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Kostin A, Alam MA, Saevskiy A, Alam MN. Chronic Astrocytic TNFα Production in the Preoptic-Basal Forebrain Causes Aging-like Sleep-Wake Disturbances in Young Mice. Cells 2024; 13:894. [PMID: 38891027 PMCID: PMC11171867 DOI: 10.3390/cells13110894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Sleep disruption is a frequent problem of advancing age, often accompanied by low-grade chronic central and peripheral inflammation. We examined whether chronic neuroinflammation in the preoptic and basal forebrain area (POA-BF), a critical sleep-wake regulatory structure, contributes to this disruption. We developed a targeted viral vector designed to overexpress tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), specifically in astrocytes (AAV5-GFAP-TNFα-mCherry), and injected it into the POA of young mice to induce heightened neuroinflammation within the POA-BF. Compared to the control (treated with AAV5-GFAP-mCherry), mice with astrocytic TNFα overproduction within the POA-BF exhibited signs of increased microglia activation, indicating a heightened local inflammatory milieu. These mice also exhibited aging-like changes in sleep-wake organization and physical performance, including (a) impaired sleep-wake functions characterized by disruptions in sleep and waking during light and dark phases, respectively, and a reduced ability to compensate for sleep loss; (b) dysfunctional VLPO sleep-active neurons, indicated by fewer neurons expressing c-fos after suvorexant-induced sleep; and (c) compromised physical performance as demonstrated by a decline in grip strength. These findings suggest that inflammation-induced dysfunction of sleep- and wake-regulatory mechanisms within the POA-BF may be a critical component of sleep-wake disturbances in aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Kostin
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Sepulveda, CA 91343, USA; (A.K.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Md. Aftab Alam
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Sepulveda, CA 91343, USA; (A.K.); (M.A.A.)
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90025, USA
| | - Anton Saevskiy
- Scientific Research and Technology Center for Neurotechnology, Southern Federal University, 344006 Rostov-on-Don, Russia;
| | - Md. Noor Alam
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Sepulveda, CA 91343, USA; (A.K.); (M.A.A.)
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90025, USA
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Green TRF, Carey SD, Mannino G, Craig JA, Rowe RK, Zielinski MR. Sleep, inflammation, and hemodynamics in rodent models of traumatic brain injury. Front Neurosci 2024; 18:1361014. [PMID: 38426017 PMCID: PMC10903352 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2024.1361014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can induce dysregulation of sleep. Sleep disturbances include hypersomnia and hyposomnia, sleep fragmentation, difficulty falling asleep, and altered electroencephalograms. TBI results in inflammation and altered hemodynamics, such as changes in blood brain barrier permeability and cerebral blood flow. Both inflammation and altered hemodynamics, which are known sleep regulators, contribute to sleep impairments post-TBI. TBIs are heterogenous in cause and biomechanics, which leads to different molecular and symptomatic outcomes. Animal models of TBI have been developed to model the heterogeneity of TBIs observed in the clinic. This review discusses the intricate relationship between sleep, inflammation, and hemodynamics in pre-clinical rodent models of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabitha R. F. Green
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Sean D. Carey
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, United States
| | - Grant Mannino
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - John A. Craig
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
| | - Rachel K. Rowe
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Mark R. Zielinski
- Veterans Affairs (VA) Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, United States
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Yamakawa G, Brady R, Sun M, McDonald S, Shultz S, Mychasiuk R. The interaction of the circadian and immune system: Desynchrony as a pathological outcome to traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms 2020; 9:100058. [PMID: 33364525 PMCID: PMC7752723 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbscr.2020.100058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex and costly worldwide phenomenon that can lead to many negative health outcomes including disrupted circadian function. There is a bidirectional relationship between the immune system and the circadian system, with mammalian coordination of physiological activities being controlled by the primary circadian pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. The SCN receives light information from the external environment and in turn synchronizes rhythms throughout the brain and body. The SCN is capable of endogenous self-sustained oscillatory activity through an intricate clock gene negative feedback loop. Following TBI, the response of the immune system can become prolonged and pathophysiological. This detrimental response not only occurs in the brain, but also within the periphery, where a leaky blood brain barrier can permit further infiltration of immune and inflammatory factors. The prolonged and pathological immune response that follows TBI can have deleterious effects on clock gene cycling and circadian function not only in the SCN, but also in other rhythmic areas throughout the body. This could bring about a state of circadian desynchrony where different rhythmic structures are no longer working together to promote optimal physiological function. There are many parallels between the negative symptomology associated with circadian desynchrony and TBI. This review discusses the significant contributions of an immune-disrupted circadian system on the negative symptomology following TBI. The implications of TBI symptomology as a disorder of circadian desynchrony are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G.R. Yamakawa
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - R.D. Brady
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - M. Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - S.J. McDonald
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - S.R. Shultz
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - R. Mychasiuk
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Zhang BJ, Shao SR, Aritake K, Takeuchi A, Urade Y, Huang ZL, Lazarus M, Qu WM. Interleukin-1β induces sleep independent of prostaglandin D 2 in rats and mice. Neuroscience 2017; 340:258-267. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.09.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Irwin MR, Opp MR. Sleep Health: Reciprocal Regulation of Sleep and Innate Immunity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:129-155. [PMID: 27510422 PMCID: PMC5143488 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Sleep disturbances including insomnia independently contribute to risk of inflammatory disorders and major depressive disorder. This review and overview provides an integrated understanding of the reciprocal relationships between sleep and the innate immune system and considers the role of sleep in the nocturnal regulation of the inflammatory biology dynamics; the impact of insomnia complaints, extremes of sleep duration, and experimental sleep deprivation on genomic, cellular, and systemic markers of inflammation; and the influence of sleep complaints and insomnia on inflammaging and molecular processes of cellular aging. Clinical implications of this research include discussion of the contribution of sleep disturbance to depression and especially inflammation-related depressive symptoms. Reciprocal action of inflammatory mediators on the homeostatic regulation of sleep continuity and sleep macrostructure, and the potential of interventions that target insomnia to reverse inflammation, are also reviewed. Together, interactions between sleep and inflammatory biology mechanisms underscore the implications of sleep disturbance for inflammatory disease risk, and provide a map to guide the development of treatments that modulate inflammation, improve sleep, and promote sleep health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Irwin
