IL4 receptor ILR4α regulates metastatic colonization by mammary tumors through multiple signaling pathways

Roles of IL-4, IL-13, and Their Receptors in Lung Cancer

Interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 are the main effectors of innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) of the type 2 innate immune response, which can carry out specific signal transmission between multiple cells in the tumor immune microenvironment. IL-4 and IL-13 mediate signal transduction and regulate cellular functions in a variety of solid tumors through their shared receptor chain, the transmembrane heterodimer interleukin-4 receptor alpha/interleukin-13 receptor alpha-1 (type II IL-4 receptor). IL-4, IL-13, and their receptors can induce the formation of a variety of malignant tumors and play an important role in their progression, growth, and tumor immunity. In order to explore possible targets for lung cancer prediction and treatment, this review summarizes the characteristics and signal transduction pathways of IL-4 and IL-13, and their respective receptors, and discusses in depth their possible role in the occurrence and development of lung cancer.

Macrophage-conditioned medium enhances tunneling nanotube formation in breast cancer cells via PKC, Src, NF-κB, and p38 MAPK signaling

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) secrete cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to support cancer progression. Higher TAM infiltration in the breast TME is associated with a poor prognosis. Previous studies have demonstrated the role of macrophages in stimulating long-range intercellular bridges referred to as tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) in cancer cells. Intercellular communication between cancer cells via TNTs promotes cancer growth, invasion, metastasis, and therapy resistance. Given the important role of TNTs and macrophages in cancer, the role of macrophage-induced TNTs in chemotherapy drug doxorubicin resistance is not known. Furthermore, the mechanism of macrophage-mediated TNT formation is elusive. In this study, it is shown that the macrophage-conditioned medium (MΦCM) partially mimicked inflammatory TME, induced an EMT phenotype, and increased migration in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Additionally, secreted proteins in MΦCM induced TNT formation in MCF-7 cells, which led to increased resistance to doxorubicin. Transcriptomic analysis of MΦCM-treated MCF-7 cells showed enrichment of the NF-κB and focal adhesion pathways, as well as upregulation of genes involved in EMT, extracellular remodeling, and actin cytoskeleton reorganization. Interestingly, inhibitors of PKC, Src, NF-κB, and p38 decreased macrophage-induced TNT formation in MCF-7 cells. These results reveal the novel role of PKC and Src in inducing TNT formation in cancer cells and suggest that inhibition of PKC and Src activity may likely contribute to reduced macrophage-breast cancer cell interaction and the potential therapeutic strategy of cancer.

HUNK as a key regulator of tumor-associated macrophages in triple negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) lacks the expression of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). TNBC tumors are not sensitive to endocrine therapy, and standardized TNBC treatment regimens are lacking. TNBC is a more immunogenic subtype of breast cancer, making it more responsive to immunotherapy intervention. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute one of the most abundant immune cell populations in TNBC tumors and contribute to cancer metastasis. This study examines the role of the protein kinase HUNK in tumor immunity. Gene expression analysis using NanoString's nCounter PanCancer Immune Profiling panel identified that targeting HUNK is associated with changes in the IL-4/IL-4 R cytokine signaling pathway. Experimental analysis shows that HUNK kinase activity regulates IL-4 production in mammary tumor cells, and this regulation is dependent on STAT3. In addition, HUNK-dependent regulation of IL-4 secreted from tumor cells induces polarization of macrophages into an M2-like phenotype associated with TAMs. In return, IL-4 induces cancer metastasis and macrophages to produce epidermal growth factor. These findings delineate a paracrine signaling exchange between tumor cells and TAMs regulated by HUNK and dependent on IL-4/IL-4 R. This highlights the potential of HUNK as a target for reducing TNBC metastasis through modulation of the TAM population.

Type II Interleukin-4 Receptor Activation in Basal Breast Cancer Cells Promotes Tumor Progression via Metabolic and Epigenetic Modulation

Interleukin-4 (IL4) is a Th2 cytokine that can signal through two different receptors, one of which-the type II receptor-is overexpressed by various cancer cells. Previously, we have shown that type II IL4 receptor signaling increases proliferation and metastasis in mouse models of breast cancer, as well as increasing glucose and glutamine metabolism. Here, we expand on those findings to determine mechanistically how IL4 signaling links glucose metabolism and histone acetylation to drive proliferation in the context of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). We used a combination of cellular, biochemical, and genomics approaches to interrogate TNBC cell lines, which represent a cancer type where high expression of the type II IL4 receptor is linked to reduced survival. Our results indicate that type II IL4 receptor activation leads to increased glucose uptake, Akt and ACLY activation, and histone acetylation in TNBC cell lines. Inhibition of glucose uptake through the deletion of Glut1 ablates IL4-induced proliferation. Additionally, pharmacological inhibition of histone acetyltransferase P300 attenuates IL4-mediated gene expression and proliferation in vitro. Our work elucidates a role for type II IL4 receptor signaling in promoting TNBC progression, and highlights type II IL4 signaling, as well as histone acetylation, as possible targets for therapy.

Asthma is associated with a lower incidence of metastatic colorectal cancer in a US patient cohort

In previous pre-clinical studies, we examined the contribution of interleukin 4 receptor (IL4R) signaling in the progression and metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC). Aberrant activation of this receptor can result in atopic diseases such as asthma. We hypothesized that further evidence for the contribution of excessive IL4R being associated with CRC progression could be seen in medical records, and specifically that chronic asthma patients were more likely to be diagnosed with metastatic CRC. To test this hypothesis, we took advantage of the Synthetic Derivative, a resource developed at Vanderbilt University Medical Center that hosts de-identified data taken from the electronic medical record. We developed search protocols that produced retrospective cohorts of invasive CRC patients and cancer-free equivalents. In comparing 787 metastatic CRC patients to 238 non-metastatic patients, we actually found significantly fewer asthmatics went on to develop metastatic CRC (P=0.0381). By comparing these groups together against 1197 cancer-free patients, even fewer asthmatic patients would develop invasive CRC (P<0.0001). While these results are clearly in opposition to our original hypothesis, they still support a link between chronic asthma and metastatic CRC development. One intriguing possibility, that will be examined in the future, is whether treatment for chronic asthma may be responsible for the reduction in metastatic cancer.

Emodin reduces surgical wounding-accelerated tumor growth and metastasis via macrophage suppression in a murine triple-negative breast cancer model

It has been suspected that tumor resection surgery itself may accelerate breast cancer (BC) lung metastasis in some patients. Emodin, a natural anthraquinone found in the roots and rhizomes of various plants, exhibits anticancer activity. We examined the perioperative use of emodin in our established surgery wounding murine BC model. Emodin reduced primary BC tumor growth and metastasis in the lungs in both sham and surgical wounded mice, consistent with a reduction in proliferation and enhanced apoptosis (primary tumor and lungs). Further, emodin reduced systemic inflammation, most notably the number of monocytes in the peripheral blood and reduced pro-tumoral M2 macrophages in the primary tumor and the lungs. Consistently, we show that emodin reduces gene expression of select macrophage markers and associated cytokines in the primary tumor and lungs of wounded mice. Overall, we demonstrate that emodin is beneficial in mitigating surgical wounding accelerated lung metastasis in a model of triple-negative BC, which appears to be mediated, at least in part, by its actions on macrophages. These data support the development of emodin as a safe, low-cost, and effective agent to be used perioperatively to alleviate the surgery triggered inflammatory response and consequential metastasis of BC to the lungs.

c-Jun-mediated JMJD6 restoration enhances resistance of liver cancer to radiotherapy through the IL-4-activated ERK pathway

Radiotherapy is widely used in the treatment of liver cancer, but the efficacy can be limited by radioresistance. In this study, we attempt to delineate the possible molecular mechanism of c-Jun-regulated Jumonji domain-containing protein 6/interleukin 4/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (JMJD6/IL-4/ERK) axis in radioresistance of liver cancer. The expression of c-Jun was quantified in liver cancer tissues and cell lines, and the results indicated that c-Jun was upregulated in liver cancer tissues and cells. We further illustrated the role of c-Jun following gain- and loss-of-function strategies in malignant phenotypes of liver cancer cells. It was established that c-Jun elevated JMJD6 expression and augmented the malignancy and aggressiveness of liver cancer cells. The in vivo effects of c-Jun on radioresistance in liver cancer were validated in nude mice, in response to IL-4 knockdown or the ERK pathway inhibitor, PD98059. In the presence of JMJD6 upregulation, the expression of IL-4 was elevated in mice with liver cancer, which enhanced the radiation resistance. Moreover, knockdown of IL-4 inactivated the ERK pathway, thereby reversing the radiation resistance caused by overexpressed JMJD6 in tumor-bearing mice. Taken together, c-Jun augments the radiation resistance in liver cancer by activating the ERK pathway through JMJD6-upregulated IL-4 transcription.

