Stress exposure in at-risk, depressed, and suicidal adolescents

BACKGROUND

Stress exposure contributes to the onset, maintenance, and recurrence of major depressive disorder (MDD) in adolescents. However, the precise stress facets (e.g. chronicity, domain) most strongly linked to outcomes at different stages along the depression severity continuum remain unclear. Across two studies, chronic and episodic stressors were comprehensively assessed among: (a) healthy youth with (High-Risk [HR]) and without (Low-Risk [LR]) a maternal history of MDD and (b) adolescents with current MDD and suicide ideation and healthy controls (HC).

METHOD

Study 1 included LR (n = 65) and HR (n = 22) 12- to 14-year-olds (49 females; 56.32%) with no lifetime history of mental disorders. Study 2 enrolled 87 mid-to-late adolescents (64 females; 73.56%), including 57 MDD youth from a short-term intensive treatment service and 30 HCs from the community. All depressed youth reported recent suicide ideation; some had no lifetime history suicide attempts (SI; n = 31) and others reported at least one past year attempt (SA; n = 26). The Life Events and Difficulties Schedule was used to capture stressor severity in both studies.

RESULTS

We used multiple linear regression models that adjusted for demographic and clinical covariates. Being in the HR versus LR group was associated with more severe chronic (β = .22, CI95 = 0.01-0.42, p = .041), independent (β = .34, CI95 = 0.12-0.56, p = .003), and interpersonal (β = .23, CI95 = 0.004-0.45, p = .047) stress severity. By contrast, the MDD group reported significantly more severe chronic (β = .62, CI95 = 0.45-0.79, p < .001) and dependent (β = .41, CI95 = 0.21-0.61, p < .001) stress than the HC group, but not independent (p = .083) stress. Stress severity did not differ between recent attempters versus youth who reported suicide ideation alone (SA vs. SI contrast). However, the SA group reported a higher rate of targeted rejection events (RR = 3.53, CI95 = 1.17-10.70, p = .026).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings clarify the stressor features that may most strongly contribute to adolescent depression and its clinical correlates at two important points along depression's clinical course.

Perceived Racial and Ethnic Discrimination, Depression, and Alcohol Use Intentions Among Inner-City Latinx Youth: Cross-Generational Effects

Among the many social determinants linked to adolescent alcohol use and depression, racial and ethnic discrimination is a prevalent determinant among Latinx adolescents and adults that is largely overlooked in preventive interventions. This study explored the influence of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms and alcohol use intentions among Latinx adolescents. Additionally, the study explored the cross-generational effects of how mothers' perceived discrimination impacts the depressive symptoms and alcohol use of the adolescent. The study used a sample of 800 inner-city Dominican and Puerto Rican adolescent-mother dyads (adolescent mean age = 12.42 years, SD = 0.81; mother mean age = 40.55 years, SD = 8.70). Employing a five-wave panel design that followed adolescents from 8th grade to 10th grade, the study found statistically significant mediation pathways which showed that adolescents' self-reported racial and ethnic discrimination experiences were associated with increases in their immediate and long-term depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with stronger intentions to use alcohol in the future. Further, perceived racial and ethnic discrimination experienced by Latinx mothers was associated with increases in adolescents' intentions to drink alcohol in the future, mediated by the mothers' depressive symptoms and subsequently the adolescents' depressive symptoms. As discussed, these findings have wide-ranging implications for alcohol use prevention programs targeting inner-city Latinx adolescents.

The future of intergenerational transmission research: A prospective, three-generation approach

Dr. Dante Cicchetti's pioneering theory and research on developmental psychopathology have been fundamental to the proliferation of research on intergenerational transmission over the last 40 years. In part due to this foundation, much has been learned about continuities and discontinuities in child maltreatment, attachment, parenting, and psychopathology across generations. Looking towards the future, we propose that this field stands to benefit from a prospective, three-generation approach. Specifically, following established prospective, longitudinal cohorts of children over their transition to parenting the next generation will afford the opportunity to investigate the developmental origins of intergenerational transmission. This approach also can address key outstanding questions and methodological limitations in the extant literature related to the confounding of retrospective and prospective measures; examination of mediators and moderators; and investigation of the roles of biology, environment, and their interplay. After considering these advantages, we offer several considerations and recommendations for future research, many of which are broadly applicable to the study of two or more generations. We hope that this discussion will inspire the leveraging of existing prospective cohorts to carry forward Dr. Cicchetti's remarkable contributions, with the ultimate aim to inform the development of preventions and interventions that disrupt deleterious intergenerational cycles.

The association between parent mental health and pediatric chronic pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis

ABSTRACT

Mental health problems are common among parents of children with chronic pain and associated with worse outcomes for the child with chronic pain. However, the effect sizes of these associations between parent mental health and pediatric chronic pain vary widely across studies. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to generate pooled estimates of the (1) prevalence of mental health problems among parents of children with chronic pain and (2) associations between parent mental health and the (2a) presence of child chronic pain and (2b) functioning of children with chronic pain. Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and CINAHL were searched up to November 2022. Observational studies that examined symptoms or diagnoses of parent anxiety, depression, or general distress and the presence of child chronic pain and/or related functioning were included. From 32,848 records, 2 coders identified 49 studies to include in random-effects meta-analyses. The results revealed that mental health problems among parents of children with chronic pain were common (anxiety: 28.8% [95% CI 20.3-39.1]; depression: 20.0% [15.7-25.2]; general distress: 32.4% [22.7-44.0]). Poorer parent mental health was significantly associated with the presence of chronic pain (anxiety: OR = 1.91 [1.51-2.41]; depression: OR = 1.90 [1.51-2.38]; general distress: OR = 1.74 [1.47-2.05]) and worse related functioning (ie, pain intensity, physical functioning, anxiety and depression symptoms; r s = 0.10-0.25, all P s < 0.05) in children. Moderator analyses were generally nonsignificant or could not be conducted because of insufficient data. Findings support the importance of addressing parent mental health in the prevention and treatment of pediatric chronic pain.

Contextual factors of child behavioral health across developmental stages

This study examines the relative influence of environmental contexts (family, school, neighborhood) on child behavioral health at ages 3, 5, 9, and 15 years. Path analysis was conducted on a sample of 4,898 urban children from a longitudinal dataset called the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Child physical abuse, emotional abuse, maternal depression, substance use, neighborhood social cohesion, neighborhood poverty, school connectedness, and peer bullying had concurrent relationships with child behavior problems at one or more developmental stages. Early childhood abuse (age 3) and school age environmental contexts (age 9) had lasting effects on later behavior problems. Findings underscore the importance of both multilevel contextual factors and developmental timing in determining behavioral health outcomes in children.

Paternal depression in the postpartum year and children's behaviors at age 5 in an urban U.S. birth cohort

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between postpartum depression in fathers and children's behaviors at age 5 in a national high-risk U.S. sample.

STUDY DESIGN

A secondary data analysis of 1,796 children in a national birth cohort study that oversampled non-marital births was conducted. Paternal depression was assessed 1 year after the child was born and children's behaviors were assessed by their primary caregivers when the children were 5 years old. Unadjusted and adjusted negative binomial regression models of associations between paternal depression and child behavior scores and logistic regression models of associations between paternal depression and high scores (at least 1.5 or 2.0 standard deviations above the mean) were estimated.

RESULTS

In negative binomial regression models that adjusted for child, paternal, and family characteristics and maternal depression, paternal depression was associated with a 17% higher total externalizing behavior score (Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR): 1.17; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.07-1.27), a 17% higher aggressive subscale score (IRR: 1.17; 95% CI: 1.08-1.27), and an 18% higher delinquent subscale score (IRR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.03-1.35). In adjusted logistic regression models for scores ≥2.0 standard deviations above the mean, paternal depression was associated with high total externalizing scores (e.g., Odds Ratio (OR): 3.09; 95% CI: 1.77-5.41), high aggressive behavior scores (OR: 2.40; 95% CI: 1.30-4.43), and high delinquent behavior scores (OR: 2.08; 95% CI: 1.01-4.27). There were suggestive but non-robust associations between paternal depression and attention problems and no associations between paternal depression and internalizing behaviors or social problems.