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience Director and Mindful Awareness Research Center, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mark R Opp
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Huang TR, Jou SB, Chou YJ, Yi PL, Chen CJ, Chang FC. Interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) mediates epilepsy-induced sleep disruption. BMC Neurosci 2016; 17:74. [PMID: 27875989 PMCID: PMC5120515 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-016-0309-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sleep disruptions are common in epilepsy patients. Our previous study demonstrates that homeostatic factors and circadian rhythm may mediate epilepsy-induced sleep disturbances when epilepsy occurs at different zeitgeber hours. The proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1 (IL-1), is a somnogenic cytokine and may also be involved in epileptogenesis; however, few studies emphasize the effect of IL-1 in epilepsy-induced sleep disruption. We herein hypothesized that IL-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1) mediates the pathogenesis of epilepsy and epilepsy-induced sleep disturbances. We determined the role of IL-1R1 by using IL-1R1 knockout (IL-1R1 −/− KO) mice. Results Our results elucidated the decrease of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep during the light period in IL-1R −/− mice and confirmed the somnogenic role of IL-1R1. Rapid electrical amygdala kindling was performed to induce epilepsy at the particular zeitgeber time (ZT) point, ZT13. Our results demonstrated that seizure thresholds induced by kindling stimuli, such as the after-discharge threshold and successful kindling rates, were not altered in IL-1R −/− mice when compared to those obtained from the wildtype mice (IL-1R +/+ mice). This result suggests that IL-1R1 is not involved in kindling-induced epileptogenesis. During sleep, ZT13 kindling stimulation significantly enhanced NREM sleep during the subsequent 6 h (ZT13-18) in wildtype mice, and sleep returned to the baseline the following day. However, the kindling-induced sleep alteration was absent in the IL-1R −/− KO mice. Conclusions These results indicate that the IL-1 signal mediates epilepsy-induced sleep disturbance, but dose not participate in kindling-induced epileptogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Rung Huang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4., Roosevelt Road, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Shuo-Bin Jou
- Department of Neurology, Mackay Memorial Hospital and Mackay Medical College, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ju Chou
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4., Roosevelt Road, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Lu Yi
- Department of Sport Management, College of Tourism, Leisure and Sports, Aletheia University, New Taipei City, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Jen Chen
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Fang-Chia Chang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4., Roosevelt Road, Taipei, 106, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.
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Ingiosi AM, Opp MR. Sleep and immunomodulatory responses to systemic lipopolysaccharide in mice selectively expressing interleukin-1 receptor 1 on neurons or astrocytes. Glia 2016; 64:780-91. [PMID: 26775112 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Sleep-wake behavior is altered in response to immune challenge. Although the precise mechanisms that govern sickness-induced changes in sleep are not fully understood, interleukin-1β (IL-1) is one mediator of these responses. To better understand mechanisms underlying sleep and inflammatory responses to immune challenge, we used two transgenic mouse strains that express IL-1 receptor 1 (IL1R1) only in the central nervous system and selectively on neurons or astrocytes. Electroencephalographic recordings from transgenic and wild-type mice reveal that systemic challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) fragments sleep, suppresses rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), increases non-REMS (NREMS), diminishes NREM delta power, and induces fever in all genotypes. However, the magnitude of REMS suppression is greater in mice expressing IL1R1 on astrocytes compared with mice in which IL1R1 is selectively expressed on neurons. Furthermore, there is a delayed increase in NREM delta power when IL1R1 is expressed on astrocytes. LPS-induced sleep fragmentation is reduced in mice expressing IL1R1 on neurons. Although LPS increases IL-1 and IL-6 in brain of all genotypes, this response is attenuated when IL1R1 is expressed selectively on neurons or on astrocytes. Collectively, these data suggest that in these transgenic mice under the conditions of this study it is neuronal IL1R1 that plays a greater role in LPS-induced suppression of REMS and NREM delta power, whereas astroglial IL1R1 is more important for sleep fragmentation after this immune challenge. Thus, aspects of central responses to LPS are modulated by IL1R1 in a cell type-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Ingiosi
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Mark R Opp
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Suppression of Locomotor Activity in Female C57Bl/6J Mice Treated with Interleukin-1β: Investigating a Method for the Study of Fatigue in Laboratory Animals. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140678. [PMID: 26469939 PMCID: PMC4607158 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatigue is a disabling symptom in patients with multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s Disease, and is also common in patients with traumatic brain injury, cancer, and inflammatory disorders. Little is known about the neurobiology of fatigue, in part due to the lack of an approach to induce fatigue in laboratory animals. Fatigue is a common response to systemic challenge by pathogens, a response in part mediated through action of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). We investigated the behavioral responses of mice to IL-1β. Female C57Bl/6J mice of 3 ages were administered IL-1β at various doses i.p. Interleukin-1β reduced locomotor activity, and sensitivity increased with age. Further experiments were conducted with middle-aged females. Centrally administered IL-1β dose-dependently reduced locomotor activity. Using doses of IL-1β that caused suppression of locomotor activity, we measured minimal signs of sickness, such as hyperthermia, pain or anhedonia (as measured with abdominal temperature probes, pre-treatment with the analgesic buprenorphine and through sucrose preference, respectively), all of which are responses commonly reported with higher doses. We found that middle-aged orexin-/- mice showed equivalent effects of IL-1β on locomotor activity as seen in wild-type controls, suggesting that orexins are not necessary for IL-1β -induced reductions in wheel-running. Given that the availability and success of therapeutic treatments for fatigue is currently limited, we examined the effectiveness of two potential clinical treatments, modafinil and methylphenidate. We found that these treatments were variably successful in restoring locomotor activity after IL-1β administration. This provides one step toward development of a satisfactory animal model of the multidimensional experience of fatigue, a model that could allow us to determine possible pathways through which inflammation induces fatigue, and could lead to novel treatments for reversal of fatigue.