Evaluation of the association of chronic inflammation and cancer: Insights and implications

Among the most extensively researched processes in the development and treatment of cancer is inflammatory condition. Although acute inflammation is essential for the wound healing and reconstruction of tissues that have been damaged, chronic inflammation may contribute to the onset and growth of a number of diseases, including cancer. By disrupting the signaling processes of cells, which result in cancer induction, invasion, and development, a variety of inflammatory molecules are linked to the development of cancer. The microenvironment surrounding the tumor is greatly influenced by inflammatory cells and their subsequent secretions, which also contribute significantly to the tumor's growth, survivability, and potential migration. These inflammatory variables have been mentioned in several publications as prospective diagnostic tools for anticipating the onset of cancer. Targeting inflammation with various therapies can reduce the inflammatory response and potentially limit or block the proliferation of cancer cells. The scientific medical literature from the past three decades has been studied to determine how inflammatory chemicals and cell signaling pathways related to cancer invasion and metastasis are related. The current narrative review updates the relevant literature while highlighting the specifics of inflammatory signaling pathways in cancer and their possible therapeutic possibilities.

Risk and Prognosis of Thyroid Cancer in Patients with Graves' Disease: An Umbrella Review

Graves' disease (GD) is an autoimmune disease considered the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. Some studies have investigated its relationship with the risk and prognosis of developing thyroid cancer. Considering that there is no consensus on the relationship between GD and thyroid cancer risk, this umbrella review aimed to summarize the epidemiologic evidence and evaluate its strength and validity on the associations of GD with thyroid cancer risk and its prognosis. This umbrella review was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We systematically searched PubMed and Scopus from January 2012 to December 2022. The strength of the epidemiological evidence was graded as high, moderate, or weak by the Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR-2). "Strong" evidence was found for the risk of thyroid cancer in GD patients with thyroid nodular disease (OR: 5.30; 95% CI 2.43-12) and for the risk of mortality from thyroid cancer in these patients (OR 2.93, 95% CI 1.17-7.37, p = 0.02), particularly in Europe (OR 4.89; 95% CI 1.52-16). The results of this umbrella review should be interpreted with caution; as the evidence comes mostly from retrospective studies, potential concerns are selection and recall bias, and whether the empirically observed association reflects a causal relationship remains an open question.

A Multigene-Panel Study Identifies Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Associated with Prostate Cancer Risk

The immune system plays a critical role in modulating cancer development and progression. Polymorphisms in key genes involved in immune responses are known to affect susceptibility to cancer. Here, we analyzed 35 genes to evaluate the association between variants of genes involved in immune responses and prostate cancer risk. Thirty-five genes were analyzed in 47 patients with prostate cancer and 43 healthy controls using next-generation sequencing. Allelic and genotype frequencies were calculated in both cohorts, and a generalized linear mixed model was applied to test the relationship between prostate cancer risk and nucleotide substitution. Odds ratios were calculated to describe the association between each single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and prostate cancer risk. Significant changes in allelic and genotypic distributions were observed for IL4R, IL12RB1, IL12RB2, IL6, TMPRSS2, and ACE2. Furthermore, a generalized linear mixed model identified statistically significant associations between prostate cancer risk and SNPs in IL12RB2, IL13, IL17A, IL4R, MAPT, and TFNRS1B. Finally, a statistically significant association was observed between IL2RA and TNFRSF1B and Gleason scores, and between SLC11A1, TNFRSF1B and PSA values. We identified SNPs in inflammation and two prostate cancer-associated genes. Our results provide new insights into the immunogenetic landscape of prostate cancer and the impact that SNPs on immune genes may have on affecting the susceptibility to prostate cancer.

High expression of RNF169 is associated with poor prognosis in pancreatic adenocarcinoma by regulating tumour immune infiltration

Background: Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is a highly deadly and aggressive tumour with a poor prognosis. However, the prognostic value of RNF169 and its related mechanisms in PAAD have not been elucidated. In this study, we aimed to explore prognosis-related genes, especially RNF169 in PAAD and to identify novel potential prognostic predictors of PAAD. Methods: The GEPIA and UALCAN databases were used to investigate the expression and prognostic value of RNF169 in PAAD. The correlation between RNF169 expression and immune infiltration was determined by using TIMER and TISIDB. Correlation analysis with starBase was performed to identify a potential regulatory axis of lncRNA-miRNA-RNF169. Results: The data showed that the level of RNF169 mRNA expression in PAAD tissues was higher than that in normal tissues. High RNF169 expression was correlated with poor prognosis in PAAD. In addition, analysis with the TISIDB and TIMER databases revealed that RNF169 expression was positively correlated with tumour immune infiltration in PAAD. Correlation analysis suggested that the long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) AL049555.1 and the microRNA (miRNA) hsa-miR-324-5p were involved in the expression of RNF169, composing a potential regulatory axis to control the progression of PAAD. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses indicated that RNF169 plays a role in PAAD through pathways such as TNF, Hippo, JAK-STAT and Toll-like receptor signaling. Conclusion: In summary, the upregulation of RNF169 expression mediated by ncRNAs might influence immune cell infiltration in the microenvironment; thus, it can be used as a prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target in PAAD.

Intralesional Bacillus Calmette-Guérin injections and hypo-fractionated radiation synergistically induce systemic antitumor immune responses

Radiotherapy, an important treatment for multiple malignancies, produces systemic anti-tumor effects in combination with immunotherapies, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs). However, for some patients who do not respond to ICB treatment or show ICB-induced autoimmune symptoms, new alternatives need to be explored. Innovative immunomodulatory strategies, including the administration of immunostimulants, could be used to improve the immunogenicity induced by radiotherapy. In this study, we explored the synergistic effect of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) combined with hypo-fractionated radiotherapy (H-RT) in inducing anti-tumor immune responses. We observed the systemic and abscopal effects of this combination in mice with 4 T1 breast cancer. H-RT combined with BCG could remodel the immune microenvironment and alleviate leukocyte-like responses by increasing the infiltration of CD8 + T cells, promoting the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), decreasing the infiltration of immunosuppressive cells, and downregulating the expression of immunosuppressive cytokines. Therefore, this combination could enhance the systemic anti-tumor response, leading to the regression of untreated synchronous tumors and a decrease in the systemic metastatic burden. These results highlight the potential of BCG in assisting antitumor therapy and the therapeutic potential of this combination treatment.