CONCLUSION

Fathers' depression at age 1 was associated with children's externalizing behaviors at age 5, an important developmental stage when children transition to school. These findings suggest a need to identify and support fathers with depressive symptoms to promote optimal child development.

Progression of Comorbid Depression and Substance Use among Racially Diverse Adults

Comorbidity of depression and substance abuse is common and a major public health burden. Studies of this form of comorbidity in racial and ethnic minoritized (REM) populations are minimal and have mixed findings. The present study examined the effect of general risk factors (family bonding, supervision, involvement, peer delinquency), depression risk factors (caregiver depression), and substance use risk factors (adult family members, sibling, and peer substance use) in early adolescence (~ ages 13-14) on comorbid depression and substance use in later adolescence (~ ages 15-17) and adulthood (~ ages 29-31) and continuity in comorbidity from adolescence to adulthood. Longitudinal data on 1000 Black (n = 680) Hispanic (n = 170) and White (n = 150) individuals came from the Rochester Youth Development Study. Participants were interviewed 14 times over 17 years beginning in 1988. General risk factors predicted comorbidity across racial/ethnic groups. Substance specific risk predicted comorbidity among Black and Hispanic individuals whereas depression specific risk was predictive among White individuals. Adolescent comorbidity predicted comorbidity in adulthood across race. These findings highlight the importance of substance use intervention for racial and ethnic minoritized individuals and mental health risk factors in Whites. The continuity of comorbidity from adolescence to adulthood highlights the importance of targeting adolescents for intervention to prevent long-term manifestation of this form of comorbidity and its associated consequences.

Parental depression and their children's marriage timing: The long-term consequences of parental mental disorders

Although decades of research documents powerful associations between parents' characteristics and their children's marital behaviors, the role of parental mental health has largely been ignored, despite the high prevalence of mental disorders and their strong potential to shape multiple dimensions of family life. Many studies examine other consequences of mothers' mental disorders, particularly for young children, but rarely do studies investigate the consequences of fathers' mental disorders, especially the potential for long-term consequences. We construct a theoretical framework for the study of intergenerational influences on family formation behaviors, integrating parental mental health, and emphasizing the potential for father's disorders to shape their children's lives. To investigate these associations, we use new intergenerational panel data featuring clinically validated diagnostic measures of parental mental health for both mothers and fathers, assessed independently. Results demonstrate that fathers' major depressive disorder is associated with significantly earlier marriage timing among sons. These important new findings provide insights into key priorities for social research on family formation processes and intergenerational influences across many domains.

Potential categories of employment stress among rural college students and their relationship to employment psychology

Background

Psychological problems related to employment are among the most common psychological problems faced by rural college students. Employment stress is an important factor affecting the development of psychological health in employees; thus, reducing employment stress can improve the psychological state of employment.

Objective

This study aimed to understand the potential profiles of employment stress among rural college students to determine the relationship between different profiles and employment psychology.

Methods

This study was conducted in a higher education institution in Qingdao, Shandong Province, China between June and December 2023, and 249 rural college students participated. The Employment Stress Scale and Employment Psychology Scale were used to collect the data. Data were analyzed using latent profile analysis, independent sample t-tests, and binary logistic regression analysis.

Results

The results showed that rural university students were categorized into low-level (49.80%) and high-level (50.21%) employment stress groups. There was a statistically significant difference between the employment psychology of rural college students in the low- and high-level groups (p < 0.001). Juniors/seniors were more likely to be classified in the high-level group (OR = 0.477, p = 0.011).

Conclusion

Intervention programs should be developed and implemented to address the characteristics of employment stress among rural college students with different profiles to promote the healthy development of their attitudes toward employment.

Relations Between Neighborhood Disadvantage and Electrocortical Reward Processing in Youth at High and Low Risk for Depression

Neighborhood-level disadvantage during childhood is a determinant of health that is hypothesized to confer risk for psychopathology via alterations in neuro-affective processing, including reward responsiveness. However, little research has examined the impact of socioeconomic disadvantage assessed at the community-level on reward processing, which may have important implications for targeted dissemination efforts. Furthermore, not all youth exposed to neighborhood disadvantage may exhibit alterations in reward reactivity, highlighting the need to consider factors that may exacerbate risk for blunted reward reactivity. The current study examined associations between geocoded indices of neighborhood disadvantage and electrocortical reward responsivity in youth and tested whether findings were moderated by maternal history of depression. The sample included 137 youth recruited for studies on the intergenerational transmission of depression. Neighborhood disadvantage was assessed using the Area Deprivation Index (ADI) while the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential, indexed reward response. Results revealed a significant interaction between ADI and maternal history of depression on youth RewP, such that greater neighborhood disadvantage was significantly associated with lower reward responsiveness, but only for youth with a maternal history of depression. Results were maintained controlling for youth internalizing symptoms and individual-level socioeconomic factors. Findings suggest that neighborhood disadvantage may impact youth neural reward processing, at least partially independently of individual risk factors, for youth with a maternal history of depression. If replicated, results suggest intervention efforts may be implemented at the community level to enhance reward responsiveness, specifically for youth living in low-resourced neighborhoods with a maternal history of depression.

Parental Symptoms of Anhedonia, Parenting, and Youth Outcomes: A Multi-Method, Multi-Informant Investigation

Parental depression is a well-established risk factor for youth psychopathology; however, depression is highly heterogeneous, and different parental symptom profiles may be differentially associated with risk mechanisms and youth psychopathology outcomes. Thus, this study examined associations between parental anhedonic symptoms of depression, specifically, and (1) parenting and (2) youth outcomes using a multi-method, multi-informant approach. Participants included 595 parents (89% mothers) and youth (ages 8-16; M[SD] = 12.07[2.39]). Regression analyses indicated that parental self-reported anhedonic symptoms at baseline demonstrated relatively specific prospective associations with chronic parent-child stress assessed using contextual stress interview methods, as well as youth self-reported depressive symptoms at 18-month follow-up. Findings also indicated concurrent associations between parental anhedonic symptoms and observed parental criticism, conflict, and responsiveness in the context of a 5-min discussion task, as well as parent self-reported monitoring/supervision, although results were no longer significant after controlling for parental co-occurring non-anhedonic depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that parental anhedonic symptoms may contribute to relatively unique reductions in the quality of the parent-child relationship and may be a particularly salient risk factor for youth depression.

Transmission of depressive symptoms in the nuclear family: a cross-sectional and cross-lagged network perspective

Children are more likely to develop depressive symptoms in families where parents have depressive symptoms. By conceptualizing the individual depressive symptom network of each family member as a whole, this study proposes a family symptom network model, and explored the mechanisms of transmission of depression within nuclear families at the symptom level. This study used four waves (2012, 2016, 2018, 2020) of data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), which in wave one contained a representative sample of 1963 children (1038 boys; age = 12.60), 4763 mothers and 4614 fathers from China. Children with their parents completed the Center for Epidemiology Studies Depression Scale at each wave. Individual depressive symptom networks among children, fathers, and mothers were highly similar and stable across time. When considering depressive symptoms of all family members as a whole, there was a wide range of associations between child, father, and mother depressive symptom networks. The results of the cross-lagged network model suggest the bidirectional relationships between couples and parent-child depression. The current study provides preliminary validation of the family symptom network model. The model represents a further integration and extension of network theory of mental disorders and family systems theory, and points out the limitations of studying the intergenerational transmission of depression from a latent variable perspective. Thus, the family symptom network model proposed in this study could provide valuable new insights into understanding the intergenerational transmission of depression.

Maternal autistic traits and anxiety in children with typical development in Chinese families: a moderated mediation model of mothers' negative emotional expressions and child gender

Background

Prior studies have focused on the effects of maternal autistic traits on children with autism, but little attention has been paid to the effects of maternal autistic traits on typically developing children, while the mechanisms of the effects are not clear.