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Lim MM, Szymusiak R. Neurobiology of Arousal and Sleep: Updates and Insights Into Neurological Disorders. CURRENT SLEEP MEDICINE REPORTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40675-015-0013-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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10
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Alam MA, Kumar S, McGinty D, Alam MN, Szymusiak R. Neuronal activity in the preoptic hypothalamus during sleep deprivation and recovery sleep. J Neurophysiol 2014; 111:287-99. [PMID: 24174649 PMCID: PMC3921380 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00504.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The preoptic hypothalamus is implicated in sleep regulation. Neurons in the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) and the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) have been identified as potential sleep regulatory elements. However, the extent to which MnPO and VLPO neurons are activated in response to changing homeostatic sleep regulatory demands is unresolved. To address this question, we continuously recorded the extracellular activity of neurons in the rat MnPO, VLPO and dorsal lateral preoptic area (LPO) during baseline sleep and waking, during 2 h of sleep deprivation (SD) and during 2 h of recovery sleep (RS). Sleep-active neurons in the MnPO (n = 11) and VLPO (n = 13) were activated in response to SD, such that waking discharge rates increased by 95.8 ± 29.5% and 59.4 ± 17.3%, respectively, above waking baseline values. During RS, non-rapid eye movement (REM) sleep discharge rates of MnPO neurons initially increased to 65.6 ± 15.2% above baseline values, then declined to baseline levels in association with decreases in EEG delta power. Increase in non-REM sleep discharge rates in VLPO neurons during RS averaged 40.5 ± 7.6% above baseline. REM-active neurons (n = 16) in the LPO also exhibited increased waking discharge during SD and an increase in non-REM discharge during RS. Infusion of A2A adenosine receptor antagonist into the VLPO attenuated SD-induced increases in neuronal discharge. Populations of LPO wake/REM-active and state-indifferent neurons and dorsal LPO sleep-active neurons were unresponsive to SD. These findings support the hypothesis that sleep-active neurons in the MnPO and VLPO, and REM-active neurons in the LPO, are components of neuronal circuits that mediate homeostatic responses to sustained wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Aftab Alam
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California
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Ballesteros-Zebadua P, Custodio V, Franco-Perez J, Rubio C, González E, Trejo C, Celis MA, Paz C. Whole-brain irradiation increases NREM sleep and hypothalamic expression of IL-1β in rats. Int J Radiat Biol 2013; 90:142-8. [DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2014.859767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Kumar S, Rai S, Hsieh KC, McGinty D, Alam MN, Szymusiak R. Adenosine A(2A) receptors regulate the activity of sleep regulatory GABAergic neurons in the preoptic hypothalamus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2013; 305:R31-41. [PMID: 23637137 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00402.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The median preoptic nucleus (MnPN) and the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) are two hypothalamic regions that have been implicated in sleep regulation, and both nuclei contain sleep-active GABAergic neurons. Adenosine is an endogenous sleep regulatory substance, which promotes sleep via A1 and A2A receptors (A2AR). Infusion of A2AR agonist into the lateral ventricle or into the subarachnoid space underlying the rostral basal forebrain (SS-rBF), has been previously shown to increase sleep. We examined the effects of an A2AR agonist, CGS-21680, administered into the lateral ventricle and the SS-rBF on sleep and c-Fos protein immunoreactivity (Fos-IR) in GABAergic neurons in the MnPN and VLPO. Intracerebroventricular administration of CGS-21680 during the second half of lights-on phase increased sleep and increased the number of MnPN and VLPO GABAergic neurons expressing Fos-IR. Similar effects were found with CGS-21680 microinjection into the SS-rBF. The induction of Fos-IR in preoptic GABAergic neurons was not secondary to drug-induced sleep, since CGS-21680 delivered to the SS-rBF significantly increased Fos-IR in MnPN and VLPO neurons in animals that were not permitted to sleep. Intracerebroventricular infusion of ZM-241385, an A2AR antagonist, during the last 2 h of a 3-h period of sleep deprivation caused suppression of subsequent recovery sleep and reduced Fos-IR in MnPN and VLPO GABAergic neurons. Our findings support a hypothesis that A2AR-mediated activation of MnPN and VLPO GABAergic neurons contributes to adenosinergic regulation of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar
- Research Service, Veteran Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Sepulveda, CA, USA
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14
