1
|
Nali MC, McMann TJ, Purushothaman V, Li Z, Cuomo RE, Liang BA, Mackey TK. Assessing Characteristics and Compliance of Online Delta-8 Tetrahydrocannabinol Product Sellers. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023. [PMID: 37200462 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The debate over the legal status of many cannabis- and hemp-derived products, including delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is in question. Although low concentrations of delta-8 THC are legal at the Federal level, many states have implemented their own regulations to both allow and restrict its use and sale. Of concern, sellers with unknown legal credentials have appeared online and are actively selling this product. Materials and Methods: We characterized the marketing, sale, and compliance of online delta-8 THC sellers using (1) data collected from the Twitter Application Programming Interface with delta-8 THC-related keywords; (2) unsupervised topic modeling using the Biterm Topic Model to identify clusters of tweets involved in marketing and selling; (3) inductive coding to identify marketing and selling characteristics; and (4) web forensics and simulated shopping to determine compliance with state restrictions for delta-8 THC sales. Results: In total, 110 unique hyperlinks associated with 7085 tweets that included marketing and selling activity for delta-8 THC were collected. From these links, we conducted simulated purchasing in January 2021 to identify compliant and noncompliant websites. Among the vendors, age verification was not found in over half of websites (59, 53.63%); 60 (54.55%) did not report a physical address; and 74 (65.45%) sold delta-8 products direct-to-consumer. Sixty-seven (90.54%) of detected vendors shipped delta-8 products to addresses in states that prohibit sales. Forty-three (64.18%) of Internet Protocol addresses were located within the United States; all others were international. Conclusion: Our analysis suggests that online storefronts are illegally selling and shipping cannabinoid derivatives to U.S. consumers. Further research is needed to understand downstream health and regulatory impacts from this unregulated access.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Nali
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- S-3 Research, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Tiana J McMann
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- S-3 Research, San Diego, California, USA
- Global Health Program, Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Vidya Purushothaman
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Zhuoran Li
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- S-3 Research, San Diego, California, USA
- San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Raphael E Cuomo
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Bryan A Liang
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Tim K Mackey
- Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- S-3 Research, San Diego, California, USA
- Global Health Program, Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Han J, Ng’ombe JN. The supply-side effects of cannabis legalization. J Cannabis Res 2022; 4:40. [PMID: 35864509 PMCID: PMC9306049 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-022-00148-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The purpose of this study is to examine how cannabis legalization and corresponding taxation would affect the supply-side of the cannabis market. Specifically, the study considers various scenarios in which Oklahoma legalizes recreational cannabis for adult use and simulates changes in state-level market sales for other legal states and the average grower profits in Oklahoma. We assume that legalizing recreational cannabis in medical-only states would significantly increase the demand quantity in the legalized states and the local government would levy a significant level of tax on recreational cannabis. These assumptions are based on the post-legalization phenomena in other legalized US states. Method We simulate outcomes in the cannabis industry under the assumption of representative consumers with constant elasticity of substitution demand behavior and profit-maximizing firms with a Cobb-Douglas profit function. All agents are assumed to take exogenous prices as given. We calibrate the model using state-level sales data from 2020 and explore potential policies in Oklahoma and at the federal level. Results We find that, under the scenarios we consider, legalization of recreational cannabis in Oklahoma would lead to a decrease in the quantity of cannabis sold in Oklahoma’s medical cannabis market as well as decreases in the quantity of cannabis sold in other states on average. Furthermore, we find that as the excise tax rate on recreational cannabis in Oklahoma is increased, the demand quantity in recreational cannabis market would decrease while the other markets’ demand quantity would increase on average. As the elasticity of substitution between state-level products increases, the overall demand quantity would increase and the market quantity across states become more sensitive to Oklahoma’s tax policies. This pattern could become starker as the elasticity of substitution between recreational and medical cannabis increases. In terms of profit, heavy taxation and price decrease due to legalization would significantly decrease cannabis producers’ production and profit levels unless the cost reduction strategies complement legalization. Conclusion Based on our results, the legalization of recreational cannabis has the potential to generate tax revenue to fund critical government projects and services. However, such legalization would have to be done carefully because heavy excise taxes would decrease the legal cannabis market demand and growers’ profit, which would incentivize producers and consumers to move to the illicit cannabis market. Policymakers would have to compromise between the levels of interstate transportation and taxation to ensure that cannabis suppliers also realize some profit within the cannabis supply chain.
Collapse
|
3
|
Kerr WC, Ye Y. Characteristics of the Washington cannabis market from 2014 to 2016. J Cannabis Res 2022; 4:35. [PMID: 35788247 PMCID: PMC9251922 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-022-00147-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The state of Washington legalized cannabis for adult use in 2012 and retail stores began to open in 2014. While details of the legal market have been tracked by the state, the total market for cannabis and characteristics of purchasers can only be identified through surveys. METHODS Six cross-sectional samples of the Privatization of Spirits in Washington (PSW) surveys were collected between January 2014 and October 2016 with two in each year. Random digit dial procedures were used to recruit a sample aged 18 and older, with 40% of cases from mobile phones. A total of 5492 respondents participated. Analyses of the population-weighted sample utilized purchasing amounts and frequencies, use frequency and related measures to estimate total and mean amounts and expenditures. Sensitivity analyses were conducted for key assumptions. RESULTS The market for cannabis flower is estimated to have increased from 158 metric tons and $1.23 billion in 2014 to 222 metric tons and $1.7 billion in 2016, with little change from 2014 to 2015. Purchases from legal sources, retail and dispensaries, were estimated at 69% of the total market. Daily or near daily (DND) users accounted for about 83% of sales in 2014, rising to 91% in 2016. The prevalence of past year use rose substantially from 25% in 2014 to 32% in 2016, with DND use rising from 10.2 to 11.3%. Average purchase amounts for DND users rose from 291 g in 2014 to 374 g in 2016, while mean amounts among non-DND users declined from 78 to 28.6 g. CONCLUSIONS The expansion of retail cannabis stores in Washington appears to have led to increased market size in 2016 with all of the increase attributed to DND users. Frequent users may be important to consider in legalization evaluations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William C. Kerr
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6001 Shellmound Ave, Suite 450, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| | - Yu Ye
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6001 Shellmound Ave, Suite 450, Emeryville, CA 94608 USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fleming CB, Ramirez JJ, Rhew IC, Hultgren BA, Hanson KG, Larimer ME, Dilley JA, Kilmer JR, Guttmannova K. Trends in Alcohol, Cigarette, E-Cigarette, and Nonprescribed Pain Reliever Use Among Young Adults in Washington State After Legalization of Nonmedical Cannabis. J Adolesc Health 2022; 71:47-54. [PMID: 35550333 PMCID: PMC9232986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Liberalization of cannabis laws may be accompanied by changes in the use of substances other than cannabis and changes in associations of cannabis use with other types of substance use. This study assessed (1) trends in alcohol, nicotine, and nonprescribed pain reliever use and (2) changes in associations of cannabis use with these other substances among young adults in Washington State after nonmedical cannabis legalization. METHODS Regression models stratified by age (18-20 vs. 21-25) were used to analyze six annual waves of cross-sectional survey data from a statewide sample from 2014 through 2019 (N = 12,694). RESULTS Prevalence of past-month alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking (HED), and cigarette use and prevalence of past-year pain reliever misuse decreased, while the prevalence of past-month e-cigarette use increased since 2016 (the first year assessed). Across years and age groups, the prevalence of substance use other than cannabis was higher among occasional and frequent cannabis users compared to cannabis nonusers. However, associations between both occasional (1-19 days in the prior month) and frequent (20+ days) cannabis use and pain reliever misuse and between frequent cannabis use and HED weakened over time among individuals ages 21-25. DISCUSSION Contrary to concerns about spillover effects, implementation of legalized nonmedical cannabis coincided with decreases in alcohol and cigarette use and pain reliever misuse. The weakening association of cannabis use with the use of other substances among individuals ages 21-25 requires further research but may suggest increased importance of cannabis-specific prevention and treatment efforts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles B Fleming
