Studies on the antidiarrhoeal activity of Aegle marmelos unripe fruit: validating its traditional usage

A comprehensive review on Phyto-MAP: A novel approach of drug discovery against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis using AYUSH heritage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Indian system of Traditional medicine, AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) has great potential with a History of Safe Use (HOSU) of thousands of medicinal plants included in pharmacopoeias. The multi-targeted approach of phytoconstituents present in different traditionally used medicinal plants makes them suitable candidates for research against various infective pathogens. MAP which is a dairy-borne pathogen is associated with the development of Johne's disease in ruminants and Crohn's disease like autoimmune disorders in human beings. There are no reliable treatment alternatives available against MAP, leaving surgical removal of intestines as the sole option. Hence, there exists an urgent need to search for leads against such infection.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present review has been conducted to find out the ethnopharmacological evidence about the potential of phytoconstituents against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), along with the proposal of a potential phyto-MAP mechanism for the very first time taking anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-microbial traditional claims into consideration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We have analyzed and reviewed different volumes of the two main traditional scriptures of India i.e. Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API) and Unani Pharmacopoeia of India (UPI), respectively-for identification of potential anti-MAP plants based on their claims for related disorders. These plants were further investigated systematically for their scientific publications of the last 20 years (2002-2022) available through electronic databases including Google Scholar, Pubmed, and Scopus. The studies conducted in vitro, cell lines, and in vivo levels were taken into consideration along with the associated mechanisms of phytoconstituents.

RESULTS

A total of 70 potential medicinal plants have been identified. Based on the ethnopharmacology, a potential phyto-paratuberculosis (Phyto-paraTB) mechanism has been proposed and out of 70, seven potential anti-MAP plants have been identified to have a great future as anti-MAP.

CONCLUSION

A novel and scientifically viable plan has been proposed for addressing anti-MAP plants for stimulating research against MAP and related disorders using mass-trusted AYUSH medicine, which can be used as an alternative remedy in resistance cases otherwise can be advocated as an adjuvant with modern treatments for better management of the disease.

Antiviral Activity of Natural Herbs and their Isolated BioactiveCompounds: A Review

Viruses are the cause of many human pathogenesis-related conditions. A serious hazard to public health has been created because of the increase in worldwide travel, fast urbanization, and infectious epidemics. At the same time, no preventative vaccines or antiviral treatments are currently available. Resources for developing new antiviral medications can be found in enhanced natural products and herbal medicines. These natural substances have aided the research on developing preventive vaccines and antiviral treatments. Based primarily on in vitro and in vivo searches, this review aims to explore the antiviral properties of plant extracts and some isolated plant natural products. Only a few antiviral medications have been given clinical approval, while numerous viruses continue to elude adequate immunization. Therefore, developing novel antiviral medicines is crucial, and natural substances make excellent sources for these new drugs. This review highlights various natural herbal drugs possessing antiviral properties.

A Reappraisal of the Antiviral Properties of and Immune Regulation through Dietary Phytochemicals

In the present era of the COVID-19 pandemic, viral infections remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In this day and age, viral infections are rampant and spreading rapidly. Among the most aggressive viral infections are ebola, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), influenza, and SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). Even though there are few treatment options for viral diseases, most of the antiviral therapies are ineffective owing to frequent mutations, the development of more aggressive strains, drug resistance, and possible side effects. Traditionally, herbal remedies have been used by healers, including for dietary and medicinal purposes. Many clinical and scientific studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of plant-derived natural compounds. Because of unsafe practices like blood transfusions and organ transplants from infected patients, medical supply contamination. Our antiviral therapies cannot achieve sterile immunity, and we have yet to find a cure for these pernicious infections. Herbs have been shown to improve therapeutic efficacy against a wide variety of viral diseases because of their high concentration of immunomodulatory phytochemicals (both immunoinhibitory and anti-inflammatory). Combined with biotechnology, this folk medicine system can lead to the development of novel antiviral drugs and therapies. In this Review, we will summarize some selected bioactive compounds with probable mechanisms of their antiviral actions, focusing on the immunological axis of these compounds.

Aegle marvels (L.) Correa Leaf Essential Oil and Its Phytoconstituents as an Anticancer and Anti-Streptococcus mutans Agent

Aegle mamelons (A. marmelos) or Indian Bael leaves possess anti-cancerous and antibacterial properties and are used in the traditional medicine system for the treatment of oral infections. In the present study, the essential oil of the leaves of A. marmelos was explored for its anticancer, antioxidant, and anti-cariogenic properties. The hydro-distilled oil of A. marmelos leaves was analyzed using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Monoterpene limonene (63.71%) was found to have the highest percentage after trans-2-Hydroxy-1,8-cineole and p-Menth-2,8-dien-1-ol. The MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay was used to investigate the anticancer activity of the extracted oil against human oral epidermal carcinoma (KB), and the results showed significantly higher (**** p < 0.0001) anticancer activity (45.89%) in the doxorubicin (47.87%) when compared to the normal control. The antioxidant activity of the essential oil was evaluated using methods of DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)). The results showed a significant (*** p < 0.001) percentage of inhibition of DPPH-induced free radical (70.02 ± 1.6%) and ABTS-induced free radical (70.7 ± 1.32%) at 100 µg/mL with IC50, 72.51 and 67.33 µg/mL, respectively, comparatively lower than standard compound ascorbic acid. The results of the molecular docking study of the significant compound limonene with the receptors tyrosinase and tyrosine kinase 2 supported the in vitro antioxidant potential. The anti-cariogenic activity was evaluated against Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans). Results showed a significant minimum inhibitor concentration of 0.25 mg/mL and the killing time was achieved at 3 to 6 h. The molecular-docking study showed that limonene inhibits the surface receptors of the S. mutans c-terminal domain and CviR protein. The study found that A. marmelos leaves have potential anti-carcinoma, antioxidant, and anti-cariogenic effects on human oral epidermal health, making them a valuable natural therapeutic agent for managing oral cancer and infections.

Phytochemical and biological review of Aegle marmelos Linn

India has one of the most expanded plant-origin medical traditions in the world. Researchers have evaluated molecules obtained from plants to treat a variety of ailments. Literature review shows that fundamental parts of the plant are used to treat different diseases. The related data is retrieved from Google scholar, PubMed, Science Direct and Scopus. The keywords include Bael, A. marmelos, Vilvam, and Marmelosin. Extensive studies show that A. marmelos has antidiarrhoeal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, chemopreventive, antipyretic, ulcer healing, antigenotoxic, diuretic, antifertility, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this work, an updated literature review is presented to clarify the current state of research on A. marmelos elucidating its constituents and their most relevant biological activities.

Recent Approaches for Downplaying Antibiotic Resistance: Molecular Mechanisms

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a ubiquitous public health menace. AMR emergence causes complications in treating infections contributing to an upsurge in the mortality rate. The epidemic of AMR in sync with a high utilization rate of antimicrobial drugs signifies an alarming situation for the fleet recovery of both animals and humans. The emergence of resistant species calls for new treatments and therapeutics. Current records propose that health drug dependency, veterinary medicine, agricultural application, and vaccination reluctance are the primary etymology of AMR gene emergence and spread. Recently, several encouraging avenues have been presented to contest resistance, such as antivirulent therapy, passive immunization, antimicrobial peptides, vaccines, phage therapy, and botanical and liposomal nanoparticles. Most of these therapies are used as cutting-edge methodologies to downplay antibacterial drugs to subdue the resistance pressure, which is a featured motive of discussion in this review article. AMR can fade away through the potential use of current cutting-edge therapeutics, advancement in antimicrobial susceptibility testing, new diagnostic testing, prompt clinical response, and probing of new pharmacodynamic properties of antimicrobials. It also needs to promote future research on contemporary methods to maintain host homeostasis after infections caused by AMR. Referable to the microbial ability to break resistance, there is a great ultimatum for using not only appropriate and advanced antimicrobial drugs but also other neoteric diverse cutting-edge therapeutics.