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GABAergic processes within the median preoptic nucleus promote NREM sleep. Behav Brain Res 2012; 232:60-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Schmidt MA, Wisor JP. Interleukin 1 receptor contributes to methamphetamine- and sleep deprivation-induced hypersomnolence. Neurosci Lett 2012; 513:209-13. [PMID: 22387068 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine-induced wakefulness is dependent on monoamine transporter blockade. Subsequent to methamphetamine-induced wakefulness, the amount of time spent asleep and the depth of sleep are increased relative to baseline sleep. The mechanisms that drive methamphetamine-induced hypersomnolence are not fully understood. We recently observed that methamphetamine exposure elevates the expression of the sleep-promoting cytokine, interleukin-1β in CD11b-positive monocytes within the brain. Here, we sought to determine whether activation of the interleukin 1 receptor (IL1R) drives the increase in the depth and amount of sleep that occurs subsequent to methamphetamine-induced wakefulness. IL1R-deficient mice and wild type control mice were subjected to systemic methamphetamine (1 and 2mg/kg) and saline treatments. The wake-promoting effect of methamphetamine was modestly potentiated by IL1R-deficiency. Additionally, the increase in time spent in NREMS subsequent to methamphetamine-induced wakefulness in wild type mice was abolished in IL1R-deficient mice. The increase in time spent asleep after 3h of behaviorally enforced wakefulness was also abolished in IL1R-deficient mice. Increases in EEG slow wave activity triggered by methamphetamine and sleep deprivation were of equal magnitude in IL1R-deficient and wild type mice. These data demonstrate that IL1R activation contributes to hypersomnolence that occurs after sleep loss, whether that sleep loss is triggered pharmacologically by methamphetamine or through behavioral sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Schmidt
- WWAMI Medical Education Program and Department of Veterinary Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, United States
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Methippara M, Mitrani B, Schrader FX, Szymusiak R, McGinty D. Salubrinal, an endoplasmic reticulum stress blocker, modulates sleep homeostasis and activation of sleep- and wake-regulatory neurons. Neuroscience 2012; 209:108-18. [PMID: 22387272 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been associated with the regulation of sleep and wake. We have previously shown that i.c.v. administration of a specific ER stress modulator, Salubrinal (SALUB), which inhibits global protein translation by blocking the dephosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (p-eIF2α), increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Here we report on the relationship between ER stress response and sleep homeostasis by measuring the amount and intensity of homeostatic recovery sleep in response to the i.c.v. administration of SALUB in adult freely behaving rats. We have also tested the hypothesis that SALUB induces sleep by activating sleep-promoting neurons and inhibiting wake-promoting neurons in the basal forebrain (BF) and hypothalamus by quantifying the effects of SALUB treatment on c-Fos expression in those neuronal groups. The present study found that i.c.v. administration of SALUB significantly modified the homeostatic sleep response. SALUB administered during sleep deprivation increased sleep intensity, indicated by slow-wave activity (SWA), during recovery sleep, whereas its administration during recovery sleep increased the amount of recovery sleep. We also found that SALUB induced c-Fos activation of GABAergic neurons in the sleep-promoting rostral median preoptic nucleus while simultaneously reducing c-Fos activation of wake-promoting lateral hypothalamic orexin-expressing neurons and magnocellular BF cholinergic neurons. The current findings suggest that ER stress pathway plays a role in the homeostatic control of NREM sleep in response to sleep deprivation and provides a mechanistic explanation for the sleep modulation by molecules signaling the need for brain protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Methippara
- Department of Psychology, UCLA, 405 Hilgard, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Wisor JP, Clegern WC, Schmidt MA. Toll-like receptor 4 is a regulator of monocyte and electroencephalographic responses to sleep loss. Sleep 2011; 34:1335-45. [PMID: 21966065 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Sleep loss triggers changes in inflammatory signaling pathways in the brain and periphery. The mechanisms that underlie these changes are ill-defined. The Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activates inflammatory signaling cascades in response to endogenous and pathogen-associated ligands known to be elevated in association with sleep loss. TLR4 is therefore a possible mediator of some of the inflammation-related effects of sleep loss. Here we describe the baseline electroencephalographic sleep phenotype and the biochemical and electroencephalographic responses to sleep loss in TLR4-deficient mice. DESIGN, MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS TLR4-deficient mice and wild type controls were subjected to electroencephalographic and electromyographic recordings during spontaneous sleep/wake cycles and during and after sleep restriction sessions of 3, 6, and 24-h duration, during which sleep was disrupted by an automated sleep restriction system. Relative to wild type control mice, TLR4-deficient mice exhibited an increase in the duration of the primary daily waking bout occurring at dark onset in a light/dark cycle. The amount of time spent in non-rapid eye movement sleep by TLR4-deficient mice was reduced in proportion to increased wakefulness in the hours immediately after dark onset. Subsequent to sleep restriction, EEG measures of increased sleep drive were attenuated in TLR4-deficient mice relative to wild-type mice. TLR4 was enriched 10-fold in brain cells positive for the cell surface marker CD11b (cells of the monocyte lineage) relative to CD11b-negative cells in wild type mouse brains. To assess whether this population was affected selectively by TLR4 knockout, flow cytometry was used to count F4/80- and CD45-positive cells in the brains of sleep deprived and time of day control mice. While wild-type mice exhibited a significant reduction in the number of CD11b-positive cells in the brain after 24-h sleep restriction, TLR4-deficient mice did not. CONCLUSION These data demonstrate that innate immune signaling pathways active in the monocyte lineage, including presumably microglia, detect and mediate in part the cerebral reaction to sleep loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Wisor
- Department of Veterinary Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99210-1945, USA.