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
| | - Jason J Ramirez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Isaac C Rhew
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Brittney A Hultgren
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Koren G Hanson
- School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Mary E Larimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Julia A Dilley
- Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Public Health Division, Portland, Oregon
| | - Jason R Kilmer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vann Jr B. Direct democracy and the adoption of recreational marijuana legalization in the United States, 2012–2019. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2022; 102:103583. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
6
|
Kilmer JR, Rhew IC, Guttmannova K, Fleming CB, Hultgren BA, Gilson MS, Cooper RL, Dilley J, Larimer ME. Cannabis Use Among Young Adults in Washington State After Legalization of Nonmedical Cannabis. Am J Public Health 2022; 112:638-645. [PMID: 35319936 PMCID: PMC8961820 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2021.306641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Objectives. To examine changes in prevalence of cannabis use and of cannabis use disorder symptomatology among young adults from 2014 to 2019 in Washington State, where nonmedical (or "recreational") cannabis was legalized in 2012 and retail stores opened in July 2014. Methods. We used 6 years of cross-sectional data collected annually from 2014 (premarket opening) to 2019 from 12 963 (∼2000 per year) young adults aged 18 to 25 years residing in Washington. Logistic regression models estimated yearly change in prevalence of cannabis use at different margins and related outcomes. Results. Prevalence of past-year, at least monthly, at least weekly, and daily use of cannabis increased for young adults, although increases were driven by changes among those aged 21 to 25 years. There was also a statistically significant increase in prevalence of endorsing at least 2 of 5 possible symptoms associated with cannabis use disorder. Conclusions. Among young adults in Washington, particularly those of legal age, prevalences of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder symptomatology have increased since legalization. This trend may require continued monitoring as the nonmedical cannabis market continues to evolve. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(4):638-645. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306641).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason R Kilmer
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Isaac C Rhew
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Charles B Fleming
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Brittney A Hultgren
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Michael S Gilson
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Rachel L Cooper
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Julia Dilley
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| | - Mary E Larimer
- Jason R. Kilmer, Isaac C. Rhew, Katarina Guttmannova, Charles B. Fleming, Brittney A. Hultgren, Michael S. Gilson, Rachel L. Cooper, and Mary E. Larimer are with the Center for the Study of Health & Risk Behaviors, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle. Julia Dilley is with Program Design and Evaluation Services, Multnomah County Health Department and Oregon Health Authority Division of Public Health, Portland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kerr WC, Ye Y. Estimating Usual Grams per Day of Marijuana Use from Purchases. ADDICTION RESEARCH & THEORY 2022; 30:360-367. [PMID: 36189378 PMCID: PMC9523691 DOI: 10.1080/16066359.2022.2049255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quantifying average amounts of marijuana used per day or per occasion of use helps inform understanding population-level patterns of use and use-related harm, but better estimates and estimation methods are needed. Users have difficulty in reporting use amounts, but purchase amounts may be more clearly recalled. METHODS Measures of individual's use and purchasing frequency and details of purchases such as the amounts and products bought and the cost of these were collected in six cross-sectional representative surveys of the population 18 and older in the state of Washington from 2014 to 2016. Analyses utilize purchase information on both flower and other marijuana products to estimate mean amounts per use day and predict use amounts for non-purchasers. RESULTS Mean marijuana use per use day among purchasers was 1.35 grams and non-purchasers estimated mean use amount per day was 0.71 grams. Lower mean use per day was a found for women and the most frequent users. Based on these estimates, total past year marijuana use for purchasers had a mean of 184.8 grams and the mean for non-purchasers was 28 grams. CONCLUSIONS Methods based on purchasing details can be used to estimate individual's marijuana quantity per occasion and total use amount per year, providing additional outcome measures for analyses of predictors of individual marijuana consumption and facilitating more detailed analyses of risks for marijuana harms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William C Kerr
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6001 Shellmound Ave, Suite 450, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
| | - Yu Ye
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6001 Shellmound Ave, Suite 450, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rhew IC, Guttmannova K, Kilmer JR, Fleming CB, Hultgren BA, Hurvitz PM, Dilley JA, Larimer ME. Associations of cannabis retail outlet availability and neighborhood disadvantage with cannabis use and related risk factors among young adults in Washington State. Drug Alcohol Depend 2022; 232:109332. [PMID: 35123361 PMCID: PMC8890768 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study examined associations of local cannabis retail outlet availability and neighborhood disadvantage with cannabis use and related risk factors among young adults. METHODS Data were from annual cross-sectional surveys administered from 2015 to 2019 to individuals ages 18-25 residing in Washington State (N = 10,009). As outcomes, this study assessed self-reported cannabis use at different margins/frequencies (any past year, at least monthly, at least weekly, at least daily) and perceived ease of access to cannabis and acceptability of cannabis use in the community. Cannabis retail outlet availability was defined as the presence of at least one retail outlet within a 1-kilometer road network buffer of one's residence. Sensitivity analyses explored four other spatial metrics to define outlet availability (any outlet within 0.5-km, 2-km, and the census tract; and census tract density per 1000 residents). Census tract level disadvantage was a composite of five US census variables. RESULTS Adjusting for individual- and area-level covariates, living within 1-kilometer of at least one cannabis retail outlet was statistically significantly associated with any past year and at least monthly cannabis use as well as high perceived access to cannabis. Results using a 2-km buffer and census tract-level metrics for retail outlet availability showed similar findings. Neighborhood disadvantage was statistically significantly associated with at least weekly and at least daily cannabis use and with greater perceived acceptability of cannabis use. CONCLUSIONS Results may have implications for regulatory and prevention strategies to reduce the population burden of cannabis use and related harms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isaac C Rhew
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| | - Jason R Kilmer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| | - Charles B Fleming
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| | - Brittney A Hultgren
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| | - Philip M Hurvitz
- Center for the Studies in Demography and Ecology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Urban Design and Planning, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Julia A Dilley
- Oregon Public Health Division, 800 NE Oregon Street, #260, Portland, OR 97232, USA.
