma is the most common bone cancer in children and adolescents. Previously, we have found that cyclin-dependent kinase 11 (CDK11) signaling was essential for osteosarcoma cell growth and survival. Subsequently, CDK11 siRNA gene targeting, expression profiling, and network reconstruction of differentially expressed genes were performed between CDK11 knock down and wild type osteosarcoma cells. Reconstructed network of the differentially expressed genes pointed to the AR as key to CDK11 signaling in osteosarcoma. CDK11 increased transcriptional activation of AR gene in osteosarcoma cell lines. AR protein was highly expressed in various osteosarcoma cell lines and patient tumor tissues. Tissue microarray analysis showed that the disease-free survival rate for patients with high-expression of AR was significantly shorter than for patients with low-expression of AR. In addition, AR gene expression knockdown via siRNA greatly inhibited cell growth and viability. Similar results were found in osteosarcoma cells treated with AR inhibitor. These findings suggest that CDK11 is involved in the regulation of AR pathway and AR can be a potential novel prognostic marker and therapeutic target for osteosarcoma treatment.

CDK11p58 Promotes Microglia Activation via Inducing Cyclin D3 Nuclear Localization

Microglia activation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many neurological diseases. These reactive microglia are capable of producing a variety of proinflammatory mediators and potentially neurotoxic compounds. The increase of cell number and expression of CD11b are the main features of activated microglia. In this study, we examined the suppressive effects of CDK11p58 on microglia activation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vitro. We found that in the activated microglia, the expression of CDK11p58 increased and the overexpression of CDK11p58 could reduce the increased proliferation and CD11b expression in LPS-activated microglia. Such suppressive effects might be resulted from the interaction with cyclin D3 which promoted CDK11p58 nuclear localization. Our results suggested that CDK11p58 acted to regulate microglia activation through CDK11p58 and cyclin D3 interaction.

The roles and therapeutic potential of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) in sarcoma

Uncontrolled proliferation and cell growth is the hallmark of many different malignant diseases, including sarcomas. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are members of the serine/threonine protein kinase family and play crucial roles in tumor cell proliferation and growth by controlling cell cycle, transcription, and RNA splicing. In addition, several CDKs influence multiple targets and phosphorylate transcription factors involved in tumorigenesis. There are many examples linking dysregulated activation and expression of CDKs to tumors, and targeting CDKs in tumor cells has become a promising therapeutic strategy. More recently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the CDK4/6 inhibitor palbociclib for treating metastatic breast cancer. In sarcomas, high levels of CDK mRNA and protein expression have been found in most human sarcoma cells and patient tissues. Many studies have demonstrated consistent results in which inhibition of different CDKs decrease sarcoma cell growth and induce apoptosis. Therefore, CDKs comprise an attractive set of targets for novel anti-sarcoma drug development. In this review, we discuss the roles of different members of CDKs in various sarcomas and provide a pre-clinical overview of promising therapeutic potentials of targeting CDKs with a special emphasis on sarcoma.

RNA-Seq analysis of Gtf2ird1 knockout epidermal tissue provides potential insights into molecular mechanisms underpinning Williams-Beuren syndrome

BACKGROUND

Williams-Beuren Syndrome (WBS) is a genetic disorder associated with multisystemic abnormalities, including craniofacial dysmorphology and cognitive defects. It is caused by a hemizygous microdeletion involving up to 28 genes in chromosome 7q11.23. Genotype/phenotype analysis of atypical microdeletions implicates two evolutionary-related transcription factors, GTF2I and GTF2IRD1, as prime candidates for the cause of the facial dysmorphology.

RESULTS

Using a targeted Gtf2ird1 knockout mouse, we employed massively-parallel sequencing of mRNA (RNA-Seq) to understand changes in the transcriptional landscape associated with inactivation of Gtf2ird1 in lip tissue. We found widespread dysregulation of genes including differential expression of 78 transcription factors or coactivators, several involved in organ development including Hey1, Myf6, Myog, Dlx2, Gli1, Gli2, Lhx2, Pou3f3, Sox2, Foxp3. We also found that the absence of GTF2IRD1 is associated with increased expression of genes involved in cellular proliferation, including growth factors consistent with the observed phenotype of extreme thickening of the epidermis. At the same time, there was a decrease in the expression of genes involved in other signalling mechanisms, including the Wnt pathway, indicating dysregulation in the complex networks necessary for epidermal differentiation and facial skin patterning. Several of the differentially expressed genes have known roles in both tissue development and neurological function, such as the transcription factor Lhx2 which regulates several genes involved in both skin and brain development.