Objective

Given that, a moderated mediation model was conducted to examine the association between maternal autistic traits and typically developing children's anxiety and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods and results

Participants were 648 mother-child dyads in which these children had no autistic siblings. Mothers reported their autistic traits and negative emotional expressions in the family and children's anxiety. The results indicated that children's anxiety was predicted by maternal autistic traits. Mediating analysis revealed that mothers' negative emotional expressions partially mediated the association between their autistic traits and children's anxiety. The findings also indicated that child gender moderated the relationship between maternal emotional expressions and children's anxiety. Specifically, anxiety in girls was more strongly predicted by negative emotional expressions from their mothers than in boys.

Conclusion

These results have important theoretical and practical implications for reducing the adverse effect of maternal autistic traits on children's anxiety, especially for girls. The present study also reveals that maternal negative emotional expression is an important mechanism. Causal conclusions cannot be drawn based on cross-sectional research design, so it is necessary to conduct longitudinal studies in the future.

Maternal and Child Depressive Symptoms in a Sample of Low-income Families of Color: The Mediating Role of Child Adaptability

Maternal depressive symptoms are linked with child internalizing concerns, such as depressive symptoms. The impact that maternal depressive symptoms have on the onset and maintenance of child depressive symptoms might be especially salient in families of color who are low-income because of elevated rates of maternal depressive symptoms and environmental stressors in those populations. The relationship between maternal and child depressive symptoms might be partially explained by a child's capacity to flexibly respond to stressors in the environment, a construct known as adaptability. A simple mediation model was conducted with a sample of low-income, Black/African American and Latina mothers and their children (n = 128). Results suggested that child adaptability partially mediated the link between maternal and child depressive symptoms. We discussed how this study can inform research and practice that aim to assist low-income families of color with mental health needs.

A transactional mediation model of risk for the intergenerational transmission of depression: The role of maternal criticism

In this study, we sought to combine two lines of research to better understand risk for the intergenerational transmission of depression. The first focuses on the role of maternal criticism as a potential mechanism of risk for depression in youth while the second builds from interpersonal and stress generation models regarding the potential impact of youth depression on future escalations in maternal criticism. Specifically, we examined the role of maternal criticism within a transactional mediation model using data from a multi-wave study. Participants were 251 mother-offspring pairs consisting of mothers with (n = 129) and without (n = 122) a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) during their child's lifetime who completed assessments every 6 months for 2 years. We found support for the hypothesized transactional mediational model in which maternal expressed emotion-criticism (EE-Crit) mediated the link between maternal history of MDD and residual change in youth's depressive symptoms over the previous 6 months and, reciprocally, youth depressive symptoms mediated the relation between maternal MDD history and residual change in EE-Crit 6 months later. These results indicate that maternal criticism and offspring depressive symptoms may contribute to a vicious cycle of depression risk, which should be considered for interventions targeted toward youth at risk of developing MDD.

Complex posttraumatic stress disorder in intergenerational trauma transmission among Eritrean asylum-seeking mother-child dyads

Background: Traumatic stress among forcibly displaced people has a variety of adverse consequences beyond individual mental health, including implications for poor socioemotional developmental outcomes for their children post-displacement.Objective: This study explored the intergenerational transmission of maternal ICD-11 Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) and depression among asylum-seeking mothers for their children's internalizing and externalizing difficulties.Method: Participants were 127 trauma-affected Eritrean mothers of preschool-aged children in Israel. The severity of child difficulties was compared between mothers with probable ICD-11 CPTSD (94.5% comorbid depression), ICD-11 PTSD (48.5% comorbid depression), unimorbid depression, and healthy mothers, using multivariate analyses of variance, while controlling for children's direct exposure to adverse life experiences.Results: Probable ICD-11 CPTSD and PTSD were present in 23.6% and 26.0% of mothers, respectively. Relative to maternal PTSD, CPTSD was significantly and strongly associated with elevated child internalizing symptoms (d = 2.44) and marginally significantly, although strongly, associated with child externalizing symptoms (d = 1.30). Post-hoc exploratory analyses documented that, relative to maternal PTSD and depression, CPTSD and depression comorbidity was marginally significantly but strongly associated with child internalizing (SMD = .67), but not externalizing symptoms (SMD = .35).Conclusions: Findings implicate maternal CPTSD and comorbid depression in child socio-emotional development and inform clinical assessment, prevention, and intervention to attenuate poor development among children in unstable post-displacement settings.

Longitudinal coupling of emotional wellbeing in parent-adolescent dyads: Evaluating the role of daily life positive affect socialization processes

This study evaluated the role of bidirectional micro- and macro- level positive affect-related processes in the longitudinal coupling of depressive symptoms in parent-adolescent dyads. Using a measurement-burst design, including dyadic experience sampling methods (ESM) and monthly follow-ups over one year, this work investigated associations between (1) parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia and parental daily-life enhancing and dampening responses to youth positive affect; (2) parental daily-life enhancing and dampening and trajectories of youth positive affect, negative affect, and depressive symptoms across one year; and (3) youth developmental trajectories and prospective parental daily-life enhancing and dampening, and parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia at one-year follow-up. Participants included 146 early adolescents (52.1% girls, 47.9% boys; Mage[SD] = 12.71[.86]) and 139 parents (78.7% mothers; Mage[SD] = 44.11[5.08]). Parental enhancing and dampening were measured using a dyadic ESM procedure at baseline and 12-months. Youth completed monthtly questionnaires assessing depressive symptoms and trait positive and negative affect across 12 months. Parents reported on depressive symptoms and anhedonia at baseline and 12-months. Results showed that parental anhedonia negatively related to parental daily-life enhancing, and youths' perceptions of their parents' enhancing and dampening reciprocally related to youth emotional development across one year, with downstream implications for parents' own symptoms of depression.

Can resilience change over time? Patterns and transitions in resilience among young children involved with the child welfare system

This study examined transitions in resilience profiles and the role of caregiver risk and protective factors in resilience transition probabilities over 18 months among children involved with the child welfare system, using latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis. The sample included 486 children (48% female, baseline Mage  = 3.49). There were three resilience profiles at Time 1 (19.9% low emotional behavioral, 26.1% low cognitive, 54.0% multidomain) and two profiles at Time 2 (18.9% low emotional behavioral, 81.1% multidomain). Caregiver mental health problems were negatively associated with membership in the multidomain resilience group at Time 1. Higher levels of cognitive stimulation were associated with initial and continued membership in the multidomain resilience group. Implications for resilient child development are discussed.

Neural activation and connectivity in offspring of depressed mothers during monetary and social reward tasks

Multiple previous studies show associations between history of and familial risk for depression and reward function. These previous studies have predominantly focused on neural activation during monetary tasks. Fewer studies of have examined functional connectivity and social reward tasks, particularly in offspring of mothers with depression. This study examined brain function in older children (aged 9-14 years) through both regional activation and functional connectivity during monetary (n = 103) and social reward (n = 115) tasks. Overall, our study failed to find significant differences between offspring of mothers with and without depression on monetary (65 offspring of mothers without and 38 offspring of mother with depression) and social reward (73 offspring of mothers without and 42 offspring of mother with depression) tasks on task activation and functional connectivity. We discuss possibilities for developmental timing of finding differences between offspring of mothers with and without depression on monetary and social reward tasks.

Integrating Treatment for Maternal Depression and Young Children's Behavior Problems

It is important to consider reciprocal associations between maternal and offspring mental health problems during early childhood. Existing interventions often focus narrowly on either adult or child mental health, missing the opportunity for holistic care. We describe the rationale and development of a pilot randomized clinical trial that explores their integration, combining an evidence-based parenting intervention with depression treatment to improve both maternal and child outcomes. Our approach is part of a growing field of two-generation interventions that offer a promising approach to enhance mental health support for caregivers and their young children.