Surgical wounding enhances pro-tumor macrophage responses and accelerates tumor growth and lung metastasis in a triple negative breast cancer mouse model

Approximately one-third of all breast cancer mortality results from metastatic recurrence after initial success of surgery and/or therapy. Although primary tumor removal is widely accepted as beneficial, it has long been suspected that surgery itself contributes to accelerated metastatic recurrence. We investigated surgical wounding's impact on tumor progression and lung metastasis in a murine model of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Ten-week-old female mice were inoculated with 4 T1 cells (week 0) and were either subjected to a 2 cm long cutaneous contralateral incision (wounded) or control (non-wounded) on week 2 and monitored for 3 weeks (week 5). Mice with surgical wounding displayed significantly accelerated tumor growth observable as early as 1-week post wounding. This was confirmed by increased tumor volume and tumor weight, post-mortem. Further, surgical wounding increased metastasis to the lungs, as detected by IVIS imaging, in vivo and ex vivo (week 5). As expected then, wounded mice displayed decreased apoptosis and increased proliferation in both the primary tumor and in the lungs. Flow cytometry revealed that primary tumors from wounded mice exhibited increased tumor associated macrophages and specifically M2-like macrophages, which are important in promoting tumor development, maintenance, and metastasis. Immunofluorescence staining and gene expression data further confirms an increase in macrophages in both the primary tumor and the lungs of wounded mice. Our data suggests that surgical wounding accelerates tumor progression and lung metastasis in a mouse model of TNBC, which is likely mediated, at least in part by an increase in macrophages.

Targeting interleukin 4 receptor alpha on tumor-associated macrophages reduces the pro-tumor macrophage phenotype

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an abundant tumor-promoting cell type in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Most TAMs exhibit a pro-tumor M2-like phenotype supportive of tumor growth, immune evasion, and metastasis. IL-4 and IL-13 are major cytokines that polarize macrophages to an M2 subset and share a common receptor, IL-4 receptor alpha (IL-4R alpha). Treatment of human ex vivo polarized M2 macrophages and M2 macrophage precursors with IL-4R alpha antagonist antibody Dupilumab (Dupixent^Ⓡ) reduces M2 macrophage features, including a shift in cell surface marker protein expression and gene expression. In animal models of prostate cancer, both pharmacologic inhibition of IL-4R alpha and genetic deletion of IL-4R alpha utilizing an Il4ra -/- mouse model result in decreased CD206 on TAMs. These data support IL-4R alpha as a target to reduce the pro-tumor, M2-like macrophage phenotype as a novel adjunct cancer therapy.

Characterization of IL-10-producing regulatory B cells in thymoma

BACKGROUND

Regulatory B cells (Bregs) are a subset of B cells that secrete interleukin 10 (IL-10) and play a vital role in suppressing the immune response. The aim of this study was to evaluate the proportion of Bregs in patients with thymoma.

METHODS

The proportions of subgroups of Bregs in 23 patients with thymoma and 15 healthy controls were detected by flow cytometry. The serum IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IFN-γ, and TNF-α levels of the subjects were measured using a cytometric bead array (CBA).

RESULTS

The proportions of circulating IL-10⁺ B cells, IL-10⁺CD24^hiCD38^hi Bregs, and IL-10⁺CD24^hiCD27⁺ Bregs and the serum IL-10 level were significantly higher in patients with thymoma than in the control group and were negatively correlated with the Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS) score. The serum levels of cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α were higher and serum IL-17A level was lower in patients with thymoma. Patients with advanced-stage thymoma exhibited significantly higher proportions of IL-10-producing Bregs and a higher serum IL-10 level. After tumour resection, the frequency of circulating IL-10⁺CD24^hiCD38^hi Bregs and the serum IL-10 level were significantly decreased in patients with thymoma. The serum IL-10 levels exhibited the best accuracy in assessing the risk of thymoma occurrence in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of IL-10 produced by Bregs is increased in patients with thymoma, particularly those with advanced-stage disease, which may suggest that Bregs are involved in the pathogenesis and progression of thymoma.

The Single-Cell Level Perspective of the Tumor Microenvironment and Its Remodeling by CAR-T Cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex milieu consisting of lymphoid cells, myeloid cells, fibroblasts, and multiple molecules, which play a key role in tumor progression and immunotherapy. TME is characterized by immune-suppressive features, which release anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4 and TGFβ to skew the T cells to a Th2 state as well to polarize tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to an anti-inflammatory phenotype to curb the immunotherapy. Considering the heterogeneity of the TME and its role in determining response to chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells, delineating TME at a single-cell level will provide useful information for cancer treatment. First, we discuss cellular and molecular features that curb the response to CAR-T cells, for example, high expression of immune checkpoint molecules (PD-1, LAG3) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, TGFb) that block CAR-T cell function. Then, we summarize how newly invented single-cell technologies such as spatial multi-omics would benefit the understanding of cancer immunotherapy. Finally, we will further describe recent attempts of CAR-T to remodel TME by arming the CAR-T with anti-PD-1 single-chain variants or Th1 triggering cytokines (such as IL-7, IL-12) to remodel TME into a pro-inflammatory state. Herein, we review the single-cell-level signatures of TME and the strategies of CAR-T to remodel TME.

Interleukin-4 treatment reduces leukemia burden in acute myeloid leukemia

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a signature cytokine pivotal in Type 2 helper T cell (Th2) immune response, particularly in allergy and hypersensitivity. Interestingly, IL-4 increases endogenous levels of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2 ) and its metabolites, Δ12 -prostaglandin J2 (Δ12 -PGJ2 ) and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14 -prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2 ), collectively called cyclopentenone PGs (CyPGs). However, the therapeutic role of IL-4 in hematologic malignancies remains unclear. Here, we employed a murine model of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), where human MLL-AF9 fusion oncoprotein was expressed in hematopoietic progenitor cells, to test the effect of IL-4 treatment in vivo. Daily intraperitoneal treatment with IL-4 at 60 µg/kg/d significantly alleviated the severity of AML, as seen by decreased leukemia-initiating cells (LICs). The effect of IL-4 was mediated, in part, by the enhanced expression of hematopoietic- PGD2  synthase (H-PGDS) to effect endogenous production of CyPGs, through autocrine and paracrine signaling mechanisms. Similar results were seen with patient-derived AML cells cultured ex vivo with IL-4. Use of GW9662, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) antagonist, suggested endogenous CyPGs-PPARγ axis mediated p53-dependent apoptosis of LICs by IL-4. Taken together, our results reveal a beneficial role of IL-4 treatment in AML suggesting a potential therapeutic regimen worthy of clinical trials in patients with AML.

Allergies, genetic polymorphisms of Th2 interleukins, and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: The ESTELLE study

CONTEXT

A negative association between a history of allergy and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has been reported in previous studies, but remains debated. This work aimed to investigate this association accounting for genetic polymorphisms of the Th2 pathway cytokines (IL4, IL10, IL13, and IL4R).

METHODS

Analyses were based on the French case-control study ESTELLE (2010-2011). The complete sample included 629 ALL cases and 1421 population-based controls frequency-matched on age and gender. The child's medical history was collected through standardized maternal interview. Biological samples were collected, and genotyping data were available for 411 cases and 704 controls of European origin. Odds ratios (OR) were estimated using unconditional regression models adjusted for potential confounders.

RESULTS

In the complete sample, a significant inverse association was observed between ALL and reported history of allergic rhinitis or sinusitis (OR = 0.65 [0.42-0.98]; P = 0.04), but there was no obvious association with allergies overall. There was an interaction between genetic polymorphisms in IL4 and IL4R (P_{interaction =} 0.003), as well as a gene-environment interaction between IL4R-rs1801275 and a reported history of asthma (IOR = 0.23; P_int  = 0.008) and eczema (IOR = 0.47; P_int  = 0.06). We observed no interaction with the candidate polymorphisms in IL4 and IL13.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the association between allergic symptoms and childhood ALL could be modified by IL4R-rs1801275, and that this variant could also interact with a functional variant in IL4 gene. Although they warrant confirmation, these results could help understand the pathological mechanisms under the reported inverse association between allergy and childhood ALL.