CONCLUSIONS

Gtf2ird1 inactivation results in widespread gene dysregulation, some of which may be due to the secondary consequences of gene regulatory network disruptions involving several transcription factors and signalling molecules. Genes involved in growth factor signalling and cell cycle progression were identified as particularly important for explaining the skin dysmorphology observed in this mouse model. We have noted that a number of the dysregulated genes have known roles in brain development as well as epidermal differentiation and maintenance. Therefore, this study provides clues as to the underlying mechanisms that may be involved in the broader profile of WBS.

Kinase modulation of androgen receptor signaling: implications for prostate cancer

Androgens and androgen receptors play essential roles in the development and progression of prostate cancer, a disease that claims roughly 28,000 lives annually. In addition to androgen biding, androgen receptor activity can be regulated via several post-translational modifications such as ubiquitination, acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation & SUMO-ylation. Off these modifications, phosphorylation has been the most extensively studied. Modification by phosphorylation can alter androgen receptor localization, protein stability and transcriptional activity, ultimately leading to changes in the biology of cancer cells and cancer progression. Understanding, role of phosphorylated androgen receptor species holds the key to identifying a potential therapeutic drug target for patients with prostate cancer and castrate resistant prostate cancer. Here, we present a brief review of recently discovered protein kinases phosphorylating AR, focusing on the functional role of phosphorylated androgen receptor species in prostate cancer and castrate resistant prostate cancer.

Critical role of CDK11(p58) in human breast cancer growth and angiogenesis

Background

A capillary network is needed in cancer growth and metastasis. Induction of angiogenesis represents one of the major hallmarks of cancer. CDK11^p58, a Ser/Thr kinase that belongs to the Cell Division Cycle 2-like 1 (CDC2L1) subfamily is associated with cell cycle progression, tumorigenesis, sister chromatid cohesion and apoptotic signaling. However, its role in breast cancer proliferation and angiogenesis remains unclear.

Methods

Tumorigenicity assays and blood vessel assessment in athymic mice were used to assess the function of CDK11^p58 in tumor proliferation and angiogenesis. CCK-8 assay was used to detect breast cancer cell growth. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), CD31 and CD34 in CDK11 positive patient breast cancer tissues. Dual-Luciferase array was used to analyze the function of CDK11^p58 in the regulation of VEGF promoter activity. Western blot was used to detect related protein expression levels.

Results

CDK11^p58 inhibited breast cancer growth and angiogenesis in breast cancer cells and in nude mice transplanted with tumors. Immunohistochemistry confirmed that CDK11^p58 was negatively associated with angiogenesis-related proteins such as VEGF, CD31 and CD34 in breast cancer patients. Real-time PCR and dual-luciferase assay showed CDK11^p58 inhibited the mRNA levels of VEGF and the promoter activity of VEGF. As CDK11^p58 is a Ser/Thr kinase, the kinase-dead mutant failed to inhibit VEGF mRNA and promoter activity. Western blot analysis showed the same pattern of related protein expression. The data suggested angiogenesis inhibition was dependent on CDK11^p58 kinase activity.

Conclusion

This study indicates that CDK11^p58 inhibits the growth and angiogenesis of breast cancer dependent on its kinase activity.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1698-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 11(p110) (CDK11(p110)) is crucial for human breast cancer cell proliferation and growth

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) play important roles in the development of many types of cancers by binding with their paired cyclins. However, the function of CDK11 larger protein isomer, CDK11(p110), in the tumorigenesis of human breast cancer remains unclear. In the present study, we explored the effects and molecular mechanisms of CDK11(p110) in the proliferation and growth of breast cancer cells by determining the expression of CDK11(p110) in breast tumor tissues and examining the phenotypic changes of breast cancer cells after CDK11(p110) knockdown. We found that CDK11(p110) was highly expressed in breast tumor tissues and cell lines. Tissue microarray analysis showed that elevated CDK11(p110) expression in breast cancer tissues significantly correlated with poor differentiation, and was also associated with advanced TNM stage and poor clinical prognosis for breast cancer patients. In vitro knockdown of CDK11(p110) by siRNA significantly inhibited cell growth and migration, and dramatically induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Flow cytometry demonstrated that cells were markedly arrested in G1 phase of the cell cycle after CDK11(p110) downregulation. These findings suggest that CDK11(p110) is critical for the proliferation and growth of breast cancer cells, which highlights CDK11(p110) may be a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of breast cancer.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 acts as a critical determinant of AKT-dependent proliferation and regulates differential gene expression by the androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells

CDK5 acts as a signaling hub in prostate cancer cells by controlling androgen responses through AR stabilization and specific gene targeting, maintaining and accelerating cell proliferation through activation of the oncogenic AKT kinase, and releasing cell cycle breaks in a variety of prostate cancer cell lines.