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Arias-Carrión O, Huitrón-Reséndiz S, Arankowsky-Sandoval G, Murillo-Rodríguez E. Biochemical modulation of the sleep-wake cycle: Endogenous sleep-inducing factors. J Neurosci Res 2011; 89:1143-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Revised: 03/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Kumar S, Alam MN, Rai S, Bashir T, McGinty D, Szymusiak R. Central nervous system sites of the sleep promoting effects of eszopiclone in rats. Neuroscience 2011; 181:67-78. [PMID: 21382446 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Revised: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effects of eszopiclone (ESZ), a GABA-A receptor agonist in current clinical use as a hypnotic medication, on the activity of subcortical wake- and sleep-active neuronal populations in the rat brain. Sleep-wake states were quantified after i.p. injections of ESZ (3 and 10 mg/kg) or vehicle administered early in the dark phase, when rats are spontaneously awake. Rats were euthanized 2 h post-injection and brain tissue was processed for c-Fos protein immunoreactivity (IR) and for neurotransmitter markers. ESZ at 3 and 10 mg/kg increased time spent in non-rapid-eye-movement (nonREM) sleep, but had no significant effect on Fos-IR in GABAergic neurons in the preoptic hypothalamus that normally express c-Fos during sleep. Among wake-active cell types examined, Fos-IR in hypocretin (HCRT) neurons in the perifornical lateral hypothalamus (LH) was reduced following 3 and 10 mg/kg ESZ. At 10 mg/kg, ESZ suppressed Fos-IR in cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and in serotonergic and nonserotonegic neurons in the dorsal raphe. Having determined that HCRT neurons were responsive to the low dose of systemic ESZ, we unilaterally perfused ESZ directly into the LH of awake rats, using reverse microdialysis. Perfusion of ESZ at 50 μM into the LH for 2 h suppressed waking-related Fos-IR in HCRT neurons, but not in nonHCRT neurons ipsilateral to the dialysis probe. Bilateral LH perfusion of ESZ at 50 μM for 2 h early in the dark phase significantly increased sleep. These findings demonstrate that sleep induction by ESZ does not require activation of GABAergic sleep-regulatory neurons in the preoptic hypothalamus, and identify suppression of HCRT neurons in the LH and suppression of basal forebrain and dorsal raphe neurons as potential mechanisms underlying the sleep-promoting effects of ESZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kumar
- Research Service, V. A. Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Regions of the neocortex most strongly activated during waking exhibit increased sleep intensity during subsequent sleep. The novel concept that aspects of sleep homeostasis are determined locally in the cortex contrasts with the established views that global changes in neocortical activity during sleep are achieved through inhibition of ascending arousal systems that originate in the brainstem and hypothalamus. RECENT FINDINGS Experiments in animals and humans document asymmetries in neocortical electroencephalogram (EEG) slow-wave activity (SWA), a marker of homeostatic sleep need, as a result of functional activity during waking. In addition to local, use-dependent augmentation of EEG SWA and evoked potentials, expression of plasticity-related genes and of sleep-regulatory cytokines and neuromodulators have been shown to be elevated in a use-dependent manner in neocortex. The functional consequences of local sleep are hypothesized to involve regulation of synaptic plasticity, synaptic homeostasis and energy balance. SUMMARY The evidence for use-dependent modulation of neocortical activity during sleep is compelling and provides novel insights into sleep function. However, local changes in neocortex are generally expressed on a background of global sleep. It remains to be determined if events initiated in the cortex have global sleep-promoting effects and how neocortical and hypothalamic mechanisms of sleep control interact.