The Quality of Mother-Child Feeding Interactions Predicts Psychopathological Symptoms in Offspring and Mothers Seven Years Later: A Longitudinal Study on the General Population

The increased risk of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children has been observed in the presence of maternal psychopathology. This study aimed to investigate a potential pathway involving the quality of early interactions between mothers and their children. A sample of 150 mother-child dyads underwent assessment when the children were 3 years old and around the age of 10. Video recordings of feeding exchanges between mothers and children were analyzed to evaluate the quality of mother-child interactions. Maternal psychopathology and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms were measured through self-report and report-form measures completed by mothers. The quality of mother-child feeding interactions at three years of age significantly differentiated (p < 0.001), eight years later, between mothers at high and low psychopathological risk and between children exhibiting clinical and subclinical internalizing symptoms. Clinically relevant child symptoms were notably more prevalent when the mother-child interaction quality at three years of age was maladaptive, particularly in the context of concurrent high maternal psychopathological risk. The study findings underscore the importance of focusing on the early quality of mother-child feeding interactions to identify potential situations of maternal and child clinical risk for the development of psychopathological symptoms and to guide preemptive measures and policies.

Being an Infant in a Pandemic: Influences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Infants, Toddlers and Their Mothers in a Clinical Population

The COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing lockdowns might have had a strong impact on mental health of mothers and their infants/toddlers. For example, families had to deal with health issues and social isolation, which might have affected mental health and parent-child interactions. The aim of this study is to evaluate differences in (1) infantile regulatory disorders, (2) maternal mental health, (3) the impact of maternal mental health on infantile regulatory disorders, and (4) alterations in the mother-child interaction for participants recruited before versus after the onset of the first German lockdown. For this reason, mother-child dyads have been divided into two groups and were compared by analyzing clinical interviews on psychopathology of mother and child (M.I.N.I. & DC:05) and mother-child-interactions (Emotional Availability Scales). Results showed that (1) differences in infantile sleeping disorders emerged (phi = 0.243; p = 0.016) compared to the pre-lockdown group, while (2) the occurrence of maternal panic and anxiety increased in the post-lockdown group (phi = 0.229; p = 0.022). Moreover, there was (3) an association for maternal panic and child's sleep disorder, and (4) specific associations with maternal non-hostility in the mother-child-interaction. In conclusion, the present study highlights the differences of maternal mental health occurrences and infants' regulatory problems, as well as the possible effects of the COVID-19 pandemic for infants. In the pre-lockdown group, maternal non-hostility might have acted as a promotive factor against regulatory disorders, while this mechanism was mitigated in the post-lockdown group.

Maternal depressive symptoms and child language development: Exploring potential pathways through observed and self-reported mother-child verbal interactions

Maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) in the postnatal period may impact children's later development through poorer quality parent-child interactions. The current study tested a specific pathway from MDS (child age 9 months) to child receptive vocabulary (4 ½ years) through both self-reported and observed parent-child verbal interactions (at both 2 and 4 ½ years). Participants (n = 4,432) were part of a large, diverse, contemporary pre-birth national cohort study: Growing Up in New Zealand. Results indicated a direct association between greater MDS at 9 months and poorer receptive vocabulary at age 4 ½ years. There was support for an indirect pathway through self-reported parent-child verbal interactions at 2 years and through observed parent-child verbal interactions at 4 ½ years. A moderated mediation effect was also found: the indirect effect of MDS on child vocabulary through observed verbal interaction was supported for families living in areas of greater socioeconomic deprivation. Overall, findings support the potential role of parent-child verbal interactions as a mechanism for the influence of MDS on later child language development. This pathway may be particularly important for families experiencing socioeconomic adversity, suggesting that effective and appropriate supportive parenting interventions be preferentially targeted to reduce inequities in child language outcomes.

Examining the relationship between genetic risk for depression and youth episodic stress exposure

BACKGROUND

Offspring of depressed mothers have elevated risk of developing depression because they are exposed to greater stress. While generally assumed that youth's increased exposure to stress is due to the environmental effects of living with a depressed parent, youth's genes may influence stress exposure through gene-environment correlations (rGEs). To understand the relationship between risk for depression and stress, we examined the effects of polygenic risk for depression on youth stress exposure.

METHODS

We examined the relations of a polygenic risk score (PRS) for depression (DEP-PRS), as well as PRSs for 5 other disorders, with youth stress exposure. Data were from a longitudinal study of a community sample of youth and their parents (n = 377) focusing on data collected at youth's aged 12 and 15 assessments.

RESULTS

Elevated youth DEP-PRS was robustly associated with increased dependent stress, particularly interpersonal events. Exploratory analyses indicated that findings were driven by major stress and were not moderated by maternal nor paternal history of depression, and of the 5 additional PRSs tested, only elevated genetic liability for bipolar I was associated with increased dependent stress-particularly non-interpersonal events.

LIMITATIONS

Like other PRS studies, we focused on those of European ancestry thus, generalizability of findings is limited.

CONCLUSION

Polygenic risk contributes to youth experiencing stressful life events which are dependent on their behavior. This rGE appears to be specific to genetic risk for mood disorders.

Preschool Emotional Problems in the Post-Pandemic Era between Parental Risk and Protective Factors

The psychosocial adaptation of children born or experiencing their early years during the COVID-19 pandemic remains uncertain. In order to implement prevention strategies, it is, therefore, a priority to deeply analyze children's mental health in this post-pandemic phase and to identify family risk and protective factors. Indeed, recent studies reveal that children's emotional distress increased with the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in situations of high parental stress. The study investigates associations between some parental characteristics (coping strategies, parental burnout, resilience, perception of social support, and promotion of children's social-emotional competence) and children's emotional symptoms, considering gender differences. A total of 358 parents of children aged 2 to 6 years participated in this study. Regression analyses show that parental burnout is a predictor of emotional symptoms; moreover, for females, higher levels of emotional symptoms are associated with parental maladaptive coping strategies, whereas for males, the parent's ability to promote children's emotional competence is a protective factor. Results emphasize the importance of supporting parental well-being as a critical factor in shielding children from the repercussions of adverse situations.

An intergenerational examination of retrospective and current depression patterns among Black families

BACKGROUND

There is limited information regarding the intergenerational transmission of mental health among three generations (i.e., grandparents, parents, and children) of Black families. Given that intergenerational and kinship ties are integral in Black families, this study explores the context that might contribute to the generational transmission of mental health among Black families.

METHODS

The present study examined the retrospective family history of mental health among fathers and mothers, current reports of their depression, and their children's internalizing and depressive symptoms among a sample of 2530 Black families from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study using waves 4 to 6. All analyses were conducted using STATA 15.1.

RESULTS

Focal children's maternal and paternal grandparents' history of mental health was associated with higher odds of depression in their mothers and fathers; in addition, child-internalizing symptoms were associated with a report of depression in maternal grandparents in waves 4 and 5. Children of mothers who were depressed had higher internalizing scores in waves 4, 5, and 6.

LIMITATIONS

This descriptive study did not account for how parenting might also be protective against childhood internalizing behaviors. A retrospective account may not fully encapsulate a complete understanding of mental health patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

In treating the mental and behavioral health of Black families, it is essential to focus on multiple generations of family health, given that family history is the strongest predictor of the youth's onset of depression. The utility of these findings in understanding psychological distress and strengths among Black families is discussed.

Protocol for a randomized control trial of the Building Regulation in Dual Generations Program (BRIDGE): preventing the intergenerational transmission of mental illness in at-risk preschool children

BACKGROUND

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the worldwide prevalence of maternal depression has risen sharply; it is now estimated that one quarter of mothers experience clinically significant depression symptoms. Exposure to maternal depression during early childhood increases the risk for the development of childhood mental illness (MI) in offspring, with altered parenting practices mediating the association between maternal depression and child outcomes. Dual-generation interventions, which aim to simultaneously treat parent and child mental health, show promise for improving outcomes for mothers with depression and their young children. The Building Regulation in Dual Generations (BRIDGE) program combines Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) and parenting skills training to concurrently treat maternal depression and improve parenting practices. In pilot within-group studies, BRIDGE has led to large reductions in maternal depression and child MI symptoms. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the efficacy of BRIDGE in reducing maternal depression and child MI symptoms (primary outcomes) as well as parenting stress and harsh parenting (secondary outcomes).