Contrary to cell cycle–associated cyclin-dependent kinases, CDK5 is best known for its regulation of signaling processes in differentiated cells and its destructive activation in Alzheimer's disease. Recently, CDK5 has been implicated in a number of different cancers, but how it is able to stimulate cancer-related signaling pathways remains enigmatic. Our goal was to study the cancer-promoting mechanisms of CDK5 in prostate cancer. We observed that CDK5 is necessary for proliferation of several prostate cancer cell lines. Correspondingly, there was considerable growth promotion when CDK5 was overexpressed. When examining the reasons for the altered proliferation effects, we observed that CDK5 phosphorylates S308 on the androgen receptor (AR), resulting in its stabilization and differential expression of AR target genes including several growth-priming transcription factors. However, the amplified cell growth was found to be separated from AR signaling, further corroborated by CDK5-depdent proliferation of AR null cells. Instead, we found that the key growth-promoting effect was due to specific CDK5-mediated AKT activation. Down-regulation of CDK5 repressed AKT phosphorylation by altering its intracellular localization, immediately followed by prominent cell cycle inhibition. Taken together, these results suggest that CDK5 acts as a crucial signaling hub in prostate cancer cells by controlling androgen responses through AR, maintaining and accelerating cell proliferation through AKT activation, and releasing cell cycle breaks.

Cell-cycle-dependent regulation of androgen receptor function

The androgen receptor (AR) is a critical oncogene in prostate cancer (PCa) development and progression. In this study, we demonstrate cell-cycle-dependent regulation of AR activity, localization, and phosphorylation. We show that for three AR-target genes, androgen-stimulated AR transactivation is highest during the G1 phase, decreased during S-phase, and abrogated during G2/M. This change in AR transactivation parallels changes in AR localization and phosphorylation. A combination of imaging techniques and quantitative analysis reveals nuclear AR localization during interphase and the exclusion of the majority, but not all, AR from chromatin during mitosis. Flow cytometry analyses using a phospho-S308 AR-specific antibody in asynchronous and chemically enriched G2/M PCa cells revealed ligand-independent induction of S308 phosphorylation in mitosis when CDK1 is activated. Consistent with our flow cytometry data, IP-western blotting revealed an increase in S308 phosphorylation in G2/M, and the results of an in vitro kinase assay indicated that CDK1 was able to phosphorylate the AR on S308. Pharmacological inhibition of CDK1 activity resulted in decreased S308 phosphorylation in PCa cells. Importantly, using a combination of anti-total AR and phospho-S308-specific antibodies in immunofluorescence experiments, we showed that the AR is excluded from condensed chromatin in mitotic cells when it was phosphorylated on S308. In summary, we show that the phosphorylation of the AR on S308 by CDK1 during mitosis regulates AR localization and correlates with changes in AR transcriptional activity. These findings have important implications for understanding the function of AR as an oncogene.

CDK11p58 inhibits ERα-positive breast cancer invasion by targeting integrin β3 via the repression of ERα signaling

Background

CDK11^p58, a Ser/Thr kinase that belongs to the cell division cycle 2-like 1 (CDC2L1) subfamily, is associated with cell cycle progression, tumorigenesis and apoptotic signaling. CDK11^p58 is also involved in the regulation of steroid receptors, such as androgen and estrogen receptors. We previously found that CDK11^p58 was abnormally expressed in prostate cancer. However, its role in breast cancer remains unclear.

Methods

CDK11^p58 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemical staining in a tissue array. A Transwell assay was used to detect invasion and metastasis in breast cancer cells. The TaqMan® Metastasis Gene Expression Assay was used to search for potential downstream factors in the CDK11^p58 signaling pathway. qRT-PCR was used to evaluate mRNA levels, and the dual luciferase array was used to analyze promoter activity. Western blotting was used to detect the protein level.