| | - Mary E Larimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, Box 357238, Seattle, WA 98195-7238, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Skinner ML, Guttmannova K, Oesterle S, Kuklinski MR. Simultaneous use of marijuana and alcohol: Potential prevention targets among young adults who use alcohol. Addict Behav 2022; 124:107118. [PMID: 34583272 PMCID: PMC8527988 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Simultaneous alcohol and marijuana use (SAM) such that their effects overlap has emerged as a behavior that is riskier than using either substance separately. It has been associated with high-risk binge drinking and driving while intoxicated during young adulthood, and it has been demonstrated to cause greater physical and mental impairment than use of alcohol or marijuana separately. To identify intervention and prevention targets specific to SAM, we examined the relationships between alcohol- and marijuana-specific beliefs and attitudes (risk factors) and self-reported SAM compared to non-simultaneous co-use (CAM) and alcohol use only in the past 30 days in a sample of young adults (n = 1,023, mean age = 23.17; SD = 0.43). Of those who reported drinking alcohol in the past 30 days, 20.7% reported SAM, 12.6% reported CAM, and 66.6% reported using only alcohol. Results from multinomial logistic regression analyses indicated that some marijuana-specific risk factors (e.g., belief that it is not at all wrong for someone their age to use marijuana) differentiated SAM or CAM from alcohol use only, but alcohol-specific risk factors generally did not. However, the perceptions that parents approved of their using marijuana or frequently drinking heavily were associated with a greater likelihood of SAM compared to CAM (OR ranged from 2.25 to 3.53). Findings point to the salience of individuals' attitudes and beliefs around marijuana use and their perception of parental approval of heavy drinking and marijuana use as potential targets for prevention programs targeting risk reduction among young adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martie L. Skinner
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98125, USA,Corresponding Author:
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Box 356560, Seattle, WA 98195-6560, USA
| | - Sabrina Oesterle
- Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center, School of Social Work, Arizona State University, 411 N Central Ave., Suite 720, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA
| | - Margaret R. Kuklinski
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98125, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Meinhofer A, Witman AE, Hinde JM, Simon K. Marijuana liberalization policies and perinatal health. JOURNAL OF HEALTH ECONOMICS 2021; 80:102537. [PMID: 34626876 PMCID: PMC8643317 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We studied the effect of marijuana liberalization policies on perinatal health with a multiperiod difference-in-differences estimator that exploited variation in effective dates of medical marijuana laws (MML) and recreational marijuana laws (RML). We found that the proportion of maternal hospitalizations with marijuana use disorder increased by 23% (0.3 percentage points) in the first three years after RML implementation, with larger effects in states authorizing commercial sales of marijuana. This growth was accompanied by a 7% (0.4 percentage points) decline in tobacco use disorder hospitalizations, yielding a net zero effect over all substance use disorder hospitalizations. RMLs were not associated with statistically significant changes in newborn health. MMLs had no statistically significant effect on maternal substance use disorder hospitalizations nor on newborn health and fairly small effects could be ruled out. In absolute numbers, our findings implied modest or no adverse effects of marijuana liberalization policies on the array of perinatal outcomes considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Meinhofer
- Weill Cornell Medicine, 425 E 61st Street, Suite 301, New York, NY 10065, United States.
| | - Allison E Witman
- University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28043-5920, United States.
| | - Jesse M Hinde
- RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States.
| | - Kosali Simon
- Indiana University, 1315 East Tenth Street, Bloomington, IN 47405-1701, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Payán DD, Brown P, Song AV. County-Level Recreational Marijuana Policies and Local Policy Changes in Colorado and Washington State (2012-2019). Milbank Q 2021; 99:1132-1161. [PMID: 34407252 DOI: 10.1111/1468-0009.12535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Policy Points In 2012, Colorado and Washington were the first states to legalize recreational marijuana through voter-initiated ballots. In these states, counties could restrict or ban local marijuana facilities through a variety of regulatory methods such as ordinances and zoning. County-level recreational marijuana policies in Washington and Colorado vary substantially, with 69.2% of Washington counties and 23.4% of Colorado counties allowing all types of recreational marijuana facilities as of April 1, 2019. After Colorado and Washington legalized recreational marijuana, many counties modified their marijuana policies over time, with shifts in county policy often preceded by advocacy and information-seeking activities. CONTEXT In 2012, Colorado and Washington were the first states to legalize recreational marijuana. Both allowed local governments to further regulate the availability of marijuana facilities in their jurisdictions. As early adopters, these states are important quasi-natural experiments to examine local marijuana policy and policy change processes, including key stakeholders and arguments. METHODS We conducted a policy scan of county-level recreational marijuana ordinances and regulations in Colorado and Washington. Data collected included policy documents from counties in both states and newspaper articles. We used a mixed-methods approach to describe the types of county-level recreational marijuana policies enacted by April 1, 2019; identify key policy stakeholders involved in local policy debates; and explore arguments used in support or opposition of county policies. We also selected four counties that represent three county policy environments (all marijuana facility types allowed, some marijuana facility types allowed, all marijuana facility types prohibited) and described the policy changes within these counties since recreational marijuana was legalized. FINDINGS By April 1, 2019, Colorado counties were less likely than Washington counties to allow marijuana facilities-48.4% of Colorado counties prohibited recreational marijuana facilities in their jurisdiction compared to 23.1% of Washington counties. Since state legalization, several counties in both states have made substantial marijuana facility policy modifications, often preceded by information-seeking activities. Primary stakeholders involved in policy debates included elected officials, law enforcement, individual growers/farmers, marijuana business license applicants, parents, and residents. Proponents referenced local economic gain, reduced crime, and potential health benefits of marijuana as arguments in favor of permitting local facilities, whereas opponents pointed to economic loss, negative health and public health issues, public safety concerns, and existing federal law. Both sides referenced local public opinion data to support their position. CONCLUSIONS By early 2019, a patchwork of local marijuana policies was in place in Colorado and Washington. We identify key areas of policy and public health research needed to inform future local marijuana policy decisions, including the impact of legalization on public health outcomes (particularly for youth) and public safety.