The correlation between IL-4 polymorphisms and colorectal cancer risk in a population in Northwest China

Our aim was to investigate whether polymorphisms in the interleukin-4 (IL-4) gene are associated with the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) in a Chinese Han population. Six single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IL-4 were genotyped by Agena MassARRAY in 248 CRC patients and 463 healthy controls. The association of IL-4 polymorphisms with CRC risk was assessed by genetic models, linkage disequilibrium, and haplotype analyses. The results suggested that the CC genotype of rs2243250 confers a lower risk of CRC in the recessive model [odds ratio (OR) =  0.42, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.19-0.92, P = 0.020]. Similarly, rs2227284 GG was associated with a reduced risk of CRC in the codominant (OR = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.04-0.82, P = 0.027) and recessive (OR = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.04-0.83, P = 0.008) models adjusted for age. Our findings suggested that rs2243250 and rs2227284 in IL-4 are associated significantly with reduced CRC risk, which may facilitate the identification of CRC patients in Chinese populations.

Not Only Immune Escape-The Confusing Role of the TRP Metabolic Pathway in Carcinogenesis

BACKGROUND

The recently discovered phenomenon that cancer cells can avoid immune response has gained scientists' interest. One of the pathways involved in this process is tryptophan (TRP) metabolism through the kynurenine pathway (KP). Individual components involved in TRP conversion seem to contribute to cancerogenesis both through a direct impact on cancer cells and the modulation of immune cell functionality. Due to this fact, this pathway may serve as a target for immunotherapy and attempts are being made to create novel compounds effective in cancer treatment. However, the results obtained from clinical trials are not satisfactory, which raises questions about the exact role of KP elements in tumorigenesis. An increasing number of experiments reveal that TRP metabolites may either be tumor promoters and suppressors and this is why further research in this field is highly needed. The aim of this study is to present KP as a modulator of cancer development through multiple mechanisms and to point to its ambiguity, which may be a reason for failures in treatment based on the inhibition of tryptophan metabolism.

Therapeutic targeting with DABIL-4 depletes myeloid suppressor cells in 4T1 triple-negative breast cancer model

In many solid tumors including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), upregulation of the interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) has been shown to promote cancer cell proliferation, apoptotic resistance, metastatic potential, and a Th2 response in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Since immunosuppressive cells in the TME and spleen including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) also express the IL-4R, we hypothesized that selective depletion of IL-4R-bearing cells in TNBC would result in the direct killing of tumor cells and the depletion of immunosuppressive cells and lead to an enhanced antitumor response. To selectively target IL-4R+ cells, we employed DABIL-4, a fusion protein toxin consisting of the catalytic and translocation domains of diphtheria toxin fused to murine IL-4. As anticipated, DABIL-4 has potent cytotoxic activity against TNBC cells both in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrate in the murine 4T1 TNBC model that DABIL-4 significantly reduces tumor growth, splenomegaly, and lung metastases. Importantly, we also show that the administration of DABIL-4 results in the selective depletion of MDSCs, TAMs, and regulatory T cells in treated mice, with a concomitant increase in IFN-γ+ CD8 effector T cells in the TME. Since the 4T1 antitumor activity of DABIL-4 was largely diminished in IL-4R knockout mice, we postulate that DABIL-4 functions primarily as an immunotherapeutic by the depletion of MDSCs, TAMs, and regulatory T cells. NanoString analysis of control and treated tumors confirmed and extended these observations by showing a marked decline of mRNA transcripts that are associated with tumorigenesis and metastasis. In conclusion, we demonstrate that DABIL-4 targeting of both tumor and immunosuppressive host cells likely represents a novel and effective treatment strategy for 4T1 TNBC and warrants further study.

Interleukin-4 Receptor Inhibition Targeting Metastasis Independent of Macrophages

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma occurring in children and carries a dismal prognosis when metastatic disease is detected. Our previous work has suggested the cytokine receptor IL4Rα may play a role in contributing to metastasis in the alveolar subtype of rhabdomyosarcoma (aRMS), and thus could present a therapeutic target. The IL4 signaling axis has been characterized in various adult cancers as well; however, pediatric trials often follow similar adult trials and the role of the IL4Rα receptor has not been explored in the context of a mediator of metastasis in adult disease. Here, we demonstrate that the impact of IL4Rα blockade in an orthotopic allograft model of aRMS is not mediated by a macrophage response. We further examine the effect of IL4 blockade in adult colon, breast, and prostate cancers and find that inhibition of IL4Rα signaling modulates in vitro cell viability of HCT-116 colon carcinoma cells; however, this finding did not translate to an autocrine-related in vivo difference in tumor burden or lung metastasis. Our results suggest that if humanized IL4 mouse host strains are not available (or not ideal due to the need for immunosuppressing the host innate immune response for xenograft systems), then genetically-engineered mice and mouse allograft studies may be the best indicator of therapeutic targeting efficacy.

Association Between Promoter Polymorphisms of IL-1B, IL-4 and IL-6 Genes and a Viral Load Infected Women with Human Papillomavirus

Background:

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between IL-4 -589C>T, IL-6 -174G>C, IL-1β -31T>C and IL-1β -511C>T genes polymorphism with high concentrations of human papillomavirus (HPV), and the influence of gene-gene interactions on persistent human papillomavirus infection.

Methods:

In this study, 101 infected women with high HPV viral load and 93 healthy women were involved in a case-control study. Genotyping of SNPs for IL-4 -589C>T, IL-6 -174G>C, IL-1β -31T>C and IL-1β -511C>T genes was carried out by allele-specific PCR. Quantitative analysis of HPV-DNA was performed by Amplisens HPV HCR genotype-titer software. Gene-gene interactions were analyzed using multifactor dimensionality reduction (MDR) algorithm. Haplotype interactions were analyzed by HaploView 4.2 tool.

Results:

The study of single individual SNPs in promoters of IL-4 -589C>T, IL-6 -174G>C and IL-1β -31T>C genes did not reveal statistically significant difference in genotypes and allele frequencies among women with high HPV viral load and control group. The frequency of -511T allele and TT genotype of the IL-1β gene in case group was significantly higher than the one in control group (OR=1.71, p=0.012 and OR=2.02, p=0.046, respectively). Haplotype analysis revealed that -511C/-31T haplotype for IL-1β gene is significantly less common among women with high HPV viral load (p=0.018).

Conclusion:

The haplotype -511C/-31T for IL-1β gene is associated with a protective effect against increasing HPV viral load. The frequencies of -511T allele and -511TT genotype of the IL-1β -511C>T were significantly higher among women with HPV in comparison to control group.

Involvement of IL-4, IL-13 and Their Receptors in Pancreatic Cancer

Interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 are known as pleiotropic Th2 cytokines with a wide range of biological properties and functions especially in immune responses. In addition, increasing activities have also been determined in oncogenesis and tumor progression of several malignancies. It is now generally accepted that IL-4 and IL-13 can exert effects on epithelial tumor cells through corresponding receptors. Type II IL-4 receptor (IL-4Rα/IL-13Rα1), predominantly expressed in non-hematopoietic cells, is identified to be the main target for both IL-4 and IL-13 in tumors. Moreover, IL-13 can also signal by binding to the IL-13Rα2 receptor. Structural similarity due to the use of the same receptor complex generated in response to IL-4/IL-13 results in overlapping but also distinct signaling pathways and functions. The aim of this review was to summarize knowledge about IL-4 and IL-13 and their receptors in pancreatic cancer in order understand the implication of IL-4 and IL-13 and their receptors for pancreatic tumorigenesis and progression and for developing possible new diagnostic and therapeutic targets.

Circulating cytokines associated with clinical response to systemic therapy in metastatic renal cell carcinoma

Background

Circulating cytokines and angiogenic factors have been associated with clinical outcomes in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) receiving systemic therapy. However, none have yet examined cytokine concentrations in parallel cohorts receiving either immunotherapy or targeted therapy.