Results

CDK11^p58 expression was negatively correlated with node status (P = 0.012), relapse status (P = 0.002) and metastasis status (P = 0.023). Kaplan-Meier survival curves indicated that the disease-free survival (DFS) was significantly poor in breast cancer patients with low CDK11 expression. Interestingly, using the breast cancer cell lines ZR-75-30 and MDA-MB-231, we found that CDK11^p58 was capable of repressing the migration and invasion of ERα-positive breast cancer cells, but not ERα-negative breast cancer cells, in a kinase-dependent manner. Gene expression assays demonstrated that integrin β3 mRNA was dramatically repressed by CDK11^p58, and luciferase results confirmed that the integrin β3 promoter was inhibited by CDK11^p58 through ERα repression. The expression of integrin β3 was highly related to ERα signaling; ERα overexpression stimulated integrin β3 expression, whereas siRNA-mediated knockdown of ERα attenuated integrin β3 expression.

Conclusions

These data indicate that CDK11^p58 is an anti-metastatic gene in ERα-positive breast cancer and that the regulation of integrin β3 by CDK11^p58 via the repression of ERα signaling may constitute part of a signaling pathway underlying breast cancer invasion.

Androgen receptor phosphorylation: biological context and functional consequences

The androgen receptor (AR) is a ligand-regulated transcription factor that belongs to the family of nuclear receptors. In addition to regulation by steroid, the AR is also regulated by post-translational modifications generated by signal transduction pathways. Thus, the AR functions not only as a transcription factor but also as a node that integrates multiple extracellular signals. The AR plays an important role in many diseases, including complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, spinal bulbar muscular atrophy, prostate and breast cancer, etc. In the case of prostate cancer, dependence on AR signaling has been exploited for therapeutic intervention for decades. However, the effectiveness of these therapies is limited in advanced disease due to restoration of AR signaling. Greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in AR action will enable the development of improved therapeutics to treat the wide range of AR-dependent diseases. The AR is subject to regulation by a number of kinases through post-translational modifications on serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues. In this paper, we review the AR phosphorylation sites, the kinases responsible for these phosphorylations, as well as the biological context and the functional consequences of these phosphorylations. Finally, what is known about the state of AR phosphorylation in clinical samples is discussed.

Expression of progesterone receptor membrane component-2 within the immature rat ovary and its role in regulating mitosis and apoptosis of spontaneously immortalized granulosa cells

Progesterone receptor membrane component 2 (Pgrmc2) mRNA was detected in the immature rat ovary. By 48 h after eCG, Pgrmc2 mRNA levels decreased by 40% and were maintained at 48 h post-hCG. Immunohistochemical studies detected PGRMC2 in oocytes and ovarian surface epithelial, interstitial, thecal, granulosa, and luteal cells. PGRMC2 was also present in spontaneously immortalized granulosa cells, localizing to the cytoplasm of interphase cells and apparently to the mitotic spindle of cells in metaphase. Interestingly, PGRMC2 levels appeared to decrease during the G1 stage of the cell cycle. Moreover, overexpression of PGRMC2 suppressed entry into the cell cycle, possibly by binding the p58 form of cyclin dependent kinase 11b. Conversely, Pgrmc2 small interfering RNA (siRNA) treatment increased the percentage of cells in G1 and M stage but did not increase the number of cells, which was likely due to an increase in apoptosis. Depleting PGRMC2 did not inhibit cellular (3)H-progesterone binding, but attenuated the ability of progesterone to suppress mitosis and apoptosis. Taken together these studies suggest that PGRMC2 affects granulosa cell mitosis by acting at two specific stages of the cell cycle. First, PGRMC2 regulates the progression from the G0 into the G1 stage of the cell cycle. Second, PGRMC2 appears to localize to the mitotic spindle, where it likely promotes the final stages of mitosis. Finally, siRNA knockdown studies indicate that PGRMC2 is required for progesterone to slow the rate of granulosa cell mitosis and apoptosis. These findings support a role for PGRMC2 in ovarian follicle development.