Collapse
|
12
|
Guttmannova K, Fleming CB, Rhew IC, Abdallah DA, Patrick ME, Duckworth JC, Lee CM. Dual trajectories of cannabis and alcohol use among young adults in a state with legal nonmedical cannabis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2021; 45:1458-1467. [PMID: 34089527 PMCID: PMC8357031 DOI: 10.1111/acer.14629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the nature of the association between cannabis and alcohol use within individuals over time in the era of legalized cannabis is of crucial importance for assessing the public health consequences of increasing cannabis use. An important unanswered question is whether cannabis and alcohol use substitute for one another. Specifically, is greater use of one substance associated with less use of the other substance (i.e., a negative association) or are the substances complementary and their association positive? METHODS We used 24 consecutive months of data on a young adult sample (n = 774; 56% female, age 18-25 during the study) who drank alcohol in the year prior to enrollment. The sample was recruited in Washington State in 2015/2016 (after legalization of nonmedical cannabis) using media advertisements and community flyers and outreach. Using parallel process latent growth curve models, we assessed three types of association between cannabis and alcohol use across the 24-month period: (1) an association between average levels of cannabis and alcohol use; (2) an association between rates of change in cannabis and alcohol use; and (3) correlations between shorter-term deviations/fluctuations off of longer-term trajectories of level and change in cannabis and alcohol use. RESULTS We found a positive association between the average frequency of cannabis and alcohol use; individuals who used cannabis more frequently on average also drank alcohol more frequently on average. Change over time in cannabis use was positively associated with change in alcohol use. There was also a contemporaneous positive association between fluctuations in cannabis and alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS Overall, we found no evidence of substitution. Rather, the results suggest a complementary relationship between cannabis and alcohol use, such that the use of cannabis and alcohol rises and falls together.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Guttmannova
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Charles B. Fleming
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Isaac C. Rhew
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Devon Alisa Abdallah
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Megan E. Patrick
- Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Christine M. Lee
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mahabir VK, Smith CS, Vannabouathong C, Merchant JJ, Garibaldi AL. Comparing medical cannabis use in 5 US states: a retrospective database study. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:15. [PMID: 34044878 PMCID: PMC8161659 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00075-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background US states have been adopting their own medical cannabis laws since 1996. There is substantial variability in the medical cannabis programs between states, and these differences have not been thoroughly investigated in the literature. The objective of the study was to compare medical cannabis patient characteristics across five states to identify differences potentially caused by differing policies surrounding condition eligibility. Methods We conducted secondary analyses following a retrospective study of a registry database with data from 33 medical cannabis evaluation clinics in the US, owned and operated by CB2 Insights. This study narrowed the dataset to include patients from five states with the largest samples: Massachusetts (n = 27,892), Colorado (n = 16,434), Maine (n = 4591), Connecticut (n = 2643), and Maryland (n = 2403) to conduct an in-depth study of the characteristics of patients accessing medical cannabis in these states, including analysis of variance to compare average ages and number of conditions and chi-squared tests to compare proportions of patient characteristics between states. Results Average ages varied between the states, with the youngest average in Connecticut (42.2) and the oldest in Massachusetts (47.0). Males represented approximately 60% of the patients with data on gender in each state. The majority of patients in each state had cannabis experience prior to seeking medical certification. Primary medical conditions varied for each state, with chronic pain, anxiety, and back and neck problems topping the list in varying orders for Massachusetts, Maine, and Maryland. Colorado had 78.7% of patients report chronic pain as their primary condition, and 70.4% of patients in Connecticut reported post-traumatic stress disorder as their primary medical condition. Conclusion This study demonstrated the significant impact that policy has on patients’ access to medical cannabis in Massachusetts, Colorado, Maine, Connecticut, and Maryland utilizing real-world data. It highlights how qualifications differ between the five states and brings into question the routes through which patients in states with stricter regulations surrounding eligible conditions choose to seek treatment with cannabis. These patients may turn to alternative treatments, or to the illicit or recreational cannabis markets, where permitted. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42238-021-00075-z.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Kishan Mahabir
- CB2 Insights, 5045 Orbitor Dr, Building 11, Suite 300, Mississauga, ON, L4W 4Y4, Canada
| | - Christopher S Smith
- CB2 Insights, 5045 Orbitor Dr, Building 11, Suite 300, Mississauga, ON, L4W 4Y4, Canada.
| | | | - Jamil J Merchant
- CB2 Insights, 5045 Orbitor Dr, Building 11, Suite 300, Mississauga, ON, L4W 4Y4, Canada
| | - Alisha L Garibaldi
- CB2 Insights, 5045 Orbitor Dr, Building 11, Suite 300, Mississauga, ON, L4W 4Y4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Cambron C, Kosterman R, Rhew IC, Catalano RF, Guttmannova K, Hawkins JD. Neighborhood Structural Factors and Proximal Risk for Youth Substance Use. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2021; 21:508-518. [PMID: 31853720 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-019-01072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
This study examined associations of neighborhood structural factors (census-based measures, socioeconomic disadvantage, and residential stability); self-reported measures of general and substance use-specific risk factors across neighborhood, school, peer, and family domains; and sociodemographic factors with substance use among 9th grade students. Data drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project, a theory-driven longitudinal study originating in Seattle, WA, were used to estimate associations between risk factors and past month cigarette smoking, binge drinking, marijuana use, and polysubstance use among students (N = 766). Results of logistic regression models adjusting for neighborhood clustering and including all domains of risk factors simultaneously indicated that neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with a significantly higher likelihood of cigarette smoking, binge drinking, and polysubstance use, but not marijuana use. In fully controlled models, substance use-specific risk factors across neighborhood, school, peer, and family domains were also associated with increased likelihood of substance use and results differed by the outcome considered. Results highlight substance-specific risk factors as an intervention target for reducing youth substance use and suggest that further research is needed examining mechanisms linking neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and youth substance use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Cambron
- College of Social Work, University of Utah, 395 South 1500 East, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA. .,Center for Health Outcomes and Population Equity, Huntsman Cancer Institute, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
| | - Rick Kosterman
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Isaac C Rhew
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Richard F Catalano
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - J David Hawkins
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Moore JR, Chen Q, Choi NG. Cannabis use, use frequency, and use disorder in large metropolitan, small metropolitan, and nonmetropolitan areas. Drug Alcohol Depend 2021; 221:108631. [PMID: 33647587 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite significant geographical heterogeneity of sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, little is known about potential differences in cannabis use behaviors in U.S. geographic areas. In this study, we examined cannabis use behaviors in large metropolitan, small metropolitan, and nonmetropolitan areas. We focused on interactions between geographic areas and health insurance status and medical cannabis laws (MCL). METHODS Data came from the 2015-2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH; N = 171,766 adults; N = 36,175 cannabis users). Weighted chi-squares tests of independence and multivariable Poisson regression models were used to examine study questions. RESULTS Past-year use was highest in large metropolitan areas (16.08 %). Frequent use was highest among nonmetropolitan area users (48.67 %). Uninsured adults had a higher likelihood of past-year use (RRR = 1.21, 95 % CI = 1.14, 1.29) and frequent use (RRR = 1.27, 95 % CI = 1.14, 1.41), but a lower likelihood of cannabis use disorder (RRR = 0.77, 95 % CI = 0.66, 0.89). Uninsured adults in nonmetropolitan areas had a higher likelihood (RRR = 1.62, 95 % CI = 1.39, 1.88) of past-year use than insured nonmetropolitan area adults. MCL state residency was associated with a higher likelihood of frequent use among nonmetropolitan (RRR = 1.39, 95 % CI = 1.11, 1.74) and small metropolitan users (RRR = 1.30, 95 % CI = 1.15, 1.47). Cannabis use disorder likelihood did not vary by geographic area. CONCLUSIONS Lack of health insurance and MCL state residency are significant variables affecting cannabis use behaviors in small metropolitan and/or nonmetropolitan areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John R Moore
- The University of Texas at Austin, Steve Hicks School of Social Work, 1925 San Jacinto Blvd, Austin, TX 78712, United States.
| | - Qi Chen
- The University of Texas at Austin, Steve Hicks School of Social Work, 1925 San Jacinto Blvd, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Namkee G Choi
- The University of Texas at Austin, Steve Hicks School of Social Work, 1925 San Jacinto Blvd, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Genotype-environment correlation by intervention effects underlying middle childhood peer rejection and associations with adolescent marijuana use. Dev Psychopathol 2020; 34:171-182. [PMID: 33349288 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579420001066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aggressive behavior in middle childhood can contribute to peer rejection, subsequently increasing risk for substance use in adolescence. However, the quality of peer relationships a child experiences can be associated with his or her genetic predisposition, a genotype-environment correlation (rGE). In addition, recent evidence indicates that psychosocial preventive interventions can buffer genetic predispositions for negative behavior. The current study examined associations between polygenic risk for aggression, aggressive behavior, and peer rejection from 8.5 to 10.5 years, and the subsequent influence of peer rejection on marijuana use in adolescence (n = 515; 256 control, 259 intervention). Associations were examined separately in control and intervention groups for children of families who participated in a randomized controlled trial of the family-based preventive intervention, the Family Check-Up . Using time-varying effect modeling (TVEM), polygenic risk for aggression was associated with peer rejection from approximately age 8.50 to 9.50 in the control group but no associations were present in the intervention group. Subsequent analyses showed peer rejection mediated the association between polygenic risk for aggression and adolescent marijuana use in the control group. The role of rGEs in middle childhood peer processes and implications for preventive intervention programs for adolescent substance use are discussed.
Collapse
|
17
|
Kerr WC, Williams E, Patterson D, Karriker-Jaffe KJ, Greenfield TK. Extending the Harm to Others Paradigm: Comparing Marijuana- and Alcohol-Attributed Harms in Washington State. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 53:149-157. [PMID: 33269983 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1847364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Harms attributed to others' alcohol use have been extensively studied in the US and internationally, but no studies have measured harms from others' marijuana use. We utilize data from five cross-sectional waves of a survey series with representative samples of Washington state residents conducted every 6 months from 2014 to 2016, after the legalization of adult use marijuana. Harms attributed to others' drinking and to others' marijuana use included family and financial problems, assault, harassment, and vandalism experiences, and accidents due to impaired drivers. Past year harms attributed to others' marijuana use were reported by 8.4% of the sample, while 21.3% reported alcohol-attributed harms and 4.3% experienced both. Women were more likely to experience harms from either substance. While heavy drinkers were most likely to experience alcohol harms from others' use, frequent marijuana users reported the least harms from others. About three times as many individuals reported harassment, vandalism, or family problems attributed to someone's alcohol use compared to those harms attributed to someone's marijuana use, with a smaller ratio seen for financial trouble and a wider ratio for physical harm. Harms attributed to other's marijuana use in Washington were found to be substantial, but lower than harms from others' drinking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William C Kerr
- Public Health Institute, Alcohol Research Group, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Edwina Williams
- Public Health Institute, Alcohol Research Group, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Deidre Patterson
- Public Health Institute, Alcohol Research Group, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Fink DS, Stohl M, Sarvet AL, Cerda M, Keyes KM, Hasin D. Medical marijuana laws and driving under the influence of marijuana and alcohol. Addiction 2020; 115:1944-1953. [PMID: 32141142 PMCID: PMC7483706 DOI: 10.1111/add.15031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Medical marijuana law (MML) enactment in the United States has been associated with increased cannabis use but lower traffic fatality rates. We assessed the possible association of MML and individual-level driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) and also under the influence of alcohol (DUIA). DESIGN AND SETTING Three cross-sectional U.S. adult surveys: The National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey (NLAES; 1991-1992), the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC; 2001-2002), and the NESARC-III (2012-2013). PARTICIPANTS The total n was 118 497: 41 764, 41 184, and 35 549 from NLAES, NESARC, and NESARC-III, respectively. MEASUREMENTS Across the three surveys, similar questions in the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule assessed DUIC and DUIA. Ever-MML states enacted MML between 1991-1992 and 2012-2013 (overall period). Early-MML states enacted MML between 1991-1992 and 2001-2002 (early period). Late-MML states enacted MML between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013 (late period). MML effects on change in DUIC and DUIA prevalence were estimated using a difference-in-differences specification to compare changes in MML and other states. FINDINGS From 1991-1992 to 2012-2013, DUIC prevalence nearly doubled (from 1.02% to 1.92%), increasing more in states that enacted MML than other states (difference-in-differences [DiD] = 0.59%; 95% CI = 0.06%-1.12%). Most change in DUIC prevalence occurred between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013. DUIC prevalence increased more in states that enacted MML 2001-2002 to 2012-2013 than in never-MML states (DiD = 0.77%; 95% CI = -0.05%-1.59%), and in two early-MML states, California (DiD = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.06-1.59) and Colorado (DiD = 1.32; 95% CI = 0.11-2.53). In contrast, DUIA prevalence appeared unrelated to MML enactment. CONCLUSIONS Medical marijuana law enactment in US states appears to have been associated with increased prevalence of driving under the influence of cannabis, but not alcohol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S. Fink
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Malki Stohl
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aaron L. Sarvet
- Department of Epidemiology, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Magdalena Cerda
- Department of Population Health, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Katherine M. Keyes
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Deborah Hasin
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Harwick RM, Carlini BH, Garrett SB. A Taxonomy of Consumers’ Perspectives on the Function of Cannabis in Their Lives: A Qualitative Study in WA State, USA. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:393-400. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1763522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin M. Harwick
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute- ADAI, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Beatriz H. Carlini
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute- ADAI, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sharon B. Garrett
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute- ADAI, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Liu Y, Brettell TA, Victoria J, Wood MR, Staretz ME. High performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis extracts. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
21
|
Johnson RM, Fleming CB, Cambron C, Dean LT, Brighthaupt SC, Guttmannova K. Race/Ethnicity Differences in Trends of Marijuana, Cigarette, and Alcohol Use Among 8th, 10th, and 12th Graders in Washington State, 2004-2016. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2020; 20:194-204. [PMID: 29633175 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-018-0899-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Accurate estimates of substance use in the teenage years by race/ethnicity may help identify when to intervene to prevent long-term substance use disparities. We examined trends in past 30-day use of marijuana, cigarette, and alcohol among 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in Washington State, which passed a recreational marijuana law in 2012 and initiated retail marijuana sales in 2014. Data are from the 2004-2016 Washington Healthy Youth Surveys (n = 161,992). We used time series regression models to assess linear and quadratic trends in substance use for the full sample and stratified on race/ethnicity and grade level and examined relative differences in prevalence of use by race/ethnicity. In Washington, across all racial/ethnic groups, marijuana use peaked in 2012. Although there was not a significant overall change in marijuana use for the full sample across the study period, there was a statistically significant increase in use among 12th graders and a statistically significant decrease among 8th graders. Relative to Whites, Asians had a lower prevalence of marijuana use, whereas all other race/ethnicity groups had a higher prevalence of use. Prevalence of marijuana use is particularly high among American Indian/Alaska Native and Black youth and has increased most rapidly among 12th grade Hispanic/Latinx youth. There were large and statistically significant decreases in alcohol and cigarette use across the study period for the full sample, as well as for each race/ethnicity group. These findings highlight the need for continued monitoring of trends in use among these groups and potentially warrant consideration of selective interventions that specifically focus on students of color and that include developmentally-appropriate strategies relevant to each grade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renee M Johnson
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 North Broadway, 8th Floor, Room 898, Baltimore, MD, 21205-1999, USA. .,Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Charles B Fleming
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Christopher Cambron
- School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Lorraine T Dean
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sherri-Chanelle Brighthaupt
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 North Broadway, 8th Floor, Room 898, Baltimore, MD, 21205-1999, USA
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Guttmannova K, Jones AA, Johnson JK, Oesterle S, Johnson RM, Martins SS. Using Existing Data to Advance Knowledge About Adolescent and Emerging Adult Marijuana Use in the Context of Changes in Marijuana Policies. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2020; 20:291-299. [PMID: 30719616 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-019-00991-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Dept. of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | | | - Julie K Johnson
- Massachusetts Cannabis Control Commission, Massachusetts Department of Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sabrina Oesterle
- School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Renee M Johnson
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Dept. of Mental Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Silvia S Martins
- Dept. of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Guttmannova K, Skinner ML, Oesterle S, White HR, Catalano RF, Hawkins JD. The Interplay Between Marijuana-Specific Risk Factors and Marijuana Use Over the Course of Adolescence. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2020; 20:235-245. [PMID: 29504048 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-018-0882-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Permissive attitudes and norms about marijuana use and perceptions of low harm from use are considered risk factors for adolescent marijuana use. However, the relationship between risk and use may be reciprocal and vary across development and socializing domains. We examined the bidirectional relationships between marijuana-specific risk factors in individual, parent, peer, and community domains and adolescent marijuana use. Longitudinal data came from a sample of 2002 adolescents in 12 communities. Controlling for sociodemographic covariates and communities in which the individuals resided, autoregressive cross-lagged models examined predictive associations between the risk factors and marijuana use. After accounting for concurrent relationships between risk and use and stability in behavior over time, early adolescence and the transition to high school were particularly salient developmental time points. Specifically, higher risk in all four domains in grades 7 and 9 predicted greater use 1 year later. Moreover, youth's perception of lax community enforcement of laws regarding adolescent use at all time points predicted increases in marijuana use at the subsequent assessment, and perceived low harm from use was a risk factor that prospectively predicted more marijuana use at most of the time points. Finally, greater frequency of marijuana use predicted higher levels of risk factors at the next time point in most socializing domains throughout adolescence. Prevention programs should take into account developmental transitions, especially in early adolescence and during the transition to high school. They also should focus on the reciprocal relationships between use and risk across multiple socializing domains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Box 356560, Seattle, WA, 98195-6560, USA.
| | - Martie L Skinner
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - Sabrina Oesterle
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - Helene R White
- Center of Alcohol Studies and Sociology Department, Rutgers - The State University of New Jersey, 607 Allison Rd, Piscataway Township, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Richard F Catalano
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - J David Hawkins
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave. NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Carlini BH, Harwick R, Garrett S. Anytime is the Right Time: A Content Analysis of Marijuana Ads in Freely Distributed Print Media in Western Washington State, USA. Subst Use Misuse 2020; 55:806-817. [PMID: 31876238 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2019.1703749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Background: Cannabis advertisement content in print media has not yet been studied, despite youth high exposure to them. This study analyzes cannabis ads content in two publications in Western Washington State, USA. Methods: Content analysis of 305 cannabis advertisements published in 2017 in two free print publications was performed with support of NVivo software. A deductive approach was utilized, leveraging alcohol advertisement studies' coding frames and adding cannabis-specific codes in an iterative process. Coding was performed using a two-step analytical procedure. Results: Ads depicted the use of cannabis as part of everyday life and coopted mainstream events such as holidays to promote sales. Ads of cannabis products emphasized lifestyles that conveyed enjoyment of time in nature; such as scenes of people sitting by waterfalls, contemplating natural landscapes, paddle boarding, and canoeing. A sizeable proportion of the cannabis ads shared with alcohol ads an emphasis on the personal and social rewards of using these products, rather than product features, such as quality and taste. Conclusions: In WA State, cannabis use ads content tend to focus on solitude and outdoor recreation rather than parties and team sports, a common theme in alcohol ads. While the themes differ from alcohol, marijuana marketing mimics strategies used by alcohol industries, such as promoting the identification of their products with lifestyles and values considered appealing to attract new consumers. Many ads presented content known to appeal to youth, with content designed to elicit responses based on emotions rather than cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz H Carlini
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Robin Harwick
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sharon Garrett
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Phillips JG, Evans M, Hughes B, Ogeil RP. Patterns of Cannabis Consumption, Social Networks, and Foraging. JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0022042619887501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This study considered contextual factors (i.e., times, places, peers) associated with cannabis use. A total of 153 participants answered an anonymous online survey, completed the Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test – Revised (CUDIT-R), and indicated their numbers of regular smoking partners, and times and places cannabis was normally purchased. Recent cannabis smokers had higher CUDIT-R scores and purchased cannabis from more places more often. Multiple regression considered subscales of the CUDIT-R. Greater cannabis consumption was associated with more smoking partners and purchases of cannabis at more times and places. Cannabis dependence was associated with cannabis purchases from more places and times and reports that there were more people prepared to do them favors. Harmful use was associated with more purchases at more locations. Patterns of cannabis foraging were compared with foraging behaviors previously observed for caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. The data could inform the development and use of social media and location-aware services seeking to target risky substance use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Evans
- Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
| | | | - Rowan P. Ogeil
- Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Box Hill, Victoria, Australia
- Turning Point, Richmond, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Triangulating web & general population surveys: Do results match legal cannabis market sales? THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2019; 73:293-300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
27
|
Barry RA. Unpacking the Socioeconomic Dynamics of Marijuana Policy Change: Why Does It Matter? J Adolesc Health 2019; 65:5-6. [PMID: 31229055 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Ann Barry
- Global Public Health Unit, School of Social & Political Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Graves JM, Whitehill JM, Miller ME, Brooks-Russell A, Richardson SM, Dilley JA. Employment and Marijuana Use Among Washington State Adolescents Before and After Legalization of Retail Marijuana. J Adolesc Health 2019; 65:39-45. [PMID: 30879883 PMCID: PMC6589368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to describe associations between employment and marijuana use among adolescents 2 years before passage of 2012 ballot initiative and 2 years after the implementation of retail recreational marijuana sales took place in Washington. METHODS We used 2010 and 2016 data from Washington's statewide school-based Healthy Youth Survey, which is completed by more than 76,000 youth annually and representative of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in public schools. We used "difference-in-differences" regression to estimate the odds of current, past 30-day marijuana use by working status and hours worked per week compared with nonworking youth. RESULTS Working adolescents in all grades had higher prevalence of recent marijuana use compared with nonworking adolescents. Youth working in formal settings, such as retail and service sectors, were more likely to use marijuana than nonworking and youth working in informal settings, such as babysitting. Between 2010 and 2016, marijuana use decreased significantly among working and nonworking 8th and 10th graders. Among working 12th graders, marijuana use increased significantly over time relative to nonworking youth (adjusted odds ratio: 1.34, 95% confidence interval: 1.22-1.48). Associations were stronger for youth who worked more hours per week. CONCLUSIONS Working youth were more likely to use marijuana before and after Washington's legalization of retail marijuana. Legalization was associated with increases in marijuana use specifically among 12th-grade working youth. States legalizing marijuana may consider implementing interventions to support healthy behaviors among working youth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janessa M. Graves
- College of Nursing-Spokane, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA 99202 USA,
| | - Jennifer M. Whitehill
- Department of Health Promotion and Policy, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 326 Arnold House, 715 N. Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003 USA,
| | - Mary E. Miller
- Nurse Consultant, 4908 S. Ferdinand Street, Seattle, WA 98118 USA,
| | - Ashley Brooks-Russell
- Program for Injury Prevention, Education and Research (PIPER), Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, 13001 East 17th Place, Mailstop B119, Aurora, CO 80045 USA,
| | - Susan M. Richardson
- Oregon Health Authority, Public Health Division and Multnomah County Health Department, Program Design and Evaluation Services, 800 NE Oregon Street, Suite 260, Portland, OR 97232 USA,
| | - Julia A. Dilley
- Oregon Health Authority, Public Health Division and Multnomah County Health Department, Program Design and Evaluation Services, 800 NE Oregon Street, Suite 260, Portland, OR 97232 USA,
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Eisenberg N, Jones TM, Kosterman R, Bailey JA, Lee JO, Haggerty KP. Parenting Practices in the Context of Legal Marijuana: Voices from Seattle Parents. JOURNAL OF CHILD AND FAMILY STUDIES 2019; 28:587-598. [PMID: 31396007 PMCID: PMC6686896 DOI: 10.1007/s10826-018-1288-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study examined marijuana-related parenting attitudes, behaviors, and challenges in the context of nonmedical marijuana legalization in Washington State. METHOD Qualitative data were collected via 6 focus groups with a total of 54 parents of preteen and teenage children, following the opening of the first marijuana retail store in Seattle in 2014. A structured interview protocol was used to ask parents about their marijuana-related parenting behaviors and about information, skills, or strategies that parents might find helpful while raising children in a state where nonmedical marijuana use is legal for adults. Transcripts were analyzed using thematic content analysis with NVivo software. RESULTS Findings indicate that most parents talked to their children about marijuana, communicating rules and information about the effects of the drug. Although most parents felt that marijuana use by underage youth was not acceptable, many recognized that it was something teens would likely experiment with. Most parents set guidelines about marijuana in their households, but several faced challenges monitoring their children's behavior (e.g., use of edibles), imposing consequences when children used marijuana, reconciling societal and personal norms, and deciding whether or not to disclose their own use. Parents expressed that they would benefit from learning strategies to deal with these challenges, including factual information and parenting skills, through programs offered in schools or community settings. CONCLUSIONS Results have implications for future research that seeks to inform prevention program development and shape policies attuned to the needs of parents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Eisenberg
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Tiffany M. Jones
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Rick Kosterman
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Jennifer A. Bailey
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Jungeun Olivia Lee
- School of Social Work, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Kevin P. Haggerty
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Has the Legalisation of Medical and Recreational Cannabis Use in the USA Affected the Prevalence of Cannabis Use and Cannabis Use Disorders? CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-018-0224-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
31
|
Sarvet AL, Wall MM, Fink DS, Greene E, Le A, Boustead AE, Pacula RL, Keyes KM, Cerdá M, Galea S, Hasin DS. Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the United States: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction 2018; 113:1003-1016. [PMID: 29468763 PMCID: PMC5942879 DOI: 10.1111/add.14136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in order to estimate the effect of US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) on past-month marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. METHODS A total of 2999 papers from 17 literature sources were screened systematically. Eleven studies, developed from four ongoing large national surveys, were meta-analyzed. Estimates of MML effects on any past-month marijuana use prevalence from included studies were obtained from comparisons of pre-post MML changes in MML states to changes in non-MML states over comparable time-periods. These estimates were standardized and entered into a meta-analysis model with fixed-effects for each study. Heterogeneity among the study estimates by national data survey was tested with an omnibus F-test. Estimates of effects on additional marijuana outcomes, of MML provisions (e.g. dispensaries) and among demographic subgroups were abstracted and summarized. Key methodological and modeling characteristics were also described. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. RESULTS None of the 11 studies found significant estimates of pre-post MML changes compared with contemporaneous changes in non-MML states for marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. The meta-analysis yielded a non-significant pooled estimate (standardized mean difference) of -0.003 (95% confidence interval = -0.012, +0.007). Four studies compared MML with non-MML states on pre-MML differences and all found higher rates of past-month marijuana use in MML states pre-MML passage. Additional tests of specific MML provisions, of MML effects on additional marijuana outcomes and among subgroups generally yielded non-significant results, although limited heterogeneity may warrant further study. CONCLUSIONS Synthesis of the current evidence does not support the hypothesis that US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) until 2014 have led to increases in adolescent marijuana use prevalence. Limited heterogeneity exists among estimates of effects of MMLs on other patterns of marijuana use, of effects within particular population subgroups and of effects of specific MML provisions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron L. Sarvet
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and SurgeonsColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
- New York State Psychiatric InstituteNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Melanie M. Wall
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and SurgeonsColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
- New York State Psychiatric InstituteNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| | - David S. Fink
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Emily Greene
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Aline Le
- New York State Psychiatric InstituteNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Anne E. Boustead
- School of Government and Public PolicyUniversity of ArizonaTucsonAZUSA
| | | | - Katherine M. Keyes
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and SurgeonsColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Magdalena Cerdá
- Department of Emergency MedicineUniversity of California, DavisSacramentoCAUSA
| | - Sandro Galea
- Boston School of Public HealthBoston UniversityBostonMAUSA
| | - Deborah S. Hasin
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and SurgeonsColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
- New York State Psychiatric InstituteNew YorkNYUSA
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Kerr WC, Ye Y, Subbaraman MS, Williams E, Greenfield TK. Changes in Marijuana Use Across the 2012 Washington State Recreational Legalization: Is Retrospective Assessment of Use Before Legalization More Accurate? J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2018; 79:495-502. [PMID: 29885159 PMCID: PMC6005249 DOI: 10.15288/jsad.2018.79.495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in marijuana use prevalence and user characteristics across the 2012 recreational legalization in Washington State. Differences in change estimates between retrospective and contemporaneous pre-legalization measures are compared and considered in relation to potential social acceptability and illegality effects on reporting. METHOD Four representative surveys of the Washington State population 18 years and older were conducted by telephone, two in 2014 and two in 2015, which are combined by year for analyses (N = 3,451). Respondents reported their current past-year use frequency and retrospective frequency of use in 2012 before the election in which legalization was passed. They also provided demographic information and details of alcohol use, including simultaneous use with marijuana. RESULTS A small and not statistically significant increase of 1.2 percentage points in past-year use prevalence, from 24.3% (22.3-26.5) to 25.6% (23.6-27.6), was found when combining the surveys. No statistically significant change was found in the prevalence of simultaneous use with alcohol, which decreased from 12.9% (11.3-14.7) to 12.6% (11.0-14.4). In contrast, estimates from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) indicate substantially increased prevalence, from 15.5% (13.8-17.3) in 2010-2012 to 19.1% (16.9-21.4) in 2013-2014, although this change is not statistically significant. Other findings of interest from the Washington State surveys include new users after legalization tending to be older, White, and moderate drinkers who do not use marijuana simultaneously with alcohol. CONCLUSIONS A retrospective pre-legalization measure showed only a small increase in marijuana use prevalence in contrast to larger changes found in prospectively assessed use in the NSDUH. Changes in the social acceptability and legal status of marijuana after legalization may have increased reporting of pre-legalization use compared with concurrent assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William C. Kerr
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, California
| | - Yu Ye
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, California
| | | | - Edwina Williams
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, California
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Abstract
Following the legalization and regulation of marijuana for recreational purposes in states with medical markets, policymakers and researchers seek empirical evidence on how, and how fast, supply and demand changed over time. Prices are an indication of how suppliers and consumers respond to policy changes, so this study uses a difference-in-difference approach to exploit the timing of policy implementation and identify the impacts on marijuana prices 4-5 months after markets opened. This study uses unique longitudinal survey data of prices paid by consumers and a web-scraped dataset of dispensary prices advertised online for three U.S. medical marijuana states that all eventually legalized recreational marijuana. Results indicate there were no impacts on the prices paid for medical or recreational marijuana by state-representative residents within the short 4- to 5-months window following legalization. However, there were differences in how much people paid if they obtained marijuana for recreational purposes from a recreational store. Further analysis of advertised prices confirms this result, but further demonstrates heterogeneous responses in prices across types of commonly advertised strains; prices either did not change or increased depending on the strain type. A key implication of our findings is that there are both supply and demand responses at work in the opening of legalized markets, suggesting that evaluations of immediate effects may not accurately reflect the long run impact of legalization on consumption.
Collapse
|
34
|
Kerr WC, Lui C, Ye Y. Trends and age, period and cohort effects for marijuana use prevalence in the 1984-2015 US National Alcohol Surveys. Addiction 2018; 113:473-481. [PMID: 28895239 PMCID: PMC5807111 DOI: 10.1111/add.14031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Epidemiological trends show marijuana use in the United States to have increased in recent years. Previous research has identified cohort effects as contributing to the rising prevalence, in particular birth cohorts born after 1945. However, given recent policy efforts to regulate marijuana use at the state level, period effects could also play a contributory role. This study aimed to examine whether cohort or period effects play a larger role in explaining trends in marijuana use. DESIGN Using data from seven National Alcohol Surveys, we estimated age-period-cohort decomposition models for marijuana use, controlling for socio-demographic measures. SETTING United States. PARTICIPANTS US general population aged 18 and older from 1984 to 2015. MEASUREMENTS Any past-year marijuana use. FINDINGS Results indicated that period effects were the main driver of rising marijuana use prevalence. Models including indicators of medical and recreational marijuana policies did not find any significant positive impacts. CONCLUSIONS The steep rise in marijuana use in the United States since 2005 occurred across the population and is attributable to general period effects not linked specifically to the liberalization of marijuana policies in some states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William C Kerr
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Camillia Lui
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
| | - Yu Ye
- Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Emeryville, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Hasin DS. US Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Associated Problems. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:195-212. [PMID: 28853439 PMCID: PMC5719106 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of the changing US epidemiology of cannabis use and associated problems. Adults and adolescents increasingly view cannabis as harmless, and some can use cannabis without harm. However, potential problems include harms from prenatal exposure and unintentional childhood exposure; decline in educational or occupational functioning after early adolescent use, and in adulthood, impaired driving and vehicle crashes; cannabis use disorders (CUD), cannabis withdrawal, and psychiatric comorbidity. Evidence suggests national increases in cannabis potency, prenatal and unintentional childhood exposure; and in adults, increased use, CUD, cannabis-related emergency room visits, and fatal vehicle crashes. Twenty-nine states have medical marijuana laws (MMLs) and of these, 8 have recreational marijuana laws (RMLs). Many studies indicate that MMLs or their specific provisions did not increase adolescent cannabis use. However, the more limited literature suggests that MMLs have led to increased cannabis potency, unintentional childhood exposures, adult cannabis use, and adult CUD. Ecological-level studies suggest that MMLs have led to substitution of cannabis for opioids, and also possibly for psychiatric medications. Much remains to be determined about cannabis trends and the role of MMLs and RMLs in these trends. The public, health professionals, and policy makers would benefit from education about the risks of cannabis use, the increases in such risks, and the role of marijuana laws in these increases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deborah S Hasin
- Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Guttmannova K, Kosterman R, White HR, Bailey JA, Lee JO, Epstein M, Jones TM, Hawkins JD. The association between regular marijuana use and adult mental health outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 179:109-116. [PMID: 28763778 PMCID: PMC5599346 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study is a prospective examination of the relationship between regular marijuana use from adolescence through young adulthood and mental health outcomes at age 33. METHODS Data came from a gender-balanced, ethnically diverse longitudinal panel of 808 participants from Seattle, Washington. Outcomes included symptom counts for six mental health disorders. Regular marijuana use was tracked during adolescence and young adulthood. Regression analyses controlled for demographics and early environment, behaviors, and individual risk factors. RESULTS Nonusers of marijuana reported fewer symptoms of alcohol use disorder, nicotine dependence, and generalized anxiety disorder than any category of marijuana users. More persistent regular marijuana use in young adulthood was positively related to more symptoms of cannabis use disorder, alcohol use disorder, and nicotine dependence at age 33. CONCLUSIONS Findings highlight the importance of avoiding regular marijuana use, especially chronic use in young adulthood. Comprehensive prevention and intervention efforts focusing on marijuana and other substance use might be particularly important in the context of recent legalization of recreational marijuana use in Washington and other U.S. states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Guttmannova
- Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Box 354944, Seattle, WA 98195-4944, USA.
| | - Rick Kosterman
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
| | - Helene R White
- Center of Alcohol Studies, Rutgers - The State University of New Jersey, 607 Allison Rd., Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
| | - Jennifer A Bailey
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
| | - Jungeun Olivia Lee
- School of Social Work, University of Southern California, 1150 S. Olive Street, Suite 1400, Los Angeles, CA 90015, USA.
| | - Marina Epstein
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
| | - Tiffany M Jones
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
| | - J David Hawkins
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Ave NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Cambron C, Kosterman R, Catalano RF, Guttmannova K, Hawkins JD. Neighborhood, Family, and Peer Factors Associated with Early Adolescent Smoking and Alcohol Use. J Youth Adolesc 2017; 47:369-382. [PMID: 28819911 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-017-0728-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
There is broad agreement that neighborhood contexts are important for adolescent development, but there is less consensus about their association with adolescent smoking and alcohol use. Few studies have examined associations between neighborhood socioeconomic contexts and smoking and alcohol use while also accounting for differences in family and peer risk factors for substance use. Data drawn from the Seattle Social Development Project (N = 808), a gender-balanced (female = 49%), multiethnic, theory-driven longitudinal study originating in Seattle, WA, were used to estimate trajectories of smoking and alcohol use from 5th to 9th grade. Time-varying measures of neighborhood socioeconomic, family, and peer factors were associated with smoking and alcohol use at each wave after accounting for average growth in smoking and alcohol use over time and demographic differences. Results indicated that living in more socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods, lower family income, lower family general functioning, more permissive family smoking environments, and affiliation with deviant peers were independently associated with increased smoking. Lower family functioning, more permissive family alcohol use environments, and deviant peers were independently associated with increased alcohol use. The effect of neighborhood disadvantage on smoking was mediated by family income and deviant peers while the effect of neighborhood disadvantage on alcohol use was mediated by deviant peers alone. Family functioning and family substance use did not mediate associations between neighborhood disadvantage and smoking or alcohol use. The results highlight the importance of neighborhood, family, and peer factors in early adolescent smoking and alcohol use. Future studies should examine the unique association of neighborhood disadvantage with adolescent smoking net of family socioeconomics, functioning, and substance use, as well as peer affiliations. Better understanding of the role of contextual factors in early adolescent smoking and alcohol use can help bolster efforts to prevent both short and long harms from substance use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Cambron
- Center for Health Outcomes and Population Equity, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, 2000 Circle of Hope Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84103, USA.
| | - Rick Kosterman
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 Third Ave NE, Suite #401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - Richard F Catalano
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 Third Ave NE, Suite #401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - Katarina Guttmannova
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for the Study of Health and Risk Behaviors, University of Washington, 9725 Third Ave NE, Suite #401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| | - J David Hawkins
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 Third Ave NE, Suite #401, Seattle, WA, 98115, USA
| |
Collapse
|