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Joo EY, Hong SB, Sohn YB, Kwak MJ, Kim SJ, Choi YO, Kim SW, Paik KH, Jin DK. Plasma adiponectin level and sleep structures in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Sleep Res 2009; 19:248-54. [PMID: 19912511 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2869.2009.00786.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Adiponectin, an adipose tissue-derived hormone, has been negatively related to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Besides sleep apnea, children with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) may have excessive daytime sleepiness and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep abnormality. The aim of this study is to determine whether changes in sleep structures are related to plasma adiponectin levels in PWS. Correlations between adiponectin level and sleep variables were analyzed in 28 children with PWS and 18 controls. Overnight polysomnography was performed. The fasting plasma adiponectin levels were higher in the children with PWS than in the controls (P = 0.0006). In the PWS, Epworth sleepiness scale was significantly higher (P = 0.002); sleep latency (P = 0.003) and REM latency (P = 0.001) were significantly shortened; the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) was significantly increased (P = 0.0001); and the duration of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep stages 3 and 4 was decreased (P = 0.005). Multiple regression analysis revealed correlations between the adiponectin level and the total sleep time (beta = 0.688, P = 0.009), AHI (beta = 1.274, P = 0.010), REM latency (beta = -0.637, P = 0.021) and the percentage of NREM sleep (beta = -7.648, P = 0.002) in PWS. In children with PWS, higher plasma adiponectin levels were independently associated with several sleep variables, which was not observed in the control group. These results suggest a potential influence of elevated adiponectin level on the sleep structures in PWS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Yeon Joo
- Department of Neurology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 50 Il-Won Dong, Seoul, Korea
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Abstract
The brain uses a variety of mechanisms to survey the immune system constantly. Responses of the immune system to invading pathogens are detected by the central nervous system, which responds by orchestrating complex changes in behavior and physiology. Sleep is one of the behaviors altered in response to immune challenge. The role of cytokines as mediators of responses to infectious challenge and regulators and modulators of sleep is the focus of this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Opp
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0615, USA.
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Torterolo P, Benedetto L, Lagos P, Sampogna S, Chase MH. State-dependent pattern of Fos protein expression in regionally-specific sites within the preoptic area of the cat. Brain Res 2009; 1267:44-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2008] [Revised: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Good sleep is necessary for physical and mental health. For example, sleep loss impairs immune function, and sleep is altered during infection. Immune signalling molecules are present in the healthy brain, where they interact with neurochemical systems to contribute to the regulation of normal sleep. Animal studies have shown that interactions between immune signalling molecules (such as the cytokine interleukin 1) and brain neurochemical systems (such as the serotonin system) are amplified during infection, indicating that these interactions might underlie the changes in sleep that occur during infection. Why should the immune system cause us to sleep differently when we are sick? We propose that the alterations in sleep architecture during infection are exquisitely tailored to support the generation of fever, which in turn imparts survival value.
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Paredes SD, Marchena AM, Bejarano I, Espino J, Barriga C, Rial RV, Reiter RJ, Rodríguez AB. Melatonin and tryptophan affect the activity-rest rhythm, core and peripheral temperatures, and interleukin levels in the ringdove: changes with age. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2009; 64:340-50. [PMID: 19211547 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/gln054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is known to alter the circadian rhythms of melatonin, serotonin, thermoregulatory responses, cytokine production, and sleep/wakefulness which affect sleep quality. We tested the possible palliative effects of a 3-day administration of melatonin (0.25 or 2.5 mg/kg of body weight [b.w.] to young and old ringdoves, respectively) or tryptophan (300 mg/kg of b.w. to old ringdoves) on these rhythms. Doves are a monophasic, diurnal species; these characteristics are similar in humans. Old animals presented lower melatonin and serotonin levels; higher interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha values; and reductions in the Midline-Estimating Statistic of Rhythm and amplitude of activity-rest rhythm and in the amplitude of the core temperature rhythm. Melatonin raised serum melatonin levels; tryptophan increased both melatonin and serotonin levels. Melatonin and tryptophan lowered nocturnal activity, core temperature, and cytokine levels and increased peripheral temperature in both groups. Melatonin or tryptophan may limit or reverse some of the changes that occur in sleep-wake rhythms and temperature due to age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio D Paredes
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas, s/n, 06071, Badajoz, Spain.