Genetic analysis of reproductive traits and antibody response in a PRRS outbreak herd

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is the most economically significant disease impacting pig production in North America, Europe, and Asia, causing reproductive losses such as increased rates of stillbirth and mummified piglets. The objective of this study was to explore the genetic basis of host response to the PRRS virus (PRRSV) in a commercial multiplier sow herd before and after a PRRS outbreak, using antibody response and reproductive traits. Reproductive data comprising number born alive (NBA), number alive at 24 h (NA24), number stillborn (NSB), number born mummified (NBM), proportion born dead (PBD), number born dead (NBD), number weaned (NW), and number of mortalities through weaning (MW) of 5,227 litters from 1,967 purebred Landrace sows were used along with a pedigree comprising 2,995 pigs. The PRRS outbreak date was estimated from rolling averages of farrowing traits and was used to split the data into a pre-PRRS phase and a PRRS phase. All 641 sows in the herd during the outbreak were blood sampled 46 d after the estimated outbreak date and were tested for anti-PRRSV IgG using ELISA (sample-to-positive [S/P] ratio). Genetic parameters of traits were estimated separately for the pre-PRRS and PRRS phase data sets. Sows were genotyped using the PorcineSNP60 BeadChip, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were performed using method Bayes B. Heritability estimates for reproductive traits ranged from 0.01 (NBM) to 0.12 (NSB) and from 0.01 (MW) to 0.12 (NBD) for the pre-PRRS and PRRS phases, respectively. S/P ratio had heritability (0.45) and strong genetic correlations with most traits, ranging from -0.72 (NBM) to 0.73 (NBA). In the pre-PRRS phase, regions associated with NSB and PBD explained 1.6% and 3% of the genetic variance, respectively. In the PRRS phase, regions associated with NBD, NSB, and S/P ratio explained 0.8%, 11%, and 50.6% of the genetic variance, respectively. For S/P ratio, 2 regions on SSC 7 (SSC7) separated by 100 Mb explained 40% of the genetic variation, including a region encompassing the major histocompatibility complex, which explained 25% of the genetic variance. These results indicate a significant genomic component associated with PRRSV antibody response and NSB in this data set. Also, the high heritability and genetic correlation estimates for S/P ratio during the PRRS phase suggest that S/P ratio could be used as an indicator of the impact of PRRS on reproductive traits.

Abnormal expression of CDK11p58 in prostate cancer

Background

CDK11^p58 is one of the large families of p34cdc2-related kinases whose functions are linked with cell cycle progression, tumorigenesis and apoptotic signaling. Our previous investigation demonstrated that CDK11^p58 repressed androgen receptor (AR) transcriptional activity and was involved in the negative regulation of AR function.

Methods

CDK11^p58 expression was examined in the prostate cancer tissues and adjacent tissues by IHC and qRT-PCR. Cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. The metastasis of cancer cells was evaluated by the Transwell Assay. Finally we further investigated the underlying molecular mechanisms by examining expression levels of relevant proteins using western blot analysis.

Results

We found that both RNA and protein expression of CDK11^p58 were low in prostate cancer tissues compared with its adjacent noncancerous tissues. CDK11^p58 promoted the prostate cancer cell apoptosis and inhibited its metastasis in a kinase dependent way. And finally CDK11^p58 could inhibit the metastasis of AR positive prostate cancer cells through inhibition of integrin β3 and MMP2.

Conclusions

These data indicate that CDK11^p58 is an anti-metastasis gene product in prostate cancer.

Androgen receptor phosphorylation at serine 308 and serine 791 predicts enhanced survival in castrate resistant prostate cancer patients

We previously reported that AR phosphorylation at serine 213 was associated with poor outcome and may contribute to prostate cancer development and progression. This study investigates if specific AR phosphorylation sites have differing roles in the progression of hormone naïve prostate cancer (HNPC) to castrate resistant disease (CRPC). A panel of phosphospecific antibodies were employed to study AR phosphorylation in 84 matched HNPC and CRPC tumours. Immunohistochemistry measured Androgen receptor expression phosphorylated at serine residues 94 (pAR⁹⁴), 308 (pAR³⁰⁸), 650(pAR⁶⁵⁰) and 791 (pAR⁷⁹¹). No correlations with clinical parameters were observed for pAR⁹⁴ or pAR⁶⁵⁰ in HNPC or CRPC tumours. In contrast to our previous observation with serine 213, high pAR³⁰⁸ is significantly associated with a longer time to disease specific death (p = 0.011) and high pAR⁷⁹¹ expression significantly associated with a longer time to disease recurrence (p = 0.018) in HNPC tumours and longer time to death from disease recurrence (p = 0.040) in CRPC tumours. This observation in CRPC tumours was attenuated in high apoptotic tumours (p = 0.022) and low proliferating tumours (p = 0.004). These results demonstrate that understanding the differing roles of AR phosphorylation is necessary before this can be exploited as a target for castrate resistant prostate cancer.