Methods

In this prospective correlative study, we enrolled 56 patients who were planned for treatment with either a vascular endothelial growth factor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (VEGF-TKI) or immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI). Eligibility requirements permitted any RCC histologic subtype, International Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma risk classification, and line of therapy. Immunologic profile was assessed at baseline and after 1 month on treatment using a Human Cytokine 30-plex protein assay (Invitrogen). Clinical benefit was defined as complete response, partial response, or stable disease ≥6 months per RECIST (Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors) V.1.1 criteria.

Results

Clinical benefit was similar between VEGF-TKI and ICI arms (65% vs 54%). Patients with clinical benefit from VEGF-TKIs had lower pretreatment levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) (p=0.02), IL-1RA (p=0.03), and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (CSF) (p=0.02). At 1 month, patients with clinical benefit from ICIs had higher levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) (p=0.04) and IL-12 (p=0.03). Among patients on VEGF-TKIs, those with clinical benefit had lower 1 month IL-13 (p=0.02) and granulocyte macrophage CSF (p=0.01) as well as higher 1 month VEGF (p=0.04) compared with patients with no clinical benefit.

Conclusion

For patients receiving VEGF-TKI or ICI therapy, distinct plasma cytokines were associated with clinical benefit. Our findings support additional investigation into plasma cytokines as biomarkers in metastatic RCC.

Metabolic Codependencies in the Tumor Microenvironment

Metabolic reprogramming enables cancer cell growth, proliferation, and survival. This reprogramming is driven by the combined actions of oncogenic alterations in cancer cells and host cell factors acting on cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment. Cancer cell-intrinsic mechanisms activate signal transduction components that either directly enhance metabolic enzyme activity or upregulate transcription factors that in turn increase expression of metabolic regulators. Extrinsic signaling mechanisms involve host-derived factors that further promote and amplify metabolic reprogramming in cancer cells. This review describes intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms driving cancer metabolism in the tumor microenvironment and how such mechanisms may be targeted therapeutically. SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer cell metabolic reprogramming is a consequence of the converging signals originating from both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic signaling maintains the baseline metabolic state, whereas extrinsic signals fine-tune the metabolic processes based on the availability of metabolites and the requirements of the cells. Therefore, successful targeting of metabolic pathways will require a nuanced approach based on the cancer's genotype, tumor microenvironment composition, and tissue location.

Expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 are associated with poor prognosis of soft-tissue sarcoma of the extremities, superficial trunk, and retroperitoneum

Background

IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 are constituents of the type II IL4 receptor. Recently, IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were reported to have roles in cancer progression and suggested as potential prognostic markers. However, studies on IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 in soft-tissue sarcomas have been limited.

Methods

This study investigated the immunohistochemical expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 in 89 soft-tissue sarcomas of the extremities, superficial trunk, and retroperitoneum. Immunohistochemical staining for IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were scored according to a combination of staining intensity and staining area in tissue microarray samples. Positivity for the immunohistochemical expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were determined using receiver operating curve analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using regression analysis and a chi-square test.

Results

In human soft-tissue sarcomas, immunohistochemical expression of IL4Rα was significantly associated with IL13Rα1 expression. Nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were significantly associated with shorter survival of soft-tissue sarcoma patients in univariate analysis. Multivariate analysis indicated that nuclear expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were independent indicators of shorter overall survival (IL4Rα; p = 0.002, IL13Rα1; p = 0.016) and relapse-free survival (IL4Rα; p = 0.022, IL13Rα1; p < 0.001) of soft-tissue sarcoma patients. Moreover, the co-expression pattern of nuclear IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 was an independent indicator of shorter survival of soft-tissue sarcoma patients (overall survival; overall p < 0.001, relapse-free survival; overall p < 0.001).

Conclusions

This study suggests IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 are associated with the progression of soft-tissue sarcoma, and the expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 might be novel prognostic indicators of soft-tissue sarcoma patients.

MRI-traceable theranostic nanoparticles for targeted cancer treatment

Current cancer therapies, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are imprecise, non-specific, and are often administered at high dosages - resulting in side effects that severely impact the patient's overall well-being. A variety of multifunctional, cancer-targeted nanotheranostic systems that integrate therapy, imaging, and tumor targeting functionalities in a single platform have been developed to overcome the shortcomings of traditional drugs. Among the imaging modalities used, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides high resolution imaging of structures deep within the body and, in combination with other imaging modalities, provides complementary diagnostic information for more accurate identification of tumor characteristics and precise guidance of anti-cancer therapy. This review article presents a comprehensive assessment of nanotheranostic systems that combine MRI-based imaging (T1 MRI, T2 MRI, and multimodal imaging) with therapy (chemo-, thermal-, gene- and combination therapy), connecting a range of topics including hybrid treatment options (e.g. combined chemo-gene therapy), unique MRI-based imaging (e.g. combined T1-T2 imaging, triple and quadruple multimodal imaging), novel targeting strategies (e.g. dual magnetic-active targeting and nanoparticles carrying multiple ligands), and tumor microenvironment-responsive drug release (e.g. redox and pH-responsive nanomaterials). With a special focus on systems that have been tested in vivo, this review is an essential summary of the most advanced developments in this rapidly evolving field.

Inhibition of Tumor Growth against Chemoresistant Cholangiocarcinoma by a Proapoptotic Peptide Targeting Interleukin-4 Receptor

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) has a poor prognosis and high chemoresistance. Interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) is overexpressed in several cancer cells and plays a crucial role in tumor progression and drug resistance. IL4RPep-1, an IL-4R-binding peptide, has been identified by phage display and used for tumor targeting. In this study, we exploited IL4RPep-1 to guide the tumor-specific delivery of a proapoptotic peptide to chemoresistant CCA, thereby inhibiting tumor growth. Immunohistochemistry of human primary CCA tissues showed that IL-4R levels were upregulated in moderately to poorly differentiated types, and higher levels of IL-4R are correlated with lower survival rates in patients with CCA. IL4RPep-1 was observed to preferentially bind with high IL-4R-expressing KKU-213 human CCA cells, whereas it barely bound with low IL-4R-expressing KKU-055 cells. A hybrid of IL4RPep-1 and a proapoptotic peptide (KLAKLAK)2 (named as IL4RPep-1-KLA) induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in KKU-213 cells and increased those levels induced by 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). IL4RPep-1-KLA was internalized in the cells and colocalized with mitochondria. Whole-body fluorescence imaging and immunohistochemical analysis of tumor tissues showed the homing of IL4RPep-1-KLA as well as IL4RPep-1 to KKU-213 tumor in mice. Systemic administration of IL4RPep-1-KLA efficiently inhibited KKU-213 tumor growth, whereas treatment with 5-FU alone did not significantly inhibit tumor growth in mice. No significant systemic side effects including liver toxicity and immunotoxicity were observed in mice during peptide treatments. These findings suggest that IL4RPep-1-KLA holds potential as a targeted therapeutic agent against chemoresistant CCA.

Monocyte-derived macrophages promote breast cancer bone metastasis outgrowth

Bone metastasis is the major cause of death in breast cancer. The lack of effective treatment suggests that disease mechanisms are still largely unknown. As a key component of the tumor microenvironment, macrophages promote tumor progression and metastasis. In this study, we found that macrophages are abundant in human and mouse breast cancer bone metastases. Macrophage ablation significantly inhibited bone metastasis growth. Lineage tracking experiments indicated that these macrophages largely derive from Ly6C+CCR2+ inflammatory monocytes. Ablation of the chemokine receptor, CCR2, significantly inhibited bone metastasis outgrowth and prolonged survival. Immunophenotyping identified that bone metastasis-associated macrophages express high levels of CD204 and IL4R. Furthermore, monocyte/macrophage-restricted IL4R ablation significantly inhibited bone metastasis growth, and IL4R null mutant monocytes failed to promote bone metastasis outgrowth. Together, this study identified a subset of monocyte-derived macrophages that promote breast cancer bone metastasis in an IL4R-dependent manner. This suggests that IL4R and macrophage inhibition can have potential therapeutic benefit against breast cancer bone disease.