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Olivadoti MD, Opp MR. Effects of i.c.v. administration of interleukin-1 on sleep and body temperature of interleukin-6-deficient mice. Neuroscience 2008; 153:338-48. [PMID: 18367337 PMCID: PMC2396575 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines in brain contribute to the regulation of physiological processes and complex behavior, including sleep. The cytokines that have been most extensively studied with respect to sleep are interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, and IL-6. Administration of these cytokines into laboratory animals, or in some cases into healthy human volunteers, increases the amount of time spent in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Although antagonizing the IL-1 or TNF systems reduces the amount of time laboratory animals spend in NREM sleep, interactions among these three cytokine systems as they pertain to the regulation of physiological NREM sleep are not well understood. To further elucidate mechanisms in brain by which IL-1beta, TNFalpha, and/or IL-6 contribute to NREM sleep regulation, we injected recombinant murine interleukin-1beta (muIL-1beta) into C57BL/6J mice and into IL-6-deficient mice (IL-6 knockout, KO). IL-6 KO (B6.129S6-Il6(tm1Kopf); n=13) and C57BL/6J mice (n=14) were implanted with telemeters to record the electroencephalogram (EEG) and core body temperature, as well as with indwelling guide cannulae targeted to one of the lateral ventricles. After recovery and habituation, mice were injected intracerebroventricularly just prior to dark onset on different days with either 0.5 microl vehicle (pyrogen-free saline; PFS) or with 0.5 microl PFS containing one of four doses of muIL-1beta (2.5 ng, 5 ng, 10 ng, 50 ng). No mouse received more than two doses of muIL-1beta, and administration of muIL-1beta doses was counter-balanced to eliminate potential order effects. Sleep-wake behavior was determined for 24 h after injections. i.c.v. administration of muIL-1beta increased in NREM sleep of both mouse strains in a dose-related fashion, but the maximal increase was of greater magnitude in C57Bl/6J mice. muIL-1beta induced fever in C57Bl/6J mice but not in IL-6 KO mice. Collectively, these data demonstrate IL-6 is necessary for IL-1 to induce fever, but IL-6 is not necessary for IL-1 to alter NREM sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark R. Opp
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
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Brambilla D, Franciosi S, Opp MR, Imeri L. Interleukin-1 inhibits firing of serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus and enhances GABAergic inhibitory post-synaptic potentials. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 26:1862-9. [PMID: 17868373 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05796.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In vitro electrophysiological data suggest that interleukin-1 may promote non-rapid eye movement sleep by inhibiting spontaneous firing of wake-active serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). Interleukin-1 enhances GABA inhibitory effects. DRN neurons are under an inhibitory GABAergic control. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that interleukin-1 inhibits DRN serotonergic neurons by potentiating GABAergic inhibitory effects. In vitro intracellular recordings were performed to assess the responses of physiologically and pharmacologically identified DRN serotonergic neurons to rat recombinant interleukin-1beta. Coronal slices containing DRN were obtained from male Sprague-Dawley rats. The impact of interleukin-1 on firing rate and on evoked post-synaptic potentials was determined. Evoked post-synaptic potentials were induced by stimulation with a bipolar electrode placed on the surface of the slice ventrolateral to DRN. Addition of interleukin-1 (25 ng/mL) to the bath perfusate significantly decreased firing rates of DRN serotonergic neurons from 1.3 +/- 0.2 Hz (before administration) to 0.7 +/- 0.2 Hz. Electrical stimulation induced depolarizing evoked post-synaptic potentials in DRN serotonergic neurons. The application of glutamatergic and GABAergic antagonists unmasked two different post-synaptic potential components: a GABAergic evoked inhibitory post-synaptic potentials and a glutamatergic evoked excitatory post-synaptic potentials, respectively. Interleukin-1 increased GABAergic evoked inhibitory post-synaptic potentials amplitudes by 30.3 +/- 3.8% (n = 6) without affecting glutamatergic evoked excitatory post-synaptic potentials. These results support the hypothesis that interleukin-1 inhibitory effects on DRN serotonergic neurons are mediated by an interleukin-1-induced potentiation of evoked GABAergic inhibitory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Brambilla
- Institute of Human Physiology II, Guiseppe Moruzzi Center for Experimental Sleep Research, University of Milan Medical School, Via Mangiagalli, 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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Abstract
A sleep-promoting function for the rostral hypothalamus was initially inferred from the presence of chronic insomnia following damage to this brain region. Subsequently, it was determined that a unique feature of the preoptic hypothalamus and adjacent basal forebrain is the presence of neurons that are activated during sleep compared to waking. Preoptic area "sleep-active" neurons have been identified by single and multiple-unit recordings and by the presence of the protein product of the c-Fos gene in the neurons of sleeping animals. Sleep-active neurons are located in several subregions of the preoptic area, occurring with high density in the ventrolateral preoptic area (vlPOA) and the median preoptic nucleus (MnPN). Neurons in the vlPOA contain the inhibitory neuromodulator, galanin, and the inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA. A majority of MnPN neurons activated during sleep contain GABA. Anatomical tracer studies reveal projections from the vlPOA and MnPN to multiple arousal-regulatory systems in the posterior and lateral hypothalamus and the rostral brainstem. Cumulative evidence indicates that preoptic area neurons function to promote sleep onset and sleep maintenance by inhibitory modulation of multiple arousal systems. Recent studies suggest a role for preoptic area neurons in the homeostatic aspects of the regulation of both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep and as a potential target for endogenous somnongens, such as cytokines and adenosine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Szymusiak
- Research Service, V.A. Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, 16111 Plummer Street, North Hills, CA 91343, USA.