Posttranslational modification of the androgen receptor in prostate cancer

The androgen receptor (AR) is important in the development of the prostate by regulating transcription, cellular proliferation, and apoptosis. AR undergoes posttranslational modifications that alter its transcription activity, translocation to the nucleus and stability. The posttranslational modifications that regulate these events are of utmost importance to understand the functional role of AR and its activity. The majority of these modifications occur in the activation function-1 (AF1) region of the AR, which contains the transcriptional activation unit 1 (TAU1) and 5 (TAU5). Identification of the modifications that occur to these regions may increase our understanding of AR activation in prostate cancer and the role of AR in the progression from androgen-dependent to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Most of the posttranslational modifications identified to date have been determined using the full-length AR in androgen dependent cells. Further investigations into the role of posttranslational modifications in androgen-independent activation of full-length AR and constitutively active splicing variants are warranted, findings from which may provide new therapeutic options for CRPC.

Identification and Functional Characterisation of CRK12:CYC9, a Novel Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (CDK)-Cyclin Complex in Trypanosoma brucei

The protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma brucei, is spread by the tsetse fly and causes trypanosomiasis in humans and animals. Both the life cycle and cell cycle of the parasite are complex. Trypanosomes have eleven cdc2-related kinases (CRKs) and ten cyclins, an unusually large number for a single celled organism. To date, relatively little is known about the function of many of the CRKs and cyclins, and only CRK3 has previously been shown to be cyclin-dependent in vivo. Here we report the identification of a previously uncharacterised CRK:cyclin complex between CRK12 and the putative transcriptional cyclin, CYC9. CRK12:CYC9 interact to form an active protein kinase complex in procyclic and bloodstream T. brucei. Both CRK12 and CYC9 are essential for the proliferation of bloodstream trypanosomes in vitro, and we show that CRK12 is also essential for survival of T. brucei in a mouse model, providing genetic validation of CRK12:CYC9 as a novel drug target for trypanosomiasis. Further, functional characterisation of CRK12 and CYC9 using RNA interference reveals roles for these proteins in endocytosis and cytokinesis, respectively.

Proline-Directed Androgen Receptor Phosphorylation

The androgen receptor (AR) has been identified for decades and mediates essential steroid functions. Like most of biological molecules, AR functional activities are modulated by post-translational modifications. This review is focused on the reported activities and significance of AR phosphorylation, with particular emphasis on proline-directed serine/threonine phosphorylation that occurs predominantly on the receptor. The marked enrichment of AR phosphorylation in the most diverse N-terminal domain suggests that targeting AR phosphorylation can be synergistic to antagonizing the C-terminal domain by clinical antiandrogens.

Androgen receptor phosphorylation at serine 515 by Cdk1 predicts biochemical relapse in prostate cancer patients

Background:

Prostate cancer cell growth is dependent upon androgen receptor (AR) activation, which is regulated by specific kinases. The aim of the current study is to establish if AR phosphorylation by Cdk1 or ERK1/2 is of prognostic significance.

Methods:

Scansite 2.0 was utilised to predict which AR sites are phosphorylated by Cdk1 and ERK1/2. Immunohistochemistry for these sites was then performed on 90 hormone-naive prostate cancer specimens. The interaction between Cdk1/ERK1/2 and AR phosphorylation was investigated in vitro using LNCaP cells.

Results:

Phosphorylation of AR at serine 515 (pAR^S515) and PSA at diagnosis were independently associated with decreased time to biochemical relapse. Cdk1 and pCdk1¹⁶¹, but not ERK1/2, correlated with pAR^S515. High expression of pAR^S515 in patients with a PSA at diagnosis of ⩽20 ng ml⁻¹ was associated with shorter time to biochemical relapse (P=0.019). This translated into a reduction in disease-specific survival (10-year survival, 38.1% vs 100%, P<0.001). In vitro studies demonstrated that treatment with Roscovitine (a Cdk inhibitor) caused a reduction in pCdk1¹⁶¹ expression, pAR^S515expression and cellular proliferation.