METHODS

A three-armed randomized control trial with equal group sizes will be conducted to compare the efficacy of (1) BRIDGE (DBT + parenting skills), (2) DBT skills training, and (3) services-as-usual. Participants (n = 180) will be mothers of 3- to 5-year-old children who report elevated depression symptoms. Those randomized to BRIDGE or DBT skills training will complete a 16-week group therapy intervention. Assessments will be administered at pre-intervention(T1) post-intervention (T2), and 6-month follow-up (T3).

DISCUSSION

Dual-generation programs offer an innovative approach to prevent the intergenerational transmission of mental illness. The current study will add to the evidence base for BRIDGE by comparing it to a stand-alone mental health intervention and a services-as-usual group. These comparisons will provide valuable information on the relative efficacy of including parenting support in a mental health intervention for parents. The results will contribute to our understanding of how maternal depression affects children's development and how intervening at both a mental health and parenting level may affect child and family outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Name of registry: Clinical Trials Protocol Registration and Results System; trial registration number: NCT05959538; date of registry: July 24, 2023; available: https://classic.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov/ct2/show/NCT05959538.

Specificity of associations between parental psychopathology and offspring brain structure

Multiple forms of parental psychopathology have been associated with differences in subcortical brain volume. However, few studies have considered the role of comorbidity. Here, we examine if alterations in child subcortical brain structure are specific to parental depression, anxiety, mania, or alcohol/substance use parental psychopathology, common across these disorders, or altered by a history of multiple disorders. We examined 6581 children aged 9 to 10 years old from the ABCD study with no history of mental disorders. We found several significant interactions such that the effects of a parental history of depression, anxiety, and substance use problems on amygdala and striatal volumes were moderated by comorbid parental history of another disorder. Interactions tended to suggest smaller volumes in the presence of a comorbid disorder. However, effect sizes were small, and no associations remained significant after correcting for multiple comparisons. Results suggest that associations between familial risk for psychopathology and offspring brain structure in 9-10-year-olds are modest, and relationships that do exist tend to implicate the amygdala and striatal regions and are moderated by a comorbid parental psychopathology history. Several methodological factors, including controlling for intracranial volume and other forms of parental psychopathology and excluding child psychopathology, likely contribute to inconsistencies in the literature.

Offspring hospitalization for substance use and changes in parental mental health: A Finnish register-based study

Prior research indicates that parental psychiatric disorders increase their offspring's risk of substance use problems. Though the association is likely bidirectional, the effects of an adult child's substance use on parental mental health remain understudied. We examined parents' psychotropic medication use trajectories by parental sex and educational attainment before and after a child's alcohol- or narcotics-attributable hospitalization. We identified Finnish residents, born 1979-1988, with a first hospitalization for substance use during emerging adulthood (ages 18-29, n = 12,851). Their biological mothers (n = 12,283) and/or fathers (n = 10,765) were followed for the two years before and after the hospitalization. Psychotropic medication use was measured in three-month periods centered around the time of child's hospitalization, and the probability of psychotropic medication use at each time point was assessed using generalized estimating equations logit models. Among mothers, the prevalence of psychotropic medication use increased during the year before, peaked during the 0-3 months after hospitalization, and remained at a similarly elevated level until the end of follow-up. The prevalence among fathers increased gradually and linearly across follow-up, with minimal changes evident either directly before or after the hospitalization. Parents' educational attainment did not modify these trajectories. Our results highlight the importance of considering linked lives when quantifying substance use-attributable harms and underscore the need for future research examining the intergenerational spillover effects of substance use in both directions, particularly in mother-child dyads.

Examining transactional associations between maternal internalizing symptoms, infant negative emotionality, and infant respiratory sinus arrhythmia

The current study examined transactional associations between maternal internalizing symptoms, infant negative emotionality, and infant resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). We used data from the Longitudinal Attention and Temperament Study (N = 217) to examine the associations between maternal internalizing symptoms, infant negative emotionality, and infant resting RSA from 4-months to 18-months using a random-intercepts cross-lagged panel model. We found that mothers with higher average internalizing symptoms have infants with higher levels of resting RSA. However, there were no stable, between-individual differences in infant negative emotionality across time. Additionally, we found significant negative within-dyad cross-lagged associations from maternal internalizing symptoms to subsequent measures of infant negative emotionality, as well as a significant negative cross-lagged association from maternal internalizing symptoms to child resting RSA after 12-months of age. Lastly, we find evidence for infant-directed effects of negative emotionality and resting RSA to maternal internalizing symptoms. Results highlight the complex, bidirectional associations in maternal-infant dyads during the first two years of life, and the importance of considering the co-development of infant reactivity and regulatory processes in the context of maternal internalizing symptoms.

The Home Environments of Infants of Mothers with Early, Remitted Clinical Depression and No Depression during the First Two Years Postpartum

The current study examines stability, continuity, and group and gender differences in the home environments of infants of mothers with early, remitted clinical depression and no postpartum depression, overcoming methodological variations in the extant literature. Fifty-five mothers diagnosed with clinical depression (major or minor depression, dysthymia, or depressive disorder not otherwise specified) at 5 months and fully remitted by 15 and 24 months, and 132 mothers with no postpartum depression (Mage = 32.47; 69.7% European American) completed the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory Infant/Toddler version when their infants were 15 and 24 months old. No differences in stability estimates of the HOME scales were found between the groups. In terms of continuity, controlling for maternal education and infant birth order, HOME responsivity, involvement, and total score decreased, while HOME acceptance increased between 15 and 24 months in the full sample. There were no effects of group or gender. Results may point to the home environment as a key protective factor for infants of mothers with early, remitted clinical depression, or findings may suggest improved maternal parenting cognitions and practices following remission.

Nurturing child social-emotional development: evaluation of a pre-post and 2-month follow-up uncontrolled pilot training for caregivers and educators

BACKGROUND

Social-emotional capacities contribute to children's mental health by helping them navigate their own and others' emotional states and forge healthy relationships. Caregivers and educators are critical socialization agents in early and middle childhood, but gaps remain in the systematic integration of social-emotional research into caregiver and educator trainings. The aim of this pilot study was to test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a social-emotional training designed to promote caregivers' and educators' capacities to support social-emotional development in children ages 3-8 years.

METHODS

Fifty adults (n = 24 caregivers of children ages 3-8 years, n = 26 educators working with children ages 3-8 years) participated in a virtual training over 3 weeks. Participants completed pre-training, post-training, and 2-month follow-up questionnaires evaluating their knowledge of social-emotional concepts, use of training strategies, mental health, and satisfaction with the training. Caregivers also reported children's social-emotional capacities and mental health.

RESULTS

On average, caregivers and educators completed 83% of the virtual training sessions and reported high satisfaction with the training. Further, preliminary evidence indicated that caregivers' and educators' knowledge of social-emotional concepts increased pre- to post-training and was maintained at the 2-month follow-up. Increases in caregivers' and educators' knowledge and greater use of training strategies were associated with improvements in children's social-emotional capacities and caregivers' and educators' own mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

These pilot results support the feasibility of infusing evidence-based social-emotional content into caregiver and educator training initiatives aimed at nurturing child social-emotional development and mental health. The results inform future evaluation of the short- and long-term benefits of this training with a full-scale randomized controlled trial design.

Is parental depression related to parental mentalizing? A systematic review and three-level meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis is aimed to summarize the state of research on the relation between parental depression and parental mentalizing. To account for the multifaceted nature of parental mentalizing, several conceptualizations and measures were included and compared. The last database search was conducted on March 13, 2023. Using three-level meta-analytic modelling, we analyzed a total of 12,665 participants from 63 studies with 233 effect sizes. Taken together, higher depression was only weakly associated with lower mentalizing (r = -0.06). Specifically, parents with higher depression scored lower on questionnaire measures of parental reflective functioning (r = -0.11). No significant correlations were found for interview measures of parental reflective functioning, the observational and interview measure of mind-mindedness, or insightfulness. The data showed substantial heterogeneity. The mean effect size for self-reported pre-mentalizing (r =  -0.23 for reverse-coded subscale scores) was significantly stronger compared to other self-report subscales. In studies including parents with diagnosis and controls, there was limited evidence suggesting a larger negative correlation between depression, mind-mindedness, and insightfulness. Therefore, more research is needed in clinical samples. Due to their correlational nature, our results do not allow causal inferences. Future studies should target moderators that explain variability (e.g., comorbid psychological problems, coparenting, child behavior).