The roles of post-translational modifications and coactivators of STAT6 signaling in tumor growth and progression

Signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 (STAT6) are highly expressed in various tumors and associated with tumorigenesis, immunosuppression, proliferation, metastasis and poor prognosis in human cancers. In response to IL-4/13, STAT6 is phosphorylated, dimerizes and triggers transcriptional regulation after recruitment of coactivators to transcriptosome, such as CBP/p300, SRC-1, PARP-14 and PSF. Post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, ADP-ribosylation and acetylation, have been explored for molecular mechanisms of STAT6 in tumor development and management. STAT6 has been developed as a specific biomarker for distinguishing and diagnosing tumor phenotypes, although it is observed to be frequently mutated in metastatic tumors. In this article, we focus mainly on the structural characteristics of STAT6 and its role in tumor growth and progression.

Thyroid cancer and thyroid autoimmune disease: A review of molecular aspects and clinical outcomes

Thyroid cancer (TC) is the most prevalent malignant neoplasm that affects the endocrine system. Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT), also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is the most common autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) that, together with Graves' disease (GD), represent the main autoimmune diseases that affect the thyroid gland. Some studies suggest a greater risk of AITD and the development of TC, while others, investigate its relationship with TC progression and patient prognosis. In this review, we have analyzed published data on the molecular aspects related to the association between AITD and TC, addressing their influence on TC progression, diagnosis, and prognosis of the patients. MEDLINE database (PubMed) platform was used as a search engine and the original articles related to the topic were selected using the keywords combination "thyroid cancer and Hashimoto thyroiditis" or "thyroid carcinoma and thyroid autoimmune disease". After the selection, we categorized the main findings of the papers into four topics: antitumor immunity, tumor progression, diagnosis, and prognosis. Although most of the studies have pointed out the presence of AITD as a factor that increases the risk of TC, few molecular mechanisms to support this conclusion have been described. Additionally, little information is available to explain, pathophysiologically, the effects of autoimmunity in TC diagnosis, progression, and prognosis.

Reciprocal fine-tuning of progesterone and prolactin-regulated gene expression in breast cancer cells

Progesterone and prolactin are two key hormones involved in development and remodeling of the mammary gland. As such, both hormones have been linked to breast cancer. Despite the overlap between biological processes ascribed to these two hormones, little is known about how co-expression of both hormones affects their individual actions. Progesterone and prolactin exert many of their effects on the mammary gland through activation of gene expression, either directly (progesterone, binding to the progesterone receptor [PR]) or indirectly (multiple transcription factors being activated downstream of prolactin, most notably STAT5). Using RNA-seq in T47D breast cancer cells, we characterized the gene expression programs regulated by progestin and prolactin, either alone or in combination. We found significant crosstalk and fine-tuning between the transcriptional programs executed by each hormone independently and in combination. We divided and characterized the transcriptional programs into four broad categories. All crosstalk/fine-tuning shown to be modulated by progesterone was dependent upon the expression of PR. Moreover, PR was recruited to enhancer regions of all regulated genes. Interestingly, despite the canonical role for STAT5 in transducing prolactin-signaling in the normal and lactating mammary gland, very few of the prolactin-regulated transcriptional programs fine-tuned by progesterone in this breast cancer cell line model system were in fact dependent upon STAT5. Cumulatively, these data suggest that the interplay of progesterone and prolactin in breast cancer impacts gene expression in a more complex and nuanced manner than previously thought, and likely through different transcriptional regulators than those observed in the normal mammary gland. Studying gene regulation when both hormones are present is most clinically relevant, particularly in the context of breast cancer.

Interleukins 4 and 13 and Their Receptors Are Differently Expressed in Gastrointestinal Tract Cancers, Depending on the Anatomical Site and Disease Advancement, and Improve Colon Cancer Cell Viability and Motility

Immunosuppressive interleukins (IL)-4 and 13 may directly promote cancer but neither their status nor role in gastrointestinal tract is clarified. We aim at quantifying ILs and their receptors in paired normal-tumor samples (n = 49/51) and sera (n = 263), using immunoassays and RTqPCR, and screening for their effect on colonic cancer cells. Both ILs were elevated locally at protein level in all cancers but only IL13 transcripts in colon were upregulated. Interleukin and their receptor expression reflected cancer pathology to varying degrees, with the association frequently inverse and manifested in non-cancerous tissue. Positive correlation with cancer-promoting genes BCL2, BCLxL, HIF1A, VEGFA, ACTA2, CCL2, PTGS2, and CDKN1A, but not Ki67, was demonstrated, particularly for ILs' receptors. Circulating IL-4 was elevated in all, while IL-13 only in colorectal or esophageal cancers, reflecting their advancement. IL4Ra and IL13Ra1 transcripts were downregulated by hypoxia and, in Caco-2, also by IL-4. Interleukin stimulation slightly improved colonic cancer cell viability, weakly upregulating BCL2 and Ki67 in HCT116 and HT-29. It affected cell motility more markedly and was consistently accompanied by upregulation of claudin-2. Gastrointestinal tract cancers are associated with IL-4 and IL-13 upregulation, which may facilitate cancer growth. Targeting both interleukins as an antineoplastic strategy warrants further investigation.

Polysaccharides from green sweet pepper increase the antineoplastic effect of methotrexate on mammary tumor cells

This study investigated the antineoplastic effects and toxicity of long-term treatment with polysaccharides from sweet green pepper (Capsicum annuum [CAP]), and concomitant treatment with CAP + methotrexate (MTX) on mammary tumor cells in vivo and in vitro. Ehrlich tumor cells were subcutaneously inoculated in female Swiss mice. The long-term treatment (31 days) with CAP (100 mg kg-1, p.o.) reduced the tumor growth and did not induce toxicity. The combined treatment protocol of 100 mg kg-1 CAP (p.o.) + 1 mg kg-1 MTX (i.p.) for 21 days inhibited the tumor growth in 95%, higher than the inhibition induced by MTX alone (1.0 or 2.5 mg kg-1, i.p.). In tumors, both CAP and CAP + MTX decreased the gene expression of Vegf, vessel area, and IL-4 and IL-10 levels, and increased IL-6 levels and the degree of necrosis. Treatment with CAP + MTX also increased TNF-α levels in tumors. Additionally, CAP + MTX treatment reduced the viability of human MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-436 mammary tumor cells in culture. In fact, CAP exerted antineoplastic effects in vivo and in vitro against mammary tumor cells, possibly by modulating inflammation and angiogenesis. CAP may be a promising adjunct chemotherapy with lower toxicity.

Constructing a better binding peptide for drug delivery targeting the interleukin-4 receptor

Targeted delivery of antitumor drugs is especially important for tumour therapy. Tumour targeting peptides have been shown to be very effective drug carriers for tumour therapy. Interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) is overexpressed on the surface of various human solid tumours. To obtain a better targeting peptide, we first designed a novel targeting peptide derived from interleukin-4 (IL-4), ILBP-b. ILBP-b contains the key high-affinity binding residue E9 of IL-4 to IL-4R. Compared with a reported targeting peptide ILBP-a (containing another key high affinity residue R88), ILBP-b was proved to be a better targeting peptide by the fluorescence experiments. Then, we further fused ILBP-b and ILBP-a to increase the multisite-binding ability of ILBP-b and got a better targeting peptide ILBP-ba. ILBP-ba showed a stronger preferential binding ability to IL-4R high-expressing cells than ILBP-a and ILBP-b. Competitive binding experiments demonstrated ILBP-ba specifically targets IL-4R. By fusing ILBP-ba with drug protein trichosanthin (TCS), in vitro drug carrying experiments showed that ILBP-ba could specifically enhance the killing effect of TCS on IL-4R high-expressing tumour cells (more than 10 folds). These results indicated that ILBP-ba has great potential for drug delivery applications targeting IL-4R and will be beneficial for the development of tumour therapeutic agents.