Conclusion:

In prostate cancer patients with PSA at diagnosis of ⩽20 ng ml⁻¹, phosphorylation of AR at serine 515 by Cdk1 may be an independent prognostic marker.

CHK2 kinase promotes pre-mRNA splicing via phosphorylating CDK11(p110)

Checkpoint kinase 2 (CHK2) kinase is a key mediator in many cellular responses to genotoxic stresses, including ionizing radiation (IR) and topoisomerase inhibitors. Upon IR, CHK2 is activated by ataxia telangiectasia mutated kinase and regulates the S-phase and G1-S checkpoints, apoptosis and DNA repair by phosphorylating downstream target proteins, such as p53 and Brca1. In addition, CHK2 is thought to be a multi-organ cancer susceptibility gene. In this study, we used a tandem affinity purification strategy to identify proteins that interact with CHK2 kinase. Cyclin-dependent kinase 11 (CDK11)(p110) kinase, implicated in pre-mRNA splicing and transcription, was identified as a CHK2-interacting protein. CHK2 kinase phosphorylated CDK11(p110) on serine 737 in vitro. Unexpectedly, CHK2 kinase constitutively phosphorylated CDK11(p110) in a DNA damage-independent manner. At a molecular level, CDK11(p110) phosphorylation was required for homodimerization without affecting its kinase activity. Overexpression of CHK2 promoted pre-mRNA splicing. Conversely, CHK2 depletion decreased endogenous splicing activity. Mutation of the phosphorylation site in CDK11(p110) to alanine abrogated its splicing-activating activity. These results provide the first evidence that CHK2 kinase promotes pre-mRNA splicing via phosphorylating CDK11(p110).

Regulation of the androgen receptor by post-translational modifications

The androgen receptor (AR) is a key molecule in prostate cancer and Kennedy's disease. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of this steroid receptor is important in the development of potential therapies for these diseases. One layer of AR regulation is provided by post-translational modifications including phosphorylation, acetylation, sumoylation, ubiquitination and methylation. While these modifications have mostly been studied as individual events, it is becoming clear that these modifications can functionally interact with each other in a signalling pathway. In this review, the effects of all modifications are described with a focus on interplay between them and the functional consequences for the AR.

Caspase-2-Based Regulation of the Androgen Receptor and Cell Cycle in the Prostate Cancer Cell Line LNCaP

Caspase-2 can induce apoptosis in response to extrinsic and intrinsic signals. Unlike other caspases, this protein is not expressed solely in nonnuclear compartments; a subpopulation is constitutively localized in the nucleus. As one of the most evolutionarily conserved caspases, caspase-2 may have roles in multiple cellular processes. However, its contribution to nonapoptotic processes remains a mystery. In this study, we show that caspase-2 activity is important for proliferation by cells of the androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. LNCaP cells expressing either a dominant-negative (dn) form of caspase or an siRNA against caspase-2 had lower androgen receptor (AR)-dependent proliferative responses than control cells, and application of the siRNA resulted in downregulation of the expression of both AR-dependent prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and AR-dependent reporter luciferase. Also, caspase-2 formed complexes with the cell cycle regulatory proteins cyclin D3, CDK4, and p21/Cip1, and caspase-2 regulated AR transactivation by inhibiting the repressive function of cyclin D3. Taken together, these results reveal, for the first time, that caspase-2 is involved in cell cycle promotion and AR activation. Given that prostate cancer cells depend on AR activity in order to survive, the fact that our data indicate that caspase-2 positively regulates AR activity suggests that caspase-2 has potential as a target in the treatment of prostate cancer.

The AR dependent cell cycle: mechanisms and cancer relevance

Prostate cancer cells are exquisitely dependent on androgen receptor (AR) activity for proliferation and survival. As these functions are critical targets of therapeutic intervention for human disease, it is imperative to delineate the mechanisms by which AR engages the cell cycle engine. More than a decade of research has revealed that elegant intercommunication between AR and the cell cycle machinery governs receptor-dependent cellular proliferation, and that perturbations in this process occur frequently in human disease. Here, AR-cell cycle interplay and associated cancer relevance will be reviewed.

Post-translational modification of the androgen receptor

Regulation of the androgen receptor (AR) by its cognate ligand is well established, but how post-translational modification modulates AR activity is only emerging. The AR is subject to modification by phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, SUMOylation, and ubiquitination. As several of the enzymes that modify the AR are altered in prostate cancer, defining the context and physiological effects of these modifications could provide insight into mechanisms that underpin human disease. Here, we review how post-translational modification contributes to AR function as a transcription factor with particular emphasis on phosphorylation and dephosphorylation mechanisms.