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Gvilia I, Xu F, McGinty D, Szymusiak R. Homeostatic regulation of sleep: a role for preoptic area neurons. J Neurosci 2006; 26:9426-33. [PMID: 16971526 PMCID: PMC6674606 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2012-06.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The median preoptic nucleus (MnPN) and the ventrolateral preoptic area (vlPOA) contain putative sleep-regulatory neurons that exhibit elevated discharge rates during sleep compared with waking. Expression of c-Fos protein immunoreactivity (IR) in GABAergic neurons in the MnPN and the vlPOA is high in spontaneously sleeping rats and in rats undergoing recovery sleep after sleep deprivation. However, it is unclear whether c-Fos-IR in these neurons is evoked by increases in sleep pressure or by increases in sleep amount. We examined c-Fos-IR in MnPN and vlPOA neurons under experimental conditions that dissociated homeostatic sleep pressure, sleep amount, and time of day. Groups of rats with strong diurnal rhythms in sleep-wake organization were killed after (1) spontaneous sleep in the light, (2) spontaneous sleep in the dark, (3) sleep deprivation (SLD) in the light and (4) recovery sleep after SLD in the light. Numbers of GABAergic neurons expressing c-Fos-IR in the MnPN were significantly higher after SLD in the light compared with spontaneous sleep and recovery sleep in the light. In contrast, Fos-IR in vlPOA GABAergic neurons was most prevalent after spontaneous sleep and recovery sleep in the light. No light-dark differences in Fos-IR were observed in the MnPN after SLD in groups of rats with weak or absent diurnal sleep-waking rhythms. Our findings define potential roles for MnPN and vlPOA GABAergic neurons in homeostatic aspects of sleep regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma Gvilia
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California 91343
- Departments of Medicine and
- I. Beritashvili Institute of Physiology, Tbilisi 0160, Georgia
| | - Feng Xu
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California 91343
| | - Dennis McGinty
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California 91343
- Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, and
| | - Ronald Szymusiak
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California 91343
- Departments of Medicine and
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Abstract
Personal experience indicates we sleep differently when sick. Data reviewed demonstrate the extent to which sleep is altered during the course of infection of host organisms by several classes of pathogens. One important unanswered question is whether or not the alterations in sleep during infection are of functional relevance. That is, does the way we sleep when sick facilitate or impede recovery? One retrospective, preclinical study suggests that sleep changes during infection are of functional relevance. Toth and colleagues [102] analyzed sleep responses of rabbits to three different microbial infections. Those rabbits that exhibited robust increases in NREM sleep were more likely to survive than those that exhibited long periods of NREM sleep suppression. These tantalizing data suggest that the precise alterations in sleep through the course of infection are important determinants of morbidity and mortality. Data from healthy subjects demonstrate a role for at least two cytokines in the regulation of spontaneous, physiologic NREM sleep. A second critical yet unanswered question is whether or not cytokines mediate infection-induced alterations in sleep. The hypothesis that cytokines mediate infection-induced alterations in sleep is logical based on observations of the impact of infection on levels of cytokines in the peripheral immune system and in the brain. No attempts have been made to intervene with cytokine systems in brain during the course of infection to determine if there is an impact on infection-induced alterations in sleep. Although substantial progress has been made in elucidating the myriad mechanisms by which cytokines regulate and modulate sleep, much remains to be determined with respect to mechanistic and functional aspects of infection-induced alterations in sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Opp
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0615, USA.
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Dumont FJ. The interleukin-1 families of cytokines and receptors: therapeutic potential for immunomodulation and the treatment of inflammatory disorders. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2006. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.16.7.879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Tamakawa Y, Karashima A, Koyama Y, Katayama N, Nakao M. A quartet neural system model orchestrating sleep and wakefulness mechanisms. J Neurophysiol 2005; 95:2055-69. [PMID: 16282204 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00575.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological knowledge of the neural mechanisms regulating sleep and wakefulness has been advanced by the recent findings concerning sleep/wakefulness-related preoptic/anterior hypothalamic and perifornical (orexin-containing)/posterior hypothalamic neurons. In this paper, we propose a mathematical model of the mechanisms orchestrating a quartet neural system of sleep and wakefulness composed of the following: 1) sleep-active preoptic/anterior hypothalamic neurons (N-R group); 2) wake-active hypothalamic and brain stem neurons exhibiting the highest rate of discharge during wakefulness and the lowest rate of discharge during paradoxical or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (WA group); 3) brain stem neurons exhibiting the highest rate of discharge during REM sleep (REM group); and 4) basal forebrain, hypothalamic, and brain stem neurons exhibiting a higher rate of discharge during both wakefulness and REM sleep than during nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep (W-R group). The WA neurons have mutual inhibitory couplings with the REM and N-R neurons. The W-R neurons have mutual excitatory couplings with the WA and REM neurons. The REM neurons receive unidirectional inhibition from the N-R neurons. In addition, the N-R neurons are activated by two types of sleep-promoting substances (SPS), which play different roles in the homeostatic regulation of sleep and wakefulness. The model well reproduces the actual sleep and wakefulness patterns of rats in addition to the sleep-related neuronal activities across state transitions. In addition, human sleep-wakefulness rhythms can be simulated by manipulating only a few model parameters: inhibitions from the N-R neurons to the REM and WA neurons are enhanced, and circadian regulation of the N-R and WA neurons is exaggerated. Our model could provide a novel framework for the quantitative understanding of the mechanisms regulating sleep and wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Tamakawa
- Graduate School of Information Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Cytokines are mediators of immune system responses with multiple biologic actions on several target tissues. Over the past two decades, research has explored the interactions between cytokines and sleep mechanisms of the brain. This short review highlights selected findings that have advanced our understanding of the relation between cytokines and sleep. RECENT FINDINGS A complex network of cytokines and their receptors exists in brain. Cytokines may either promote or inhibit sleep. Of cytokines studied thus far, evidence indicates that interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement sleep. Their sites of action for regulating such sleep likely include the hypothalamic preoptic area and the basal forebrain. Mechanisms of action include direct receptor-mediated effects on neurons and the synthesis and release of numerous transmitters, peptides, and hormones that lead to subsequent changes in sleep. Among others, the cascade of responses induced by cytokines that may lead to subsequent alterations in sleep includes alterations in nitric oxide synthesis and effects on neurohormonal systems such as growth hormone releasing hormone. The activation by cytokines of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis also influences sleep. Studies suggest that there is a significant overlap between neurohormonal systems such as the somatotropic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes and cytokines, particularly with regard to their effects on sleep-wake regulation. SUMMARY There is increasing evidence of a role for cytokines in regulating spontaneous non-rapid eye movement sleep. The somatotropic hormonal system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis mediate, in part, the effects of cytokines on sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fotis Kapsimalis
- Department of Pulmonology, Sleep Laboratory, Henry Dunant Hospital, Athens, Greece
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