UHPLC-MS profiles and antidiarrheal activity of Quercus coccinea münchh. and Quercus robur L. employing in vivo technique

Introduction: Quercus L. genus (Oak) belongs to the family Fagaceae and their galls are used commercially in leather tanning, dyeing, and ink preparation. Several Quercus species were traditionally used to manage wound healing, acute diarrhea, hemorrhoid, and inflammatory diseases. The present study aims to investigate the phenolic content of the 80% aqueous methanol extract (AME) of Q. coccinea and Q. robur leaves as well as to assess their anti-diarrheal activity. Methods: Polyphenolic content of Q. coccinea and Q. robur AME were investigated using UHPLC/MS. The antidiarrheal potential of the obtained extracts was evaluated by conducting a castor oil-induced diarrhea in-vivo model. Result and Discussion: Twenty-five and twenty-six polyphenolic compounds were tentatively identified in Q. coccinea and Q. robur AME, respectively. The identified compounds are related to quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and apigenin glycosides and their aglycones. In addition, hydrolyzable tannins, phenolic acid, phenyl propanoides derivatives, and cucurbitacin F were also identified in both species AME of Q. coccinea (250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg) exhibited a significant prolongation in the onset of diarrhea by 17.7 %, 42.6%, and 79.7% respectively while AME of Q. robur at the same doses significantly prolonged the onset of diarrhea by 38.6%, 77.3%, and 2.4 folds respectively as compared to the control. Moreover, the percentage of diarrheal inhibition of Q. coccinea was 23.8%, 28.57%, and 42,86% respectively, and for Q. robur 33.34%, 47.3%, and 57.14% respectively as compared to the control group. Both extracts significantly decreased the volume of intestinal fluid by 27%, 39.78%, and 50.1% for Q. coccinea respectively; and by 38.71%, 51.19%, and 60% for Q. robur respectively as compared to the control group. In addition, AME of Q. coccinea exhibited a peristaltic index of 53.48, 47.18, and 42.28 with significant inhibition of gastrointestinal transit by 18.98%, 28.53%, and 35.95 % respectively; while AME of Q. robur exhibited a peristaltic index of 47.71, 37, and 26.41 with significant inhibition of gastrointestinal transit by 27.72%, 43.89%, and 59.99% respectively as compared with the control group. Notably, Q. robur showed a better antidiarrheal effect in comparison with Q. coccinea and, the highest effect was observed for Q. robur at 1000 mg/kg as it was nonsignificant from the loperamide standard group in all measured parameters.

In Vitro and In Vivo Inhibitory Activities of Selected Traditional Medicinal Plants against Toxin-Induced Cyto- and Entero- Toxicities in Cholera

Careya arborea, Punica granatum, Psidium guajava, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Aegle marmelos, and Piper longum are commonly used traditional medicines against diarrhoeal diseases in India. This study investigated the inhibitory activity of these plants against cytotoxicity and enterotoxicity induced by toxins secreted by Vibrio cholerae. Cholera toxin (CT) and non-membrane damaging cytotoxin (NMDCY) in cell free culture filtrate (CFCF) of V. cholerae were quantified using GM1 ELISA and cell-based assays, respectively. Hydro-alcoholic extracts of these plants and lyophilized juice of P. granatum were tested against CT-induced elevation of cAMP levels in CHO cell line, binding of CT to ganglioside GM1 receptor and NMDCY-induced cytotoxicity. Significant reduction of cAMP levels in CFCF treated CHO cell line was observed for all extracts except P. longum. C. arborea, P. granatum, H. antidysenterica and A. marmelos showed >50% binding inhibition of CT to GM1 receptor. C. arborea, P. granatum, and P. guajava effectively decreased cytotoxicity and morphological alterations caused by NMDCY in CHO cell line. Further, the efficacy of these three plants against CFCF-induced enterotoxicity was seen in adult mice ligated-ileal loop model as evidenced by decrease in volume of fluid accumulation, cAMP levels in ligated-ileal tissues, and histopathological changes in intestinal mucosa. Therefore, these plants can be further validated for their clinical use against cholera.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa: An Underutilized Fruit with High Nutraceutical Values: A Review

Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Bael) fruit, a member of the Rutaceae family, is a major cultivated fruit plant in tropical and subtropical regions in countries of southeast Asia. Bael fruit has been a major topic for studies in recent years mainly due to its high nutritional (carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins) value and presence of various phytochemicals, which attributed to its high medicinal value. These phytochemicals include various compounds, e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids (protocatechuic acid, gallic, and ellagic acid). The fruit extract of bael has been also an important study area for its pharmacological activities, including antidiarrheal, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, radioprotective, anticancer, antiulcer properties. The current review mainly highlighted the nutritional and pharmacological activities of bael fruit. The nutritional profile and phytochemical profile were discussed in the review, along with their concentration in the fruit. Moreover, the experiments carried out in vivo and in vitro of bael fruit extracts with respect to their pharmacological activities were also discussed in the article. The recent literature based on nutritional and pharmacological values of bael fruit showed its high potential as a food and pharmaceutical product. Despite having high nutritional and pharmacological value, research related to molecular mechanisms of bael fruit is still limited, and clinical trials are needed to ensure its safety as a product in the food and pharma industries.

Chemical profiles and pharmacological insights of Anisomeles indica Kuntze: An experimental chemico-biological interaction

Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze is an ethnomedicinally important plant that has long been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments, including dyspepsia, abdominal pain, colic, allergies, inflammation, and rheumatic arthritis. However, the scientific framework underlying these medicinal properties is not well known. This study aimed to investigate the antidepressive, antidiarrheal, thrombolytic, and anti-inflammatory potential of a methanol extract of A. indica (MeOH-AI). The potential bioactive compounds in the MeOH-AI were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and antidepressant activities were evaluated using the tail suspension test (TST) and forced swim test (FST). Antidiarrheal effects were also assayed in castor oil-induced diarrhea and gastrointestinal motility studies. The anti-inflammatory activities were explored by examining the effects on protein inhibition and denaturation in heat- and hypotonic solution-induced hemolysis assays. The thrombolytic activity was evaluated using the clot lysis test in human blood. BIOVIA and Schrödinger Maestro (v11.1) were applied for docking analysis to determine binding interactions, and the absorption, distribution, metabolisms, excretion/toxicity (ADME/T) properties of bioactive compounds were explored using a web-based method. The GC-MS analysis of MeOH-AI revealed the presence of several bioactive compounds. MeOH-AI administration resulted in significant (p < 0.01) reductions in the immobility times for both the FST and TST compared with those in the control group. MeOH-AI also induced significant (p < 0.01) reductions in castor oil-induced diarrhea severity and gastrointestinal motility in a mouse model. In addition, the in vitro anti-inflammatory and thrombolytic activity studies produced remarkable responses. The binding assay showed that 4-dehydroxy-N-(4,5-methylenedioxy-2-nitrobenzylidene) tyramine interacts favorably with monoamine oxidase and serotonin and M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, displaying good pharmacokinetic properties, which may mediate the effects of MeOH-AI on depression and diarrhea. Overall, the research findings indicated that MeOH-AI has significant antidepressant, antidiarrheal, and anti-inflammatory effects and may represent an alternative source of novel therapeutic factors.

Ethnobotanical study of plants used by the Munda ethnic group living around the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest in southwestern Bangladesh

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is an integral part of the primary health care (PHC) system in almost every society. For more than two centuries, Munda, a small ethnic group in Bangladesh, has lived around the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest. This mangrove is rich in biodiversity but is threatened by global climate change. Information on the therapeutic use of plants by Munda ethnic minorities remains completely unknown. Therefore, it needs urgent documentation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is (1) to search and compile data on the diversity of medicinal plants used by the Munda people for PHC needs, and (2) Quantitative analysis of these data to identify important medicinal plants and diseases related to treatment by this species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted repeated field surveys and interviews among 79 Munda informants to collect ethnobotanical data. Informants were selected through random sampling techniques and interviewed using an open and semi-structured questionnaire. We reported the primary (absolute) data as use reports (URs) with frequency citation (FC). The International Classification of Primary Care-2 (ICPC-2) was followed to categorize the therapeutic use of medicinal plants, and quantitative analysis was performed using the FC and informant consensus factor (ICF).