Androgen receptor exon 1 mutation causes androgen insensitivity by creating phosphorylation site and inhibiting melanoma antigen-A11 activation of NH2- and carboxyl-terminal interaction-dependent transactivation

Naturally occurring germ line mutations in the X-linked human androgen receptor (AR) gene cause incomplete masculinization of the external genitalia by disrupting AR function in males with androgen insensitivity syndrome. Almost all AR missense mutations that cause androgen insensitivity syndrome are located in the highly structured DNA and ligand binding domains. In this report we investigate the functional defect associated with an AR exon 1 missense mutation, R405S, that caused partial androgen insensitivity. The 46,XX heterozygous maternal carrier had a wild-type Arg-405 CGC allele but transmitted an AGC mutant allele coding for Ser-405. At birth, the 46,XY proband had a bifid scrotum, hypospadias, and micropenis consistent with clinical stage 3 partial androgen insensitivity. Androgen-dependent transcriptional activity of AR-R405S expressed in CV1 cells was less than wild-type AR and refractory in androgen-dependent AR NH(2)- and carboxyl interaction transcription assays that depend on the coregulator effects of melanoma antigen-A11. This mutation created a Ser-405 phosphorylation site evident by the gel migration of an AR-R405S NH(2)-terminal fragment as a double band that converted to the wild-type single band after treatment with λ-phosphatase. Detrimental effects of the R405S mutation were related to the proximity of the AR WXXLF motif (433)WHTLF(437) required for melanoma antigen-A11 and p300 to stimulate transcriptional activity associated with the AR NH(2)- and carboxyl-terminal interaction. We conclude that the coregulator effects of melanoma antigen-A11 on the AR NH(2)- and carboxyl-terminal interaction amplify the androgen-dependent transcriptional response to p300 required for normal human male sex development in utero.

Viral cyclins mediate separate phases of infection by integrating functions of distinct mammalian cyclins

Gammaherpesvirus cyclins have expanded biochemical features relative to mammalian cyclins, and promote infection and pathogenesis including acute lung infection, viral persistence, and reactivation from latency. To define the essential features of the viral cyclin, we generated a panel of knock-in viruses expressing various viral or mammalian cyclins from the murine gammaherpesvirus 68 cyclin locus. Viral cyclins of both gammaherpesvirus 68 and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus supported all cyclin-dependent stages of infection, indicating functional conservation. Although mammalian cyclins could not restore lung replication, they did promote viral persistence and reactivation. Strikingly, distinct and non-overlapping mammalian cyclins complemented persistence (cyclin A, E) or reactivation from latency (cyclin D3). Based on these data, unique biochemical features of viral cyclins (e.g. enhanced kinase activation) are not essential to mediate specific processes during infection. What is essential for, and unique to, the viral cyclins is the integration of the activities of several different mammalian cyclins, which allows viral cyclins to mediate multiple, discrete stages of infection. These studies also demonstrated that closely related stages of infection, that are cyclin-dependent, are in fact genetically distinct, and thus predict that cyclin requirements may be used to tailor potential therapies for virus-associated diseases.

Established and novel Cdk/cyclin complexes regulating the cell cycle and development

The identification of new members in the Cdk and cyclin families, functions for many of which are still emerging, has added new facets to the cell cycle regulatory network. With roles extending beyond the classical regulation of cell cycle progression, these new players are involved in diverse processes such as transcription, neuronal function, and ion transport. Members closely related to Cdks and cyclins such as the Speedy/RINGO proteins offer fresh insights and hope for filling in the missing gaps in our understanding of cell division. This chapter will present a broad outlook on the cell cycle and its key regulators with special emphasis on the less-studied members and their emerging roles.

Cyclin D as a therapeutic target in cancer

Cyclin D1, and to a lesser extent the other D-type cyclins, is frequently deregulated in cancer and is a biomarker of cancer phenotype and disease progression. The ability of these cyclins to activate the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) CDK4 and CDK6 is the most extensively documented mechanism for their oncogenic actions and provides an attractive therapeutic target. Is this an effective means of targeting the cyclin D oncogenes, and how might the patient subgroups that are most likely to benefit be identified?