Lineage-Specific Epigenomic and Genomic Activation of Oncogene HNF4A Promotes Gastrointestinal Adenocarcinomas

Gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas (GIAC) of the tubular gastrointestinal (GI) tract including esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum comprise most GI cancers and share a spectrum of genomic features. However, the unified epigenomic changes specific to GIAC are poorly characterized. Using 907 GIAC samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas, we applied mathematical algorithms to large-scale DNA methylome and transcriptome profiles to reconstruct transcription factor (TF) networks and identify a list of functionally hyperactive master regulator (MR) TF shared across different GIAC. The top candidate HNF4A exhibited prominent genomic and epigenomic activation in a GIAC-specific manner. A complex interplay between the HNF4A promoter and three distal enhancer elements was coordinated by GIAC-specific MRTF including ELF3, GATA4, GATA6, and KLF5. HNF4A also self-regulated its own promoter and enhancers. Functionally, HNF4A promoted cancer proliferation and survival by transcriptional activation of many downstream targets, including HNF1A and factors of interleukin signaling, in a lineage-specific manner. Overall, our study provides new insights into the GIAC-specific gene regulatory networks and identifies potential therapeutic strategies against these common cancers. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings show that GIAC-specific master regulatory transcription factors control HNF4A via three distal enhancers to promote GIAC cell proliferation and survival. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/80/13/2722/F1.large.jpg.

Type 1 Interleukin-4 Signaling Obliterates Mouse Astroglia in vivo but Not in vitro

Recent findings suggest that reduced neurogenesis could be one of the underlying reasons for the exacerbated neuropathology in humans, thus restoring the neural stem cell proliferation and neurogenesis could help to circumvent some pathological aspects of Alzheimer’s disease. We recently identified Interleukin-4/STAT6 signaling as a neuron–glia crosstalk mechanism that enables glial proliferation and neurogenesis in adult zebrafish brain and 3D cultures of human astroglia, which manifest neurogenic properties. In this study, by using single cell sequencing in the APP/PS1dE9 mouse model of AD, we found that IL4 receptor (Il4r) is not expressed in mouse astroglia and IL4 signaling is not active in these cells. We tested whether activating IL4/STAT6 signaling would enhance cell proliferation and neurogenesis in healthy and disease conditions. Lentivirus-mediated expression of IL4R or constitutively active STAT6VT impaired the survival capacity of mouse astroglia in vivo but not in vitro. These results suggest that the adult mouse brain generates a non-permissive environment that dictates a negative effect of IL4 signaling on astroglial survival and neurogenic properties in contrast to zebrafish brains and in vitro mammalian cell cultures. Our findings that IL4R signaling in dentate gyrus (DG) of adult mouse brain impinges on the survival of DG cells implicate an evolutionary mechanism that might underlie the loss of neuroregenerative ability of the brain, which might be utilized for basic and clinical aspects for neurodegenerative diseases.

Interleukin-4 Signaling Plays a Major Role in Urogenital Schistosomiasis-Associated Bladder Pathogenesis

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is crucial in many helminth infections, but its role in urogenital schistosomiasis, infection with Schistosoma haematobium worms, remains poorly understood due to a historical lack of animal models. The bladder pathology of urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by immune responses to eggs deposited in the bladder wall. A range of pathology occurs, including urothelial hyperplasia and cancer, but associated mechanisms and links to IL-4 are largely unknown. We modeled urogenital schistosomiasis by injecting the bladder walls of IL-4 receptor-alpha knockout (Il4ra-/- ) and wild-type mice with S. haematobium eggs. Readouts included bladder histology and ex vivo assessments of urothelial proliferation, cell cycle, and ploidy status. We also quantified the effects of exogenous IL-4 on urothelial cell proliferation in vitro, including cell cycle status and phosphorylation patterns of major downstream regulators in the IL-4 signaling pathway. There was a significant decrease in the intensity of granulomatous responses to bladder-wall-injected S. haematobium eggs in Il4ra-/- versus wild-type mice. S. haematobium egg injection triggered significant urothelial proliferation, including evidence of urothelial hyper-diploidy and cell cycle skewing in wild-type but not Il4ra-/- mice. Urothelial exposure to IL-4 in vitro led to cell cycle polarization and increased phosphorylation of AKT. Our results show that IL-4 signaling is required for key pathogenic features of urogenital schistosomiasis and that particular aspects of this signaling pathway may exert these effects directly on the urothelium. These findings point to potential mechanisms by which urogenital schistosomiasis promotes bladder carcinogenesis.

Interleukin-4 signalling pathway underlies the anxiolytic effect induced by 3-deoxyadenosine

RATIONALE

Converging evidence suggests that neuroimmunity plays an important role in the pathophysiology of anxiety. Interleukin (IL)-4 is a key cytokine regulating neuroimmune functions in the central nervous system. More efficient anxiolytics with neuro-immune mechanisms are urgently needed.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether 3'-deoxyadenosine (3'-dA) exerts an anxiolytic effect and to examine the role of IL-4 in the anxiolytic effect of 3'-dA in mice.

METHODS

We investigated the effects of 3'-dA on anxiety-like behaviors using elevated plus maze (EPM) or light-dark box (LDB) tests after 45 min or 5 days of treatment. Expression of IL-4, IL-10, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) was detected by Western blot and/or double immunostaining. Intracerebroventricular injection of RIL-4Rα (an IL-4-specific inhibitor) and intraperitoneal injection of 3'-dA or imipramine were co-administered, followed by EPM test.

RESULTS

3'-dA exhibited a stronger and faster anxiolytic effect than imipramine in behavioral tests. Furthermore, 3'-dA enhanced IL-4 expression after 45 min or 5 days, TNF-α and IL-1β expression decreased significantly after a 5-day treatment with 3'-dA, and IL-10 expression increased after a 5-day treatment with 3'-dA or imipramine in the PFC. IL-4 was expressed in neurons and in some astrocytes and microglia. IL-4 expression showed a strong positive correlation with reduced anxiety behaviors. RIL-4Rα completely blocked the anxiolytic effects induced by 3'-dA and imipramine.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies a novel and common anxiolytic IL-4 signaling pathway and provides an innovative drug with a novel neuro-immune mechanism for treating anxiety disorder.

Interleukin4Rα (IL4Rα) and IL13Rα1 Are Associated with the Progress of Renal Cell Carcinoma through Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2)/Forkhead Box O3 (FOXO3) Pathways

Specific kinds of interleukin (IL) receptors are known to mediate lymphocyte proliferation and survival. However, recent reports have suggested that the high expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 in tumor tissue might be associated with tumorigenesis in several kinds of tumor. We found that a significant association between mRNA level of IL4Rα or IL13Rα1 and the poor prognosis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) from the public database (http://www.oncolnc.org/). Then, we evaluated the clinicopathological significance of the immunohistochemical expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 in 199 clear cell RCC (CCRCC) patients. The individual and co-expression patterns of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 were significantly associated with cancer-specific survival (CSS) and relapse-free survival (RFS) in univariate analysis. Multivariate analysis indicated IL4Rα-positivity and co-expression of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 as the independent indicators of shorter CSS and RFS of CCRCC patients. For the in vitro evaluation of the oncogenic role of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 in RCC, we knock-downed IL4Rα or IL13Rα1 and observed that the cell proliferation rate was decreased, and the apoptosis rate was increased in A498 and ACHN cells. Furthermore, we examined the possible role of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), well-known down-stream tyrosine kinase under the heterodimeric receptor complex of IL4Rα and IL13Rα1. Interestingly, JAK2 interacted with Forkhead box O3 (FOXO3) to cause tyrosine-phosphorylation of FOXO3. Silencing IL4Rα or JAK2 in A498 and ACHN cells reduced the interaction between JAK2 and FOXO3. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of JAK2 induced the nuclear localization of FOXO3, leading to increase apoptosis and decrease cell proliferation rate in A498 and ACHN cells. Taken together, these results suggest that IL4Rα and IL13Rα1 might be involved in the progression of RCC through JAK2/FOXO3 pathway, and their expression might be used as the novel prognostic factor and therapeutic target for RCC patients.