RESULTS

The present study explored and compiled a total of 3199 medicinal URs for 98 medicinal plant species to treat 132 ailment conditions under sixteen (16) ICPC-2 pathological groups. The highest URs (948) were noted for the digestive (D) group treated by 69 plant species, where the highest ICF value was measured for the social problem (Z) disease category (ICF: 1.00). Of the recorded medicinal plants, 17 were identified as true Mangrove (MNG), 24 as Mangrove Associates (MNA), and 57 as Non-Mangrove (NMG) species. Fabaceae (13 species) represented the leading family, followed by Lamiaceae and Compositae (5 species). Herbs (43%) have shown dominant life forms, and the leaves (41%) were frequently used plant parts. The most commonly cited preparation method was juice (24%), and the prevalent mode of administration was oral (62%). Azadirachta indica A. Juss. was the most widely used therapeutic plant species based on FC (39) values. The comparative literature review study reveals that the practices of 15 plants and their ethnomedicinal use by the Munda people are still entirely unexplored and newly reported in Bangladesh. Additionally, therapeutic use of 2 species, Brownlowia tersa (L.) Kosterm., and Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain has not been previously reported worldwide. In addition, 51 plant species (52%) of the total plants studied enlisted on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first ethnobotanical study on the Munda ethnic group in Bangladesh. This study indicates that Munda people still rely on medicinal plants for PHC and have a rich and varied traditional knowledge about the therapeutic use of plants. This study also warns of the high risk of the current availability status of plants in the study area. Therefore, this study calls for urgent steps to protect and conserve high-risk plants that can be done by taking both in-situ and ex-situ measures. In addition, further phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of the important medicinal plants cited in the study have been suggested.

Strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance in Indian scenario

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the major public health crisis recognised globally. Microbial infections cause significant productivity losses in animals and humans. In livestock, these microbial infections reduce the growth rates and fertility, diminish production of meat and milk, and occasionally lead to mortality, and are therefore, a major concern for animal welfare. In the dearth of alternative prophylactic measures, antibiotics remain the principal tool for their management. Once an antibiotic is used rampantly, resistance against it is inevidently seen in the microbe population and the hunt for a new drug grows. Discovery and development of a new antimicrobial drug is a time taking and expensive procedure with limited assurance of success. As a result, the past few decades have witnessed only a very few new classes of antibiotics. If the AMR can be restricted or reverted, the success rate of antimicrobial therapy can be boosted and many public health issues be avoided. All these ask for a comprehensive plan to prevent or reduce the antimicrobial resistance and economic losses to the animal husbandry sector. The present review provides an overview of AMR in India, mechanism of its occurrence and the possible roadmap to combat the emerging threat of AMR in Indian scenario.

Edible fruit extracts and fruit juices as potential source of antiviral agents: a review

Fruits have been widely consumed since the beginning of human evolution and are important source of a healthy being and helpful in treating various diseases as immunity boosters with the presence of a rich amount of health-promoting bioactives. Therapeutic efficacies of fruit extracts are reported to have immune-modulatory properties and influence greatly on the immune system of human body. Given the facts of the efficacy of edible fruits in improving the immunity of body as immune-stimulants, we have tried to consolidate the previously published data on edible fruits and its juices with antiviral potential. The objective of this review was to gather information on edible fruits with antiviral properties and the efforts to obtain their efficient delivery. Online bibliographical databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were used to search literature on the antiviral effect of edible fruit extracts and fruit juices. The edible fruits like almond, apple, bael, blackberry, black currants, crane berry, citrus, grapes, Japanese cherry, mango, mulberry, pistachios, pomegranate, and strawberry showed promising antiviral properties against the different pathogenic viruses. The review provided an overview of likely effects of the intake of edible fruit extracts/fruit juices to strengthen the immune cells by reducing the oxidative stress in host body system which in turn inhibits the viral attachment and replication on the host cell. Hence these fruits can also be exploited in combating COVID-19 in the current pandemic situation. To validate the present hypothesis, the proposed edible fruit extracts can be evaluated against the SARS-CoV-2 via in vitro and in vivo models to confirm the fact.

Therapeutic potential of phytoconstituents of edible fruits in combating emerging viral infections

Plant-derived bioactive molecules display potential antiviral activity against various viral targets including mode of viral entry and its replication in host cells. Considering the challenges and search for antiviral agents, this review provides substantiated data on chemical constituents of edible fruits with promising antiviral activity. The bioactive constituents like naringenin, mangiferin, α-mangostin, geraniin, punicalagin, and lectins of edible fruits exhibit antiviral effect by inhibiting viral replication against IFV, DENV, polio, CHIKV, Zika, HIV, HSV, HBV, HCV, and SARS-CoV. The significance of edible fruit phytochemicals to block the virulence of various deadly viruses through their inhibitory action against the entry and replication of viral genetic makeup and proteins are discussed. In view of the antiviral property of active constituents of edible fruits which can strengthen the immune system and reduce oxidative stress, they are suggested to be diet supplements to combat various viral diseases including COVID-19. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Considering the increasing threat of COVID-19, it is suggested to examine the therapeutic efficacy of existing antiviral molecules of edible fruits which may provide prophylactic and adjuvant therapy with their potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory effects. Several active molecules like geraniin, naringenin, (2R,4R)-1,2,4-trihydroxyheptadec-16-one, betacyanins, mangiferin, punicalagin, isomangiferin, procyanidin B2, quercetin, marmelide, jacalin lectin, banana lectin, and α-mangostin isolated from various edible fruits have showed promising antiviral properties against different pathogenic viruses. Especially flavonoid compounds extracted from edible fruits possess potential antiviral activity against a wide array of viruses like HIV-1, HSV-1 and 2, HCV, INF, dengue, yellow fever, NSV, and Zika virus infection. Hence taking such fruits or edible fruits and their constituents/compounds as dietary supplements could deliver adequate plasma levels in the body to optimize the cell and tissue levels and could lead to possible benefits for the preventive measures for this pandemic COVID-19 situation.

Indian Indigenous Fruits as Radioprotective Agents: Past, Present and Future

Ionising radiation has been an important modality in cancer treatment and its value is immense when surgical intervention is risky or might debilitate/adversely affect the patient. However, the beneficial effect of radiation modality is negated by the damage to the adjacent healthy tissue in the field of radiation. Under these situations, the use of radioprotective compounds that can selectively protect normal tissues against radiation injury is considered very useful. However, research spanning over half a century has shown that there are no ideal radioprotectors available. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) approved amifostine or WR-2721 (Walter Reed-2721) [chemically S-2-(3-aminopropyl-amino) ethyl phosphorothioic acid] is toxic at their optimal concentrations. This has necessitated the need for agents that are safe and easily acceptable to humans.

BACKGROUND

Dietary agents with beneficial effects like free radical scavenging, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects are recognized as applicable and have been investigated for their radioprotective properties. Studies in these lines have shown that the fruits of Aegle marmelos (stone apple or bael), Emblica officinalis or Phyllanthus emblica(Indian gooseberry/amla), Eugenia jambolana or Syzygium jambolana (black plum / jamun), Mangifera indica (mango) and Grewia asiatica (phalsa or falsa) that are originally reported to be indigenous to India have been investigated for their usefulness as a radioprotective agent.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review is to summarize beneficial effects of the Indian indigenous fruits stone apple, mango, Indian gooseberry, black plum, and phalsa in mitigating radiation-induced side effects, emphasize the underlying mechanism of action for the beneficial effects and address aspects that merit detail investigations for these fruits to move towards clinical application in the near future.

METHODS

The authors data mined in Google Scholar, PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for publications in the field from 1981 up to July 2020. The focus was on the radioprotection and the mechanism responsible for the beneficial effects, and accordingly, the articles were collated and analyzed.

RESULTS

This article emphasizes the usefulness of stone apple, mango, Indian gooseberry, black plum, and phalsa as radioprotective agents. From a mechanistic view, reports are suggestive that the beneficial effects are mediated by triggering free radical scavenging, antioxidant, anti-mutagenic and anti-inflammatory effects.

CONCLUSION

For the first time, this review addresses the beneficial effects of mango, Indian gooseberry, black plum, stone apple and phalsa as radioprotective agents. The authors suggest that future studies should be directed at understanding the selective radioprotective effects with tumor-bearing laboratory animals to understand their usefulness as radioprotective drug/s during radiotherapy and as a food supplement to protect people getting exposed to low doses of radiation in occupational settings. Phase I clinical trial studies are also required to ascertain the optimal dose and the schedule to be followed with the standardized extract of these fruits. The most important aspect is that these fruits are a part of the diet, have been consumed since the beginning of mankind, are non-toxic, possess diverse medicinal properties, have easy acceptability all of which will help take research forward and be of benefit to patients, occupational workers, agribased sectors and pharma industries.

IN VIVO AND IN VITRO EVALUATION OF PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF Hedychium coccineum RHIZOMES EXTRACT

The study reports the in vivo antidiarrheal and in vitro anthelmintic, cytotoxic, and thrombolytic activity of methanol extract of Hedychium coccineum rhizomes (MEHC). The antidiarrheal activity was determined using Castor oil-induced diarrhea and Gastrointestinal motility test in mice at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, whereas an aquarium worm, Tubifex tubifex, was used to determine the anthelmintic activity. The cytotoxic and thrombolytic activity of MEHC was performed by Brine shrimp lethality bioassay and clot lysis method respectively. In antidiarrheal, castor oil-induced diarrhea and gastrointestinal motility exhibited a significant reduction in diarrhea and defecation and an extremely significant inhibition in intestinal motility and peristalsis index by 200 and 400 mg/kg of MEHC. The MEHC (5, 10, and 20 mg/mL) showed a significant dose-dependent manner paralysis time and times to death in multiple comparisons to the different levamisole concentrations (0.5, 0.8, and 1 mg/mL) at in vitro anthelmintic activity. The brine shrimp lethality bioassay exhibited a weak LC50 (681.95 µg/mL; R² = 0.951) while in thrombolytic a significant percentage of clot lysis (32.70%, P < 0.05) demonstrated. The findings demonstrate that H. coccineum rhizomes could be potential sources for biological activity.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Two Sri Lankan Lichens, Parmotrema rampoddense, and Parmotrema tinctorum against Methicillin-Sensitive and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Introduction

Medicinal utility of lichens is ascribed to the presence of various secondary metabolites of low molecular weight and they have been used in traditional medicine including Ayurveda in the treatment of wounds and skin disorders. Despite the urgent need to effectively address the antibiotic resistance worldwide, the discovery of new antibacterial drugs has declined in the recent past. This emphasizes the increasing importance of investigating and developing new classes of antibiotics that can withstand antibiotic resistance. Aims of the study. The present study was conducted to investigate the chemical composition and the antibacterial activity of hexane, ethanol, and aqueous extracts of Parmotrema rampoddense and Parmotrema tinctorum, two lichens collected from Belihuloya, Sri Lanka, against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including twenty clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Materials and methods. Phytochemical analysis, thin layer chromatography (TLC), and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were performed to determine the chemical composition of the two lichens. Hexane, ethanol, and aqueous extracts of both lichens were tested against clinical isolate of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including twenty clinical isolates of MRSA. Bacterial susceptibility was tested using a disc diffusion assay. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by a broth microdilution method. Vancomycin was used as the positive control.

Results

Alectorialic acid, atranorin, atraric acid, orcinol, and O-orsellinaldehyde were among the secondary metabolites identified by the TLC and GC-MS analysis. None of the lichen extracts were active against Gram-negative bacteria but both lichens showed a concentration-dependent activity against methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and MRSA. Ethanol extract of P. rampoddense showed the highest activity against MSSA with the MIC, 0.0192 mg/ml, but all MRSA isolates investigated showed MIC between 0.096 and 2.4 mg/ml for the same extract.

Conclusion

Both lichens, P. rampoddense and P. tinctorum, represent potentially important sources of future antimicrobial drugs. Further investigation on the ethanol extract of P. rampoddense will enable us to determine the most active phytoconstituents responsible for the activity, their mechanism of action against bacterial pathogens, and also their cytotoxicity against normal cells.

Protective effects of Crataegus azarolus L. berries aqueous extract against castor oil-induced diarrhea, oxidative stress, and inflammation in rat

BACKGROUND

Diarrhea is a multifactorial gastrointestinal disorder responsible for about 5 million deaths annually. The chemical composition, the antioxidant activity of Crataegus azarolus berries aqueous extract (CABAE) as well as its protective effects against castor oil-induced diarrhea, oxidative stress, and inflammation in rat were studied.

METHODS

Sixty male rats were used and divided into six groups of ten animals in each: Control (C), castor oil (CO), CO+various doses of CABAE (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg b.w., p.o.), and CO+loperamide (LOP, 10 mg/kg b.w., p.o.).

KEY RESULTS

The CABAE showed relatively high levels of total polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins. The LC-HRESIMS technique allowed the identification of 5 phenolic compounds and the major component is quinic acid. In vivo studies showed that CABAE protected against castor oil-induced diarrhea and intestinal fluid accumulation. The CABAE counteracted castor oil-induced lipoperoxidation, preserved GSH and thiol groups levels, and prevented the depletion of antioxidant enzyme activities, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The CABAE administration also protected against castor oil-induced inflammatory markers (ALP and CRP) increase. More importantly, castor oil induced an increase of intracellular mediators, such as hydrogen peroxide, free iron, and calcium, while CABAE pretreatment significantly reversed them to near control levels.

CONCLUSION

The Crataegus azarolus berries aqueous extract significantly protected against diarrhea due in part to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Plant active products and emerging interventions in water potabilisation: disinfection and multi-drug resistant pathogen treatment

Background

This review aims at establishing the emerging applications of phytobiotics in water treatment and disinfection.

Results

Statistical analysis of data obtained revealed that the use of plant product in water treatment needs more research attention. A major observation is that plants possess multifaceted components and can be sustainably developed into products for water treatment. The seed (24.53%), flower (20.75), leaf (16.98%) and fruit (11.32%) biomasses are preferred against bulb (3.77%), resin (1.89%), bark (1.89%) and tuber (1.89%). The observation suggests that novel applications of plant in water treatment need further exploration since vast and broader antimicrobial activities (63.63%) is reported than water treatment application (36.37%).

Conclusions

This review has revealed the existing knowledge gaps in exploration of plant resources for water treatment and product development. Chemical complexity of some plant extracts, lack of standardisation, slow working rate, poor water solubility, extraction and purification complexities are limitations that need to be overcome for industrial adoption of phytochemicals in water treatment. The field of phytobiotics should engage modern methodologies such as proteomics, genomics, and metabolomics to minimise challenges confronting phytobiotic standardisation. The knowledge disseminated awaits novel application for plant product development in water treatment.

Medicinal plants: Treasure for antiviral drug discovery

The pandemic of viral diseases like novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) prompted the scientific world to examine antiviral bioactive compounds rather than nucleic acid analogous, protease inhibitors, or other toxic synthetic molecules. The emerging viral infections significantly associated with 2019-nCoV have challenged humanity's survival. Further, there is a constant emergence of new resistant viral strains that demand novel antiviral agents with fewer side effects and cell toxicity. Despite significant progress made in immunization and regenerative medicine, numerous viruses still lack prophylactic vaccines and specific antiviral treatments that are so often influenced by the generation of viral escape mutants. Of importance, medicinal herbs offer a wide variety of therapeutic antiviral chemotypes that can inhibit viral replication by preventing viral adsorption, adhering to cell receptors, inhibiting virus penetration in the host cell, and competing for pathways of activation of intracellular signals. The present review will comprehensively summarize the promising antiviral activities of medicinal plants and their bioactive molecules. Furthermore, it will elucidate their mechanism of action and possible implications in the treatment/prevention of viral diseases even when their mechanism of action is not fully understood, which could serve as the base for the future development of novel or complementary antiviral treatments.

Common garlic (Allium sativum L.) has potent Anti-Bacillus anthracis activity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrointestinal anthrax, a disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, remains an important but relatively neglected endemic disease of animals and humans in remote areas of the Indian subcontinent and some parts of Africa. Its initial symptoms include diarrhea and stomachache. In the current study, several common plants indicated for diarrhea, dysentery, stomachache or as stomachic as per traditional knowledge in the Indian subcontinent, i.e., Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Bael), Allium cepa L. (Onion), Allium sativum L. (Garlic), Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem), Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. (Daruharidra), Coriandrum sativum L. (Coriander), Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric), Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Bermuda grass), Mangifera indica L. (Mango), Morus indica L. (Black mulberry), Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Ocimum sanctum L., Holy Basil), Ocimum gratissimum L. (Ram Tulsi), Psidium guajava L. (Guava), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger), were evaluated for their anti-Bacillus anthracis property. The usage of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and Curcuma longa L. by Santals (India), and Allium sp. by biblical people to alleviate anthrax-like symptoms is well documented, but the usage of other plants is traditionally only indicated for different gastrointestinal disturbances/conditions.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Evaluate the above listed commonly available edible plants from the Indian subcontinent that are used in the traditional medicine to treat gastrointestinal diseases including those also indicated for anthrax-like symptoms for the presence of potent anti-B. anthracis activity in a form amenable to use by the general population in the endemic areas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aqueous extracts made from fourteen plants indicated above were screened for their anti-B. anthracis activity using agar-well diffusion assay (AWDA) and broth microdilution methods. The Aqueous Garlic Extract (AGE) that displayed most potent anti-B. anthracis activity was assessed for its thermostability, stability under pH extremes encountered in the gastrointestinal tract, and potential antagonistic interaction with bile salts as well as the FDA-approved antibiotics used for anthrax control. The bioactive fractions from the AGE were isolated by TLC coupled bioautography followed by their characterization using GC-MS.

RESULTS

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) extract was identified as the most promising candidate with bactericidal activity against B. anthracis. It consistently inhibited the growth of B. anthracis in AWDA and decreased the viable colony-forming unit counts in liquid-broth cultures by 6-logs within 6-12 h. The AGE displayed acceptable thermostability (>80% anti-B. anthracis activity retained on incubation at 50 °C for 12 h) and stability in gastric pH range (2-8). It did not antagonize the activity of FDA-approved antibiotics used for anthrax control. GC-MS analysis of the TLC separated bioactive fractions of AGE indicated the presence of previously unreported constituents such as phthalic acid derivatives, acid esters, phenyl group-containing compounds, steroids etc. CONCLUSION: The Aqueous Garlic Extract (AGE) displayed potent anti-B. anthracis activity. It was better than that displayed by Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem) and Mangifera indica L., while Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric) did not show any activity under the assay conditions used. Further work should be undertaken to explore the possible application of AGE in preventing anthrax incidences in endemic areas.

Antiviral effect of phytochemicals from medicinal plants: Applications and drug delivery strategies

Viral infections affect three to five million patients annually. While commonly used antivirals often show limited efficacy and serious adverse effects, herbal extracts have been in use for medicinal purposes since ancient times and are known for their antiviral properties and more tolerable side effects. Thus, naturally based pharmacotherapy may be a proper alternative for treating viral diseases. With that in mind, various pharmaceutical formulations and delivery systems including micelles, nanoparticles, nanosuspensions, solid dispersions, microspheres and crystals, self-nanoemulsifying and self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS and SMEDDS) have been developed and used for antiviral delivery of natural products. These diverse technologies offer effective and reliable delivery of medicinal phytochemicals. Given the challenges and possibilities of antiviral treatment, this review provides the verified data on the medicinal plants and related herbal substances with antiviral activity, as well as applied strategies for the delivery of these plant extracts and biologically active phytochemicals. Graphical Abstract.

Plants Metabolites: Possibility of Natural Therapeutics Against the COVID-19 Pandemic

COVID-19, a disease induced by SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2), has been the cause of a worldwide pandemic. Though extensive research works have been reported in recent days on the development of effective therapeutics against this global health crisis, there is still no approved therapy against SARS-CoV-2. In the present study, plant-synthesized secondary metabolites (PSMs) have been prioritized to make a review focusing on the efficacy of plant-originated therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19. Plant metabolites are a source of countless medicinal compounds, while the diversity of multidimensional chemical structures has made them superior to treat serious diseases. Some have already been reported as promising alternative medicines and lead compounds for drug repurposing and discovery. The versatility of secondary metabolites may provide novel antibiotics to tackle MDR (Multi-Drug Resistant) microbes too. This review attempted to find out plant metabolites that have the therapeutic potential to treat a wide range of viral pathogens. The study includes the search of remedies belonging to plant families, susceptible viral candidates, antiviral assays, and the mode of therapeutic action; this attempt resulted in the collection of an enormous number of natural therapeutics that might be suggested for the treatment of COVID-19. About 219 plants from 83 families were found to have antiviral activity. Among them, 149 plants from 71 families were screened for the identification of the major plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) that might be effective for this pandemic. Our investigation revealed that the proposed plant metabolites can serve as potential anti- SARS-CoV-2 lead molecules for further optimization and drug development processes to combat COVID-19 and future pandemics caused by viruses. This review will stimulate further analysis by the scientific community and boost antiviral plant-based research followed by novel drug designing.

Evaluation of carbon tetrachloride fraction of Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees (Lauraceae) leaf extract for antioxidant, cytotoxic, thrombolytic and antidiarrheal properties

Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees (Family: Lauraceae) is commonly used in folk medicine against urinary disorder and diabetes. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the antioxidant, cytotoxic, thrombolytic, and antidiarrheal activities of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) fraction of leaves of A. angustifolia (CTFAA) in different experimental models. Antioxidant activity was evaluated by using qualitative and quantitative assays, while antidiarrheal effects assessed with castor oil-induced diarrheal models in mice. The clot lysis and brine shrimp lethality bioassay were used to investigate the thrombolytic and cytotoxic activities, respectively. CTFAA showed antioxidant effects in all qualitative and quantitative procedures. The fraction produced dose-dependent and significant (P<0.05 and P<0.01) activities in castor oil-induced diarrheal models. Moreover, CTFAA significantly (P<0.05) demonstrated a 15.29% clot lysis effect in the thrombolytic test, and the brine shrimp lethality assay LC50 value was 424.16 μg/ml bioassay. In conclusion, the current study showed CTFAA has significant antidiarrheal effects along with modest antioxidant and thrombolytic effects, and these data warrant further experiment to justify and include CTFAA as a supplement to mitigate the onset of diarrheal and cardiovascular disease.

Traditional fruits of South India: Bioactive components and their potential health implications in chronic diseases

Fruits are colorful, flavorful, and nutritious components and play an important role for the vital health and maintenance of our body. Experimental evidences suggested that fruits contain various bioactive constituents including flavonoids, polyphenols, carotenoids, and micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. Because of these, fruits are receiving greater attention to treat and/or control various health complications such as diabetes, obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease, immune system decline, and certain neurological disorders. Experimental evidences from various in vitro and in vivo imply that fruit extracts and/or isolated bioactive compounds are associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. Therefore, fruits have the potential to be converted into functional foods as well as pharmaceuticals to prevent or/and treat several chronic complications. In the present article, we review current knowledge about the bioactivities and health benefits of selected Indian fruits for the treatment/management of the chronic health complications in humans. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This review provides practical information about how best to take advantage of the bioactive compounds and health implications of the South Indian fruits like Bael, Jujube, Cotton Candy Berry, and Manilla Tamarind as a potential source of functional and nutritive compounds. It aims at emphasizing the most recent findings on biological effects of major groups of fruits like Bael, Jujube, Cotton Candy Berry, and Manilla Tamarind and their major components, their medical interest, potential drug interaction, notably for human nutrition, health benefits, and therapeutic impacts.

Medicinal plants for gastrointestinal diseases among the Kuki-Chin ethnolinguistic groups across Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar: A comparative and network analysis study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Kuki-Chin is a composite ethnolinguistic group made up of many distinct groups and subgroups that are linked by a common history, culture, and population distribution in the Kuki-Chin region, shared geopolitically by Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar. This region is shown to be in a hotspot of digestive disease activity based on official reports and in concordance with data from related ethnopharmacological field surveys. Our work provides a comparative analysis of medicinal plant knowledge for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases (GAS-Ds) among the Kuki-Chin ethnic groups found across the three countries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objectives were (1) to identify the medicinal plants and herbal therapies for the treatment of GAS-Ds reported in related Kuki-Chin ethnobotanical publications, (2) to find the similarities and differences in medicinal plant knowledge among the country-affiliated groups by comparing plant and disease information, and (3) to determine significant plant taxa and their pattern(s) of use as digestive disease herbal remedies by analyzing disease-plant networks.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Secondary data were gathered from 34 related studies through internet search of ethnobotanical information from field studies published in journals, reports, books, and dissertations/theses. These data represented 22 Kuki-Chin ethnolinguistic groups inhabiting 23 districts across six states comprising the Kuki-Chin region: the Chittagong Division (Bangladesh); Mizoram, Assam, Manipur, and Tripura States (India); and Chin State (Myanmar). Scientific names of plants and digestive diseases collated from secondary sources were validated and standardized following the Plant List and the International Classification of Primary Care Second Edition, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 482 species in 330 genera and 118 families of vascular plants were recorded for the treatment of 29 standardized GAS-Ds. On the basis of the number of use-reports, regional native species Phyllanthus emblica, Centella asiatica, and Aegle marmelos, as well as the non-natives Carica papaya, Portulaca oleracea, and Psidium guajava were found to be the most preferred. Comparative analysis of medicinal species showed that groups in India revealed the highest number of medicinal plant taxa, followed by those in Bangladesh and Myanmar. The most prevalent GAS-Ds were shown to be abdominal pain epigastric, gastroenteritis presumed infections, and diarrhoea, as supported by the number of use-reports and medicinal taxa used for their treatment, and their informant consensus factor values. Analyses of disease-plant networks graphically showed both GAS-Ds distribution patterns in the region and potential medicinal plant (group) candidates for further studies.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study revealed an astonishingly rich diversity of medicinal plants used to treat digestive diseases among the Kuki-Chin. A comparative analysis showed variations and remarkable distinctions in medicinal plant knowledge among country-affiliated groups, as likely influenced by external sociocultural factors and geopolitical barriers, as well as the availability of ethnobotanical data. The use of network analysis reflected not only shared common affinities and patterns of plant use based on the taxonomic composition and species selection, but also disease prevalence and distribution patterns. The information found here can hopefully spur interest among future researchers and policy makers to better improve both the (ethno) medicinal research capacity and healthcare system in the region.

Fruit extracts to control pathogenic Escherichia coli: A sweet solution

Escherichia coli is a major cause of diarrhea and is as well responsible for extraintestinal infections in humans and animals. Many pathotypes have been defined for this ubiquitous microorganism on the basis of the virulence attributes. For the last 70 years, antibiotics have been used to control infections caused by E. coli. However, with the resistance observed with many strains these drugs are less recommended. Plant extracts, in particular fruit, represent a source of bioactive compounds that could be beneficial in the control of infectious diseases caused by E. coli. These could have bacteriostatic or bactericidal potential or could be used as synergic agents to amplify the activity of antibiotics for which the germs present some level of resistance. Certain studies also revealed that fruit extracts could act directly on virulence characters to attenuate the pathogenic capacity of microorganisms. This review intent to expose the scant but rapidly growing information available that shows that fruit, used as crude extracts or purified molecules, should be considered to manage diverse types of infections caused by E. coli.

Evaluation of In Vivo Antidiarrheal Activities of Hydroalcoholic Leaf Extract of Dodonaea viscosa L.(Sapindaceae) in Swiss Albino Mice

Traditionally people used Dodonaea viscosa for the treatment of various ailments, including diarrhea. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the antidiarrheal activity of the 80% methanolic leaf extract of D viscosa against castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice models. Different doses of 80% methanolic leaf extract of D viscosa (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) were evaluated for their antidiarrheal activities using castor oil-induced diarrhea, gastrointestinal transit, and enteropooling models in Swiss albino mice. At all test doses, the plant extract showed significant (P < .05) inhibition in the frequency of defecation of wet feces and total fecal output as compared to the control group. Similarly, at all dose ranges used the plant extract demonstrated significant (P < .05) reduction in an intraluminal fluid accumulation as compared to the untreated group. Besides, at higher doses, the plant extract also indicated significant (P < .05) antimotility activity in comparison with the control. In conclusion, these findings illustrated that the 80% methanolic leaf extract of D viscosa supported the traditional claim of antidiarrheal activity of the plant though further investigations are warranted.

Origanum majorana L. extract exhibit positive cooperative effects on the main mechanisms involved in acute infectious diarrhea

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Origanum majorana L. (Lamiaceae) is commonly used in Moroccan folk medicine to treat infantile colic, abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Liquid stools and abdominal discomfort observed in acute infectious diarrhea are the consequences of imbalance between intestinal water secretion and absorption in the lumen, and relaxation of smooth muscle surrounding the intestinal mucosa.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of our study was to see if aqueous extract of Origanum majorana L. (AEOM) may exhibit an effect on those deleterious mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of AEOM on electrogenic Cl^- secretion and Na⁺ absorption, the two main mechanisms underlying water movement in the intestine, was assessed on intestinal pieces of mice intestine mounted, in vitro, in Ussing chambers. AEOM effect on muscle relaxation was measured on rat intestinal smooth muscle mounted in an isotonic transducer.

RESULTS

1) AEOM placed on the serosal (i.e. blood) side of the piece of jejunum entirely inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner the Forskolin-induced electrogenic chloride secretion, with an IC₅₀ = 654 ± 8 µg/mL. 2) AEOM placed on the mucosal (i.e. luminal) side stimulated in a concentration-dependent manner an electrogenic Na⁺ absorption, with an IC₅₀ = 476.9 ± 1 µg/mL. 3) AEOM (1 mg/mL) inhibition of Forskolin-induced electrogenic secretion was almost entirely prevented by prior exposure to Ca⁺⁺ channels or neurotransmitters inhibitors. 4) AEOM (1 mg/mL) proabsorptive effect was greater in the ileum and progressively declined in the jejunum, distal colon and proximal colon (minimal). 5) AEOM inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner smooth muscle Carbachol or KCl induced contraction, with an IC₅₀ = 1.64 ± 0.2 mg/mL or 1.92 ± 0.8 mg/mL, respectively.

CONCLUSION

the present results indicate that aqueous extract of Origanum majorana L. exhibit positive cooperative effects on the main mechanisms that are involved in acute infectious diarrhea.

Neutralization of cholera toxin by Rosaceae family plant extracts

BACKGROUND

Cholera is one of the most deadly diarrheal diseases that require new treatments. We investigated the neutralization of cholera toxin by five plant extracts obtained from the Rosaceae family that have been traditionally used in Poland to treat diarrhea (of unknown origin).

METHODS

Hot water extracts were prepared from the dried plant materials and lyophilized before phytochemical analysis and assessment of antimicrobial activity using microdilution assays. The ability of the plant extracts to neutralize cholera toxin was analyzed by measurement of cAMP levels in cell cultures, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and electrophoresis, as well as flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy studies of fluorescent-labeled cholera toxins with cultured human fibroblasts.

RESULTS

The antimicrobial assays displayed modest bacteriostatic potentials. We found that the plant extracts modulate the effects of cholera toxin on intracellular cAMP levels. Three plant extracts (Agrimonia eupatoria L., Rubus fruticosus L., Fragaria vesca L.) suppressed the binding of subunit B of cholera toxin to the cell surface and immobilized ganglioside GM1 while two others (Rubus idaeus L., Rosa.canina L.) interfered with the toxin internalization process.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional application of the Rosaceae plant infusions for diarrhea appears relevant to cholera, slowing the growth of pathogenic bacteria and either inhibiting the binding of cholera toxin to receptors or blocking toxin internalization. The analyzed plant extracts are potential complements to standard antibiotic treatment and Oral Rehydration Therapy for the treatment of cholera.

The Anti-diarrheal Activity of the Non-toxic Dihuang Powder in Mice

Dihuang powder (DHP) has been used in the traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of diarrhea in some regions of China. But up to now, the anti-diarrheal activity of DHP haven't been performed with modern pharmacological technology. This study aims to investigate the quality control, the potential toxicity and anti-diarrheal activity of Dihuang powder in mice. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and thin layer chromatography (TLC) were used to detect five active compounds in DHP for quality control, and the acute toxicity and sub-acute toxicity for 28-day oral administration of DHP were then evaluated. The anti-diarrheal activity was investigated using mouse model. Results showed that the levels of quercetin and berberine in DHP were 0.054 and 0.632 mg/g, respectively, and atractylodin, matrine, and patehouli aleohal were also detected in DHP. At the given doses, DHP was safe in terms of acute and sub-acute toxicity. Meanwhile, DHP exhibited strong anti-diarrheal effects as well as decreased gastrointestinal motility and the secretions induced by Sennae and castor oil in a dose-dependent manner. It could decrease the content of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the small intestine, and improve the histopathological changes of small intestine and large intestine induced by Sennae. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities in vivo also were presented. Based on all of the results, we thought that DHP has anti-diarrheal activity, and could be used to treat diarrhea as well as alleviate the pain and inflammation induced by diarrhea. This study provides a theoretical basis for the clinical use of DHP and may assist in the development of new drugs for the treatment of diarrhea. The mechanism of the anti-diarrheal activity should be investigated in the future.

Antidiarrheal and antimicrobial activities of the ethanol extract from the Icacina senegalensis root bark

BACKGROUND

The Icacina senegalensis root bark is traditionally used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in Nigeria. To date, no scientific study has substantiated or refuted this claim.

METHODS

The antidiarrheal and antimicrobial activities of the ethanol root bark extract were investigated in rats and against some selected diarrhea-causing microorganisms.

RESULTS

The extract significantly decreased the frequency of castor oil-induced diarrhea, and inhibited the masses and volumes of intestinal fluid accumulation in the castor oil-induced enteropooling method. The distance travelled by the charcoal meal was also decreased by the extract gastrointestinal transit method. The extract also strongly inhibited the growth of some selected microorganisms.

CONCLUSIONS

The ethanol extract of the I. senegalensis root bark showed antidiarrheal activity, thus justifying its long folkloric use in diarrhea treatment. The extract also demonstrated antimicrobial activity against selected diarrheal causing organisms.

Development of botanicals to combat antibiotic resistance

The discovery of antibiotics in the previous century lead to reduction in mortality and morbidity due to infectious diseases but their inappropriate and irrational use has resulted in emergence of resistant microbial populations. Alteration of target sites, active efflux of drugs and enzymatic degradations are the strategies employed by the pathogenic bacteria to develop intrinsic resistance to antibiotics. This has led to an increased interest in medicinal plants since 25-50% of current pharmaceuticals are plant derived. Crude extracts of medicinal plants could serve as an alternate source of resistance modifying agents owing to the wide variety of secondary metabolites. These metabolites (alkaloids, tannins, polyphenols etc.) could act as potentials for antimicrobials and resistance modifiers. Plant extracts have the ability to bind to protein domains leading to modification or inhibition protein-protein interactions. This enables the herbals to also present themselves as effective modulators of host related cellular processes viz immune response, mitosis, apoptosis and signal transduction. Thus they may exert their activity not only by killing the microorganism but by affecting key events in the pathogenic process, thereby, the bacteria, fungi and viruses may have a reduced ability to develop resistance to botanicals. The article is meant to stimulate research wherein the cidal activity of the extract is not the only parameter considered but other mechanism of action by which plants can combat drug resistant microbes are investigated. The present article emphasizes on mechanisms involved in countering multi drug resistance.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, thrombolytic and cytotoxic activities of an ornamental medicinal plant: Persicaria orientalis

BACKGROUND

Persicaria orientalis, an ornamental medicinal plant, has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases. Although the plant is reported to have some important pharmacological effects, many medicinal values remain unidentified. Our objective was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, thrombolytic, and cytotoxic properties of the methanol extract of P. orientalis leaves (Po-MeOH).

METHODS

Anti-inflammatory activity was measured by the inhibition of hypotonicity-induced human red blood cell hemolysis and albumin denaturation technique in vitro of Po-MeOH. Diarrheal episodes were examined in mice with castor oil-induced diarrhea. The clot lysis and brine shrimp lethality bioassay in vitro were used to evaluate the thrombolytic and cytotoxic activities of the plant extract, respectively.

RESULTS

Using in vitro anti-inflammatory models, the results demonstrated that Po-MeOH at the five different dose ranges from 31.25 to 500 μg/mL significantly (p<0.05) protected (0.98%-50.71%) the erythrocyte membrane against lysis induced by hypotonic medium solution and protein denaturation (38.27%-79.22%) of bovine albumin, respectively. The extract exhibited a significant reduction of severity (75.17%) of castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice at the highest dose of 400 mg/kg compared to loperamide (82.06%) at 5 mg/kg. Po-MeOH also showed 33.14% clot lytic activity in the thrombolytic test and cytotoxicity with LC50 value 58.91 μg/mL in the brine shrimp bioassay.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that Po-MeOH has significant anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheal effects along with moderate thrombolytic and lower cytotoxic properties that may warrant the further exploration.

Anti-diarrheal and anti-inflammatory activities of aqueous extract of the aerial part of Rubia cordifolia

Background

In Shaanxi province, China, the aqueous extract of Rubia cordifolia’s aerial part (AERCAP) is traditionally used to manage diarrhea. However, there is no scientific evidence to verify the safety and efficacy of its use. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-diarrheal and anti-inflammatory effects of AERCAP by using a rodent model.

Methods

The anti-diarrheal effects were studied by senna leaf-induced diarrheal and intestinal transit experiments in mice. The anti-inflammatory activity was investigated by trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colonic inflammation in rats.

Results

The results indicated that AERCAP delayed the onset of semi-solid feces, reduced the evacuation index (EI) in senna leaf-induced diarrheal in mice, and inhibited the propulsive movement in castor oil-induced intestinal transit but not in the normal intestinal transit test. The results were compared with the standard anti-diarrheal drug loperamide. Additionally, oral treatment with AERCAP significantly decreased the macroscopic damage area, improved the microscopic structure, and reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, IL-1β and TNF-α levels in colonic tissue compared with the TNBS control group in rats.

Conclusions

AERCAP exhibited anti-diarrheal and anti-inflammatory activities in a rodent model. The study validated the traditional use of the plant in Chinese herbal medicine as a valuable natural remedy for the treatment of diarrhea.

Aegle marmelos in heterocyclization: greener, highly efficient, one-pot three-component protocol for the synthesis of highly functionalized 4H-benzochromenes and 4H-chromenes

A facile, one-pot three-component protocol for the synthesis of 2-amino-4H-chromene derivatives has been demonstrated using Bael Fruit Extract (BFE) as a natural catalyst in a green reaction medium.

Medicinal plants and natural molecules with in vitro and in vivo activity against rotavirus: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Rotaviruses can cause life-threatening health disorders, such as severe dehydrating gastroenteritis and diarrhea in children. Vaccination is the main preventive strategy to reduce rotavirus diarrhea and the severity of episodes, but vaccines are not fully effective and new episodes may occur, even in vaccinated children. The WHO recommends oral rehydration therapy and zinc supplementation for rotavirus-induced diarrhea management. There is little preclinical evidence to support the use of phytotherapeutics in the management of rotaviral infections.

PURPOSE

We aim to review the use of medicinal plants and natural molecules in the management of rotavirus infections in experimental studies.

METHODS

Articles, published in the English language between 1991 and 2016, were retrieved from PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science using relevant keywords. The scientific literature mainly focusing on plant natural products with therapeutic efficacies against experimental models of rotavirus, were identified and tabulated. In addition, an assessment of the reliability of animal experiments was determined under ``Risk of Bias'' criteria.

CHAPTERS

After an initial search and a revision of the inclusion criteria, 41 reports satisfied the objectives of the study. 36 articles were found concerning the anti-rotaviral potential in rotavirus infected cell lines. Among the active secondary metabolites screened for rotavirus inhibition, the polyphenols of flavonoid structure had acquired the highest number of studies in our survey, compared to phenolic acids, stilbenoids, tannins, pectins, terpenoids and flavonoid glycosides. Also, many phytochemicals reduced the efficacy of viral capsid proteins foremost to their elimination and improved the tendency of host-cell inhibiting virus absorption or by prevention of viral replication. Furthermore, five in vivo studies reported that herbs, as well its components, reduced the duration and severity of diarrhea in mice and piglets. The anti-rotavirus efficacy were highlighted based on improvements in reduction on liquid stool, fecal virus shedding, small intestinal histology, levels of inflammation related cytokines and signaling receptors. However, the quality of the experiments in animal studies contained certain types of bias in terms of how they were conducted and reported.

CONCLUSION

We identified and summarized studies on medicinal plants and natural molecules having anti-rotavirus activity in order to further future developments of cures for rotavirus gastroenteritis.

Antioxidant, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic and thrombolytic activities of organic and aqueous extracts of Hopea odorata leaves and in silico PASS prediction of its isolated compounds

Background

Hopea Odorata, locally known as Telsur (Bangladesh), has some traditional uses as folk medicine. This study aims to investigate the antioxidant, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic and thrombolytic activities of H. odorata leaf extracts as new therapeutic prospects predicting the activity of some of the isolated compounds of this plant.

Methods

Leaves of Hopea odorata was extracted with pure methanol (MEHO), ethanol (EEHO) and water (AEHO). The extract was tested for antioxidant activity by using reducing power and H₂O₂ scavenging assay. Antidiarrheal effects were assayed by three standard methods of bioassay: Castor oil-induced diarrhea, Castor oil induced enteropooling and gastrointestinal transit test. Hypoglycemic effect was determined by normoglycemic model of mice. Thrombolytic activity was evaluated by clot lyses test for human and mice blood. In silico PASS prediction was applied for phytoconstituents namely Balanocarpol, Hopeaphenol and Ampelopsin H isolated from this plant.

Result

Among the all extracts, MEHO exhibited strong antioxidant activity in both reducing power and H₂O₂ scavenging assay. Phenol content of MEHO was 297.22 ± 0.78 mg/g and flavonol content was 91.53 ± 1.82 mg/g. All the experiment of extracts at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg and the standard drug loperamide (5 mg/kg) showed significant (p < 0.001) inhibition against castor oil induced diarrhea and castor oil induced enteropooling in mice. There were also significant (p < 0.01) reduction in gastrointestinal motility in the charcoal meal test. Leaf extract showed no significant (P < 0.01) decrease of blood glucose compared to Glibenclamide in normoglycemic mice. Using an in vitro thrombolytic model, MEHO showed the highest and significant clot lysis of human and mice blood compared to Streptokinase. PASS predicted the wide range of antioxidant, free radical scavenger, Nitric oxide scavenger, cardioprotectant, hepatoprotectant, thrombolytic, fibrinolytic, antibacterial, antifungal, anticarcinogenic, anthelmintic and anti-inflammatory activity of examined phytoconstituents.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that the plant may be a potential source of new antidiarrheal, thrombolytic and antioxidative agents but it is found to have no antidiabetic capability. PASS prediction matched with present study for the extracts. Further study needs to identify the PASS predicted biological actions of the phytoconstituents.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1461-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Inhibition of Cholera Toxin and Other AB Toxins by Polyphenolic Compounds

Cholera toxin (CT) is an AB-type protein toxin that contains a catalytic A1 subunit, an A2 linker, and a cell-binding B homopentamer. The CT holotoxin is released into the extracellular environment, but CTA1 attacks a target within the cytosol of a host cell. We recently reported that grape extract confers substantial resistance to CT. Here, we used a cell culture system to identify twelve individual phenolic compounds from grape extract that inhibit CT. Additional studies determined the mechanism of inhibition for a subset of the compounds: two inhibited CT binding to the cell surface and even stripped CT from the plasma membrane of a target cell; two inhibited the enzymatic activity of CTA1; and four blocked cytosolic toxin activity without directly affecting the enzymatic function of CTA1. Individual polyphenolic compounds from grape extract could also generate cellular resistance to diphtheria toxin, exotoxin A, and ricin. We have thus identified individual toxin inhibitors from grape extract and some of their mechanisms of inhibition against CT.

Therapeutic significance and pharmacological activities of antidiarrheal medicinal plants mention in Ayurveda: A review

Diarrhea is a serious problem affecting 3-5 billion people per year around the world, especially children of below 5 years. 70% of the world population uses traditional and indigenous medicine for their primary health care. The facts of these indigenous remedies are passed verbally and sometimes as documents. Since ancient time, Ayurveda is the main system of healing in South East Asian countries. Indian literature from ayurvedic texts and other books claim the potency of several plants in the treatment of diarrhea. As the global prospective of ayurvedic medicine is increasing, interest regarding the scientific basis of their action is parallely increasing. Researchers are doing experiments to establish the relation between the claimed action and observed pharmacological activities. In the present article, an attempt was made to compile the scientific basis of medicinal plants used to cure diarrhea in Ayurveda. Literature was collected via electronic search (PubMed, ScienceDirect, Medline, and Google Scholar) from published articles that reports antidiarrheal activity of plants that were mentioned in Ayurveda classics. A total of 109 plant species belonging to 58 families were reported for their antidiarrheal activity. Several Indian medicinal plants have demonstrated promising antidiarrheal effects, but the studies on the antidiarrheal potentials of these plants are not taken beyond proof of concept stage. It is hoped that the article would stimulate future clinical studies because of the paucity of knowledge in this area.

Evaluation of Antidiarrheal Activity of Methanolic Extract of Maranta arundinacea Linn. Leaves

Diarrhea is one of the most common causes for thousands of deaths every year. Therefore, identification of new source of antidiarrheal drugs becomes one of the most prominent focuses in modern research. Our aim was to investigate the antidiarrheal and cytotoxic activities of methanolic extract of Maranta arundinacea linn. (MEMA) leaves in rats and brine shrimp, respectively. Antidiarrheal effect was evaluated by using castor oil-induced diarrhea, enteropooling, and gastrointestinal motility tests at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight in rats where the cytotoxic activity was justified using brine shrimp lethality bioassay at different concentrations of MEMA. The extract showed considerable antidiarrheal effect by inhibiting 42.