Perceived parental depression, intrusive rumination, and internalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study in adolescents

Research suggests that perceiving parental depression elicits internalizing problems in adolescents, but certain studies have indicated that adolescents' internalizing problems also increase their perception of parental emotion. To further investigate the inconsistent findings about the nature of this relationship, the current study used longitudinal data to examine the causal association between adolescents' internalizing problems and the parental depression they perceived, as well as the role of intrusive rumination in the relationship. Method: In this longitudinal study, 392 adolescents who experienced the catastrophic Jiuzhaigou earthquake in 2017 were surveyed at three time points after the earthquake: 12 months (T1), 21 months (T2) and 27 months (T3). A cross-lagged panel model was used to carry out the data analysis. Results: Mutual cause-and-effect relationships were found between intrusive rumination and both perceived parental depression and internalizing problems, respectively; a unilateral causal relationship in which internalizing problems positively predicted perceived parental depression was also found. In addition, internalizing problems predicted perceived parental depression via the mediating role of intrusive rumination; similarly, intrusive rumination predicted perceived parental depression via internalizing problems. Conclusions: Internalizing problems were a risk factor for perceived parental depression, and intrusive rumination played an important role in the relationship between internalizing problems and perceived parental depression.

The Mediating Role of Mindful Parenting in the Relationship Between Parental Anxiety and Youth's Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

One of the central questions in the theory of the intergenerational transmission of psychological symptoms is to identify whether parenting practices explain the transmission of psychological symptoms from parents to youth. This study examined the mediating mechanism of mindful parenting in the relationship between parental anxiety and youth's emotional and behavioral difficulties. In three waves separated by six months, longitudinal data were collected from 692 Spanish youth (54% girls) aged between 9 and 15 years (Mage = 12.84 years, SD = 1.22 years at Wave 1) and their parents. Path analysis showed that maternal mindful parenting mediated the relationship between maternal anxiety and the youth's emotional and behavioral difficulties. No mediating effect was found concerning fathers; however, marginal bidirectional relationships were obtained between paternal mindful parenting and youth's emotional and behavioral difficulties. This study addresses one of the main concerns about the theory of intergenerational transmission using a multi-informant and longitudinal study design, concluding that maternal anxiety predicts less mindful parenting practices and these in turn predict youth's emotional and behavioral difficulties.

Neural activation to peer acceptance and rejection in relation to concurrent and prospective depression risk in adolescent and pre-adolescent girls

Neurobiological sensitivity to peer interactions is a proposed marker of risk for adolescent depression. We investigated neural response to peer rejection and acceptance in relation to concurrent and prospective depression risk in adolescent and pre-adolescent girls. Participants were 76 girls (Mage=13, 45% racial/ethnic minorities) varying in depression risk: 22 with current major depressive disorder (MDD), 30 at High Risk for MDD based on parental history, and 24 at Low Risk with no psychiatric history. Girls participated in the Chatroom-Interact task-involving rejection and acceptance feedback from fictitious peers-while undergoing functional magnetic resonance neuroimaging. Activation in response to peer rejection and acceptance was extracted from regions of interest. Depressive symptoms were assessed at 6- and 12-month follow-up. Girls with MDD showed blunted left subgenual anterior cingulate response to acceptance versus girls in High and Low Risk groups. Girls in the High Risk group showed greater right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ) and right anterior insula (AI) activation to both acceptance and rejection versus girls in the MDD (rTPJ) and Low Risk (rTPJ, AI) groups. Greater rTPJ response to rejection was associated with fewer depressive symptoms at 12-months and mediated the association between High Risk group status and 12-month depressive symptoms; greater rTPJ response to acceptance mediated the association between High Risk and increased 12-month depressive symptoms. Our finding of associations between altered neural response to peer interactions and concurrent and prospective depression risk/resilience highlights the importance of neural underpinnings of social cognition as risk and compensatory adaptations along the pathway to depression.

Is it me or my child? The association between maternal depression and children's behavior problems in mothers and their children with or without autism

Bidirectional associations between maternal depression and child behavior problems have been reported in prior research, however, few studies examine these relations across varied family contexts. This study examined parenting stress and child diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as moderators of bidirectional associations between maternal depression and child behavior problems over time. Our sample included 86 mother-child dyads who reported maternal depressive symptoms, child behavior problems, and parenting stress at three time points over more than 1 year. Approximately half were mothers of children with ASD (n = 41) and half were mothers of neurotypical children (n = 45). We tested the bidirectional associations between maternal depressive symptoms and children's behavior problems and the potential moderating role of parental stress or child ASD diagnosis on these bidirectional associations using aggregated, lagged, and linear mixed models. Even after controlling for lagged maternal depressive symptoms, child behavior problems were associated with greater subsequent maternal depression at the between-person level, but not at the within-person level. The converse relation of prior maternal depressive symptoms on subsequent child behavior problems was not significant. Neither parenting stress nor child ASD diagnosis moderated bidirectional associations between maternal depressive symptoms and children's behavior problems. Child behavior predicted maternal depression, but the converse was not true, regardless of parenting stress levels or child's ASD diagnosis. For mothers experiencing elevated parenting stress and those with children with ASD, this may help alleviate elevated feelings of guilt related to their children's behavior problems.

Mean-level correspondence and moment-to-moment synchrony in adolescent and parent affect: Exploring associations with adolescent age and internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Interactions with parents are integral in shaping the development of children's emotional processes. Important aspects of these interactions are overall (mean level) affective experience and affective synchrony (linkages between parent and child affect across time). Respectively, mean-level affect and affective synchrony reflect aspects of the content and structure of dyadic interactions. Most research on parent-child affect during dyadic interactions has focused on infancy and early childhood; adolescence, however, is a key period for both normative emotional development and the emergence of emotional disorders. We examined affect in early to mid-adolescents (N = 55, Mage = 12.27) and their parents using a video-mediated recall task of 10-min conflict-topic discussions. Using multilevel modeling, we found evidence of significant level-2 effects (mean affect) and level-1 effects (affective synchrony) for parents and their adolescents. Level-2 and level-1 associations were differentially moderated by adolescent age and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. More specifically, parent-adolescent synchrony was stronger when adolescents were older and had more internalizing problems. Further, more positive adolescent mean affect was associated with more positive parent affect (and vice versa), but only for dyads with low adolescent externalizing problems. Results underscore the importance of additional research examining parent-child affect in adolescence.

Moderating role of sociodemographic factors in parental psychiatric treatment before and after offspring severe self-harm

BACKGROUND

Parental psychiatric disorders are known risk factors for adolescent self-harm. Although this association is likely to have a bidirectional element, evidence on changes in parental psychiatric treatment following offspring self-harm is scarce.

METHODS

Finnish children born in 1987-1996 with a hospital-treated episode of self-harm between the ages 13 and 19 years (N = 3636) were identified using administrative register data, and their biological mothers (N = 3432) and fathers (N = 3167) were followed two years before and after the episode. Data on purchases of psychotropic medication, specialized psychiatric treatment and psychiatric sickness allowances were used to examine psychiatric treatment among parents. Differences by parental education, employment and living arrangements were assessed, and offspring self-harm was compared with offspring accidental poisonings and traffic accidents.

RESULTS

Psychiatric treatment peaked among mothers during the three-month period after offspring self-harm, after which the treatment prevalence decreased but remained slightly elevated relative to the time preceding offspring self-harm. Higher levels of education and being employed increased the likelihood of treatment right after the episode. Among fathers, changes in treatment were negligible. Treatment trajectories around the comparison events of accidents were similar in shape but more muted than among the parents whose children had self-harmed.

LIMITATIONS

General practitioner visits or other data from primary health care were not available.

CONCLUSION

Mothers receive increased psychiatric treatment after stressful offspring events. Our results indicate that prevention of self-harm and accidents would be beneficial not only for those directly concerned but also for their family members.

Effects of gestational inflammation on age-related cognitive decline and hippocampal Gdnf-GFRα1 levels in F1 and F2 generations of CD-1 Mice

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that age-associated cognitive decline (AACD) accelerated by maternal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) insult during late pregnancy can be transmitted to the second generation in a sex-specificity manner. In turn, recent studies indicated that glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and its cognate receptor (GFRα1) are critical for normal cognitive function. Based on this evidence, we aimed to explore whether Gdnf-GFRα1 expression contributes to cognitive decline in the F1 and F2 generations of mouse dams exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) during late gestation, and to evaluate also the potential interference effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

METHODS

During gestational days 15-17, pregnant CD-1 mice (8-10 weeks old) received a daily intraperitoneal injection of LPS (50 μg/kg) or saline (control). In utero LPS-exposed F1 generation mice were selectively mated to produce F2 generation mice. In F1 and F2 mice aged 3 and 15 months, the Morris water maze (MWM) was used to evaluated the spatial learning and memory ability, the western blotting and RT-PCR were used for analyses of hippocampal Gdnf and GFRα1 expression, and ELISA was used to analyse IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α levels in serum.

RESULTS

Middle-aged F1 offspring from LPS-treated mothers exhibited longer swimming latency and distance during the learning phase, lower percentage swimming time and distance in targe quadrant during memory phase, and lower hippocampal levels of Gdnf and GFRα1 gene products compared to age-matched controls. Similarly, the middle-aged F2 offspring from the Parents-LPS group had longer swimming latency and distance in the learning phase, and lower percentage swimming time and distance in memory phase than the F2-CON group. Moreover, the 3-month-old Parents-LPS and 15-month-old Parents- and Father-LPS groups had lower GDNF and GFRα1 protein and mRNAs levels compared to the age-matched F2-CON group. Furthermore, hippocampal levels of Gdnf and GFRα1 were correlated with impaired cognitive performance in the Morris water maze after controlling for circulating pro-inflammatory cytokine levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that accelerated AACD by maternal LPS exposure can be transmitted across at least two generations through declined Gdnf and GFRα1 expression, mainly via paternal linage.

Maternal psychological functioning mediates the association between infant behavior and subsequent child psychological functioning

Symptoms of psychopathology that onset during childhood are often more severe, chronic, and difficult to treat than symptoms that first appear later in life. Maternal psychological symptoms are associated with the development of psychological symptoms in children. However, less research focuses on whether children's behaviors may presage maternal psychological difficulties that, in turn, contribute to the child's own psychological functioning. Identifying psychological difficulties in families and intervening in early life may lower risk for intergenerational transmission of subsequent psychological symptoms. Even at non-clinical or normative levels, exploring transactional models of parent-child behavior and psychological functioning may provide insight into the development of later psychological difficulties or symptoms within families. Thus, the current study examined whether difficult infant behavior (e.g., fussiness, unpredictability) is associated with future maternal psychological difficulties and subsequently, the child's own psychological functioning in early childhood. The current sample includes 847 dyads from a multi-wave birth cohort in England ('Born in Bradford'), who identified as predominantly non-White (62.2%) and socioeconomically diverse. Mothers reported on their child's behaviors at 6 months, their own psychological functioning during pregnancy and at 18 months postpartum, and their child's psychological functioning at age 3. Results of a mediation model revealed that the association between infant behavior at 6 months and child psychological functioning at 3 years is partially explained by maternal psychological functioning at 18 months, even after accounting for psychological difficulties during pregnancy, maternal age at birth, child sex, family income, and ethnicity. Post-hoc exploratory analyses revealed that the association between infant behavior, maternal psychological functioning, and subsequent child psychological functioning was significant for Pakistani British families but not White British families. These findings provide preliminary evidence that infant behaviors (e.g., temperament) may presage future maternal psychological difficulties and subsequent child psychological functioning, above and beyond previous maternal psychological functioning. Importantly, these results highlight infant behavior as a potential catalyst for later psychological difficulties within families.

Women's Mental Health up to Eight Years after Childbirth and Associated Risk Factors: Longitudinal Findings from the All Our Families Cohort in Canada

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the prevalence of elevated maternal anxiety and/or depression symptoms up to eight years after childbirth and the association between role and relationship strains during parenting and mental health challenges from three to eight years after childbirth.

METHODS

This study used data from the All Our Families longitudinal pregnancy cohort. Role and relationship strain factors and anxiety and depression symptoms were measured at repeated time points from four months to eight years after childbirth. The proportion of women with elevated anxiety and/or depression was calculated at each available time point. Generalized estimating equation models were used to examine the association between role and relationship strain factors and anxiety and/or depression from three to eight years after childbirth. Predicted probability of having anxiety and/or depression was estimated across those with and without challenges with roles and relationships. The models were adjusted for known risk factors such as maternal income and perinatal anxiety and/or depression.

RESULTS

The prevalence of elevated anxiety and/or depression ranged from 18.8% (at four months) to 26.2% (at eight years). The adjusted odds ratio of anxiety and/or depression was 3.5 (95% CI = 2.9, 4.3) for those juggling family responsibilities and 2.4 (95% CI = 2.0, 3.0) for those with stressful partner relationship compared to their counterparts. Similarly, experiencing financial crunch and poor partner relationship were associated with increased mental health difficulties. Women without challenges in roles or relationships had a 23% lower predicted probability of anxiety and/or depression than those with the challenges.

CONCLUSIONS

Monitoring mothers for anxiety and depression beyond the postpartum period and strategies that address role and relationship challenges may be valuable to women at risk of anxiety and depression.

Intergenerational effects of maternal depression and co-occurring antisocial behaviors: The mediating role of parenting-related processes

Co-occurring maternal depression and antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) are associated with the development of psychopathology in children, yet little is known about risk mechanisms. In a sample of 122 racially diverse and economically disadvantaged families, we prospectively investigated (a) to what extent child socioemotional problems were related to maternal depression-only, ASPD-only, or the co-occurrence of both and (b) specificity in parenting-related mechanisms linking single-type or comorbid maternal psychopathology to child outcomes at age 3. Compared to mothers without either ASPD or depression, exposure to maternal depression-only and comorbid depression/ASPD predicted child problems as a function of greater parenting stress and lower maternal sensitivity. Mothers with comorbid depression/ASPD uniquely exhibited more negative parenting and had children with more socioemotional problems than mothers with depression-only. Compared to mothers with neither ASPD nor depression, mothers with depression-only uniquely impacted child difficulties via lower maternal efficacy. Study findings suggest areas of parenting intervention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Co-occurring Stress Trajectories and the Longitudinal Coupling of Internalizing Symptoms in Parent-Adolescent Dyads

Stress is one candidate mechanism posited to contribute to the intergenerational risk of psychopathology. However, the ways in which parent and child stress are related across adolescence, and the role that co-occurring parent and child stress may exert regarding bidirectional risk for internalizing symptoms, are not well understood. Using repeated measures data spanning 3-years, this study investigated (1) the extent to which trajectories of parent and child stress are related during adolescence, and (2) whether co-occurring parent and child stress trajectories mediate prospective, bidirectional associations between parent depression symptoms and child internalizing symptoms (depression, physical and social anxiety). Participants included 618 parent-adolescent dyads (age 8-16; 57% girls; 89% mothers). Parent depressive symptoms and child symptoms of depression, social anxiety, and physical anxiety were assessed via self-report questionnaire at baseline and 36 months later. Parent and child stress were assessed via self-report questionnaire every three months between 3- and 33-months (11 total assessments). Latent growth curve model (LGCM) analysis found that parent and child stress trajectories were positively related across development. Prospective LGCM mediation analysis showed that higher youth stress at 3-months partially mediated prospective relations between parental depressive symptoms at baseline and youth depressive, as well as physical and social anxiety symptoms at 36-months. Parent and child stress reinforce each other across adolescence and may lead to increased risk for psychopathology. Increases in child stress represent an important factor conferring transdiagnostic risk for internalizing among children of depressed parents.

Perinatal Depression and Anxiety Symptoms, Parental Bonding and Dyadic Sensitivity in Mother-Baby Interactions at Three Months Post-Partum

The quality of the early parent-infant relationship is crucial for the child's optimal development, and parental sensitivity plays a key role in early interactions. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the influence of maternal perinatal depression and anxiety symptoms on dyadic sensitivity at three months post-partum, also considering a large set of maternal and infant variables. At the third trimester of pregnancy (T1) and at three months postpartum (T2), 43 primiparous women filled in a set of questionnaires evaluating symptoms of depression (CES-D) or anxiety (STAI), the woman's parental bonding experiences (PBI), alexithymia (TAS-20), maternal attachment to the baby (PAI, MPAS) and the perceived social support (MSPSS). At T2 mothers also completed a questionnaire on infant temperament and took part in the CARE-Index videotaped procedure. Dyadic sensitivity was predicted by higher maternal trait anxiety scores in pregnancy. In addition, the mother's experience of being cared for by her father in childhood was predictive of her infant's lower compulsivity, while paternal overprotection predicted higher unresponsiveness. The results highlight the influence of perinatal maternal psychological well-being and maternal childhood experiences on the quality of the dyadic relationship. The results may be useful to foster mother-child adjustment during the perinatal period.

Disentangling the multigenerational transmissions of socioeconomic disadvantages and mental health problems by gender and across lineages: Findings from the Stockholm Birth Cohort Multigenerational Study

There is a paucity of research examining the patterning of socioeconomic disadvantages and mental health problems across multiple generations. The current study therefore aimed to investigate the interconnected transmissions of socioeconomic disadvantages and mental health problems from grandparents to grandchildren through the parents, as well as the extent to which these transmissions differ according to lineage (i.e., through matrilineal/patrilineal descent) and grandchild gender. Drawing on the Stockholm Birth Cohort Multigenerational Study, the sample included 21,416 unique lineages by grandchild gender centered around cohort members born in 1953 (parental generation) as well as their children (grandchild generation) and their parents (grandparental generation). Based on local and national register data, socioeconomic disadvantages were operationalized as low income, and mental health problems as psychiatric disorders. A series of path models based on structural equation modelling were applied to estimate the associations between low income and psychiatric disorders across generations and for each lineage-gender combination. We found a multigenerational transmission of low income through the patriline to grandchildren. Psychiatric disorders were transmitted through both the patriline and matriline, but only to grandsons. The patriline-grandson transmission of psychiatric disorder partially operated via low income of the fathers. Furthermore, grandparents' psychiatric disorders influenced their children's and grandchildren's income. We conclude that there is evidence of transmissions of socioeconomic disadvantages and mental health problems across three generations, although these transmissions differ by lineage and grandchild gender. Our findings further highlight that grandparents' mental health problems could cast a long shadow on their children's and grandchildren's socioeconomic outcomes, and that socioeconomic disadvantages in the intermediate generation may play an important role for the multigenerational transmission of mental health problems.

Transactional Relations Between Peer Victimization and Depressive Symptoms Among Youth at Risk of Developing Depression: Evidence for Gender Differences

Offspring of mothers with a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) are at high risk of developing the disorder themselves, yet specific mechanisms of risk remain unclear. One hypothesized mechanism is interpersonal stress, which has been shown to be elevated in offspring of mothers with a history of MDD. The goal of this study was to examine the role of a specific form of interpersonal stress, peer victimization (overt and relational). In doing so, we not only examined the impact of peer victimization on changes in youth depression, but also youth depression on changes in peer victimization, consistent with stress generation models. Participants were 251 mothers with (n = 129) or without (n = 122) a history of MDD and their child (aged 8-14 years at baseline) who were assessed every six months for two years. Using random intercepts cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPM), we were able to separate between-subject effects (mother MDD group differences in average levels of peer victimization and offspring depressive symptoms) and within-subject effects (transactional influences between within-subject fluctuations in peer victimization and depressive symptoms among offspring over time). Overall, these effects were stronger for relational victimization than for overt victimization and stronger for girls than boys. These results support the role of peer victimization, particularly relational victimization, as a risk factor among offspring of mothers with MDD, particularly girls, and highlight transactional relations between relational victimization and depressive symptoms in girls over time, which may create a vicious cycle of risk.

Child Anxiety and Depression Symptom Trajectories and Predictors over 15 Months of the Coronavirus Pandemic

Repeated measures are required to monitor and map trajectories of mental health symptoms that are sensitive to the changing distal and proximal stressors throughout the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding symptoms in young children is particularly important given the short- and long-term implications of early-onset internalizing symptoms. This study utilized an intensive longitudinal approach to assess the course and environmental correlates of anxiety and depression symptoms in 133 children, ages 4-11 (Mage = 7.35, SD = 1.03), in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Caregivers completed 48 repeated assessments from April 7, 2020, to June 15, 2021, on child and caregiver mental health symptoms, family functioning, and COVID-19-related environmental changes. Results from a series of multilevel growth models demonstrate that child depression symptoms were highest following initial stay-at-home orders (April 2020) and linearly decreased over time, while child anxiety symptoms were variable over the 15-month period. Caregiver depression symptoms and family conflict significantly predicted levels of child depression symptoms. In contrast, caregiver depression symptoms, caregiver anxiety symptoms, and time spent home quarantining significantly predicted levels of child anxiety symptoms. Results suggest that depression and anxiety symptoms in young children may have unique trajectories over the course of the coronavirus pandemic and highlight symptom-specific risk factors for each symptom.

Reinforcement-based responsiveness, depression, and anhedonia: A multi-method investigation of intergenerational risk

Offspring of depressed parents are at an increased risk for depression. Reward- and punishment-based systems might be mechanisms linking maternal outcomes to offspring depression and anhedonia. The current study was designed to investigate the intergenerational relations between maternal markers of reward and punishment responsiveness and their offspring's depression and anhedonia in a community sample of 40 mother (mean age = 44.5; SD = 6.82) and adolescent (mean age = 14.73; SD = 1.25; 52.5% female) dyads. Maternal markers of reward and punishment responsiveness were captured using self-report, behavioral, and neurophysiological methods, and self-reported depression and anhedonia symptoms were used as outcomes among the adolescent offspring. Maternal self-reported reward responsiveness and punishment learning rates were differentially associated with depression across male and female offspring. Regarding anhedonia, maternal punishment learning rate was positively related to adolescent anhedonia regardless of offspring biological sex. Maternal reward learning rate was also positively associated with anhedonia among male offspring. In general, low concurrence across self-report, behavioral, and neurophysiological markers of reward and punishment responsiveness was found. The results from the current study suggest that learning-rates on reinforcement-based behavioral tasks may be important objective markers to consider when evaluating intergenerational risk.

Describing 24-hour movement behaviours among preconception and recently pregnant Canadian parents: who do we need to target?

This study aimed to describe adherence to 24-hour movement guidelines and determine factors associated with meeting guidelines in pregnancy planning and recently postpartum parents. A survey of preconception care attitudes and beliefs was conducted in Canadian adults who were pregnancy planning or ≤5 years postpartum. The Global Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to evaluate physical activity and sedentary time. Respondents reported the number of hours spent sleeping and using a screen per day. Multiple logistic regressions were run to determine factors (sociodemographic and health related) associated with meeting each individual movement guideline and number of guidelines met. 1080 females and 224 males provided survey data. 54.0% (n = 654) of the sample met the physical activity guideline, with no difference between females and males. More than 78.4% (n = 909) met the sedentary behavior guideline, 56.4% (n = 679) met the sleep guideline, and 15.4% (n = 187) met the screen time guideline. Only 5.0% (n = 60) of the sample met all four guidelines. Higher odds of meeting more guidelines were associated with parity and perceived health. Lower odds of meeting more guidelines were associated with obesity and overweight; and with depression. Most parents and parents-to-be are not meeting 24-hour movement guidelines. Interventions should focus on optimizing movement behaviors in the peri-partum period, while focusing on mental health, obesity, and general wellbeing.