Combination immunotherapy with IL-4 Pseudomonas exotoxin and IFN-α and IFN-γ mediate antitumor effects in vitro and in a mouse model of human ovarian cancer

AIM

We have shown that IL-4 fused to Pseudomonas exotoxin (IL-4-PE) is cytotoxic to ovarian cancer cell lines. The antineoplastic properties of IFN-α, IFN-γ and IL-4-PE have been studied and showed some promise in the clinical trials. Here, we investigated whether the combination of IL-4-PE, IFN-α and IFN-γ will result in increased ovarian cancer cell death in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Ovarian cancer cells were tested in vitro to analyze the cytotoxic effects of IL-4-PE, IFN-α and IFN-γ, and the combination of all three. Tumor-bearing xenograft mice were treated with the combination of IL-4-PE, IFN-α and IFN-γ to monitor their overall survival. The JAK/STAT phosphorylation signaling pathways were studied to delineate the mechanism of synergistic antitumor activity.

RESULTS

The combination of IL-4-PE with IFN-α and IFN-γ resulted in increased ovarian cancer cell death in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the synergistic antitumor effect was dependent on interferon signaling, but not IL-4-PE signaling as determined by signaling specific chemical inhibitors. The combination therapy induced the activation of critical mediators of apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

The combination of IL-4-PE with interferons increased overall survival of mice with human ovarian cancer xenograft. These data suggest that this novel combination could provide a unique approach to treating ovarian cancer.

Immune mediator expression signatures are associated with improved outcome in ovarian carcinoma

Immune and inflammatory cascades may play multiple roles in ovarian cancer. We aimed to identify relationships between expression of immune and inflammatory mediators and patient outcomes. We interrogated differential gene expression of 44 markers and marker combinations (n = 1,978) in 1,656 ovarian carcinoma patient tumors, alongside matched 5-year overall survival (OS) data in silico. Using machine learning methods, we investigated whether genomic expression of these 44 mediators can discriminate between malignant and non-malignant tissues in 839 ovarian cancer and 115 non-malignant ovary samples. We furthermore assessed inflammation markers in 289 ovarian cancer patients’ sera in the Swedish Apolipoprotein MOrtality-related RISk (AMORIS) cohort. Expression of the 44 mediators could discriminate between malignant and non-malignant tissues with at least 96% accuracy. Higher expression of classical Th1, Th2, Th17, anti-parasitic/infection and M1 macrophage mediator signatures were associated with better OS. Contrastingly, inflammatory and angiogenic mediators, CXCL-12, C-reactive protein (CRP) and platelet-derived growth factor subunit A (PDGFA) were negatively associated with OS. Of the serum inflammatory markers in the AMORIS cohort, women with ovarian cancer who had elevated levels of haptoglobin (≥1.4 g/L) had a higher risk of dying from ovarian cancer compared to those with haptoglobin levels <1.4 g/L (HR = 2.09, 95% CI:1.38–3.16). Our findings indicate that elevated “classical” immune mediators, associated with response to pathogen antigen challenge, may confer immunological advantage in ovarian cancer, while inflammatory markers appear to have negative prognostic value. These highlight associations between immune protection, inflammation and clinical outcomes, and offer opportunities for patient stratification based on secretome markers.

Inflammation and pancreatic cancer: An updated review

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with poor prognosis in the modern era. Inflammatory processes have emerged as key mediators of pancreatic cancer development and progression. Recently, studies have been carried out to investigate the underlying mechanisms that contribute to tumorigenesis induced by inflammation. In this review, the role of inflammation in the initiation and progression of pancreatic cancer is discussed.

Analysis of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine gene variants and serum cytokine levels as prognostic markers in breast cancer

The aim of current study was to evaluate the genetic variation in all the genes encoding pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in association with breast cancer development in patients from Malwa region of Punjab. The importance of the levels of interleukin (IL)-17, tumor necrosis factor, interferon γ, IL-10, IL-6, IL-4, and IL-2 with respect to clinicopathological data, prognosis, and disease-free survival was also determined in these patients. Two hundred and fifty female breast cancer patients and 250 age-matched controls were screened for variations in cytokine-encoding genes using global screening array microchip. The level of cytokines was estimated in 150 patients and 60 age-matched controls using BD™ Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) Human Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine kit by BD Accuri flow cytometer. The difference in cytokine levels was evaluated by Mann-Whitney test. No significant variation in the genes encoding various cytokines was found between patients and controls. Out of the seven cytokines evaluated, the levels of IL-6 and IL-17a were found to be significantly high in patients in comparison with controls ( p = 0.001 and 0.02, respectively). The elevated levels of these cytokines are also associated significantly with poor outcome. We did not find any specific variation in the genes encoding various cytokines between patients and controls. However, there was a significant difference in the serum levels of IL-6 and IL-17a between patients and controls, and the elevated levels of these two cytokines associated significantly with poor outcome in breast cancer patients and, therefore, can be used as prognostic markers.

Breast Cancer Metastasis: Are Cytokines Important Players During Its Development and Progression?

In breast cancer, an uncontrolled cell proliferation leads to tumor formation and development of a multifactorial disease. Metastasis is a complex process that involves tumor spread to distant parts of the body from its original site. Metastatic dissemination represents the main physiopathology of cancer. Inter- and intracellular communication in all systems in vertebrates is mediated by cytokines, which are highly inducible, secretory proteins, produced not only by immune system cells, but also by endocrine and nervous system cells. It has become clear in recent years that cytokines, as well as their receptors are produced in the organisms under physiological and pathological conditions; recently, they have been closely related to breast cancer metastasis. The exact initiation process of breast cancer metastasis is unknown, although several hypotheses have emerged. In this study, we thoroughly reviewed the role of several cytokines in breast cancer metastasis. Data reviewed suggest that cytokines and growth factors are key players in the breast cancer metastasis induction. This knowledge must be considered with the aim to development of new therapeutic approaches to counter breast cancer metastasis.

Potential Risks Related to Modulating Interleukin-13 and Interleukin-4 Signalling: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Interleukin-13 and interleukin-4 are type-II cytokines signalling through the shared type II interleukin-4 receptor. As a result of their structural similarity, interleukin-13 and interleukin-4 have overlapping functions in the mediation of type-II-driven diseases and are, therefore, promising targets of biologic drugs currently in development for the treatment of such diseases, including asthma and atopic dermatitis.

Objective

This systematic review was conducted to assess preclinical evidence of potential safety concerns related to blockade of interleukin-13 alone or interleukin-13 and interleukin-4 in combination.

Methods

We specifically examined risks related to infection, malignancy and the cardiovascular system. We systematically searched the BIOSIS, MEDLINE and EMBASE databases to identify preclinical studies published between January 2006 and October 2016 that addressed the effects of interleukin-13/interleukin-4 blockade and modulation on the risk of infection, malignancy and cardiovascular events. To provide a clinical context, we also performed a search for clinical trials targeting the interleukin-13/interleukin-4 pathways. Relevant data from preclinical and clinical trials were abstracted and presented descriptively.

Results

Aside from expected evidence that inhibition of interleukin-13 and interleukin-4 impaired host responses to helminth infections, we did not identify other preclinical evidence suggesting safety risks relating to infection, malignancy or cardiovascular events. We found no evidence in clinical trials suggesting serious safety concerns, i.e. increased risk for infections, malignancy or cardiovascular events from therapeutic modulation of the interleukin-13 pathway alone or the combined interleukin-13/interleukin-4 pathways.

Conclusions

Although our findings are reassuring, long-term safety assessments of biologics that target the interleukin-13/interleukin-4 pathways currently in clinical development are needed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s40264-017-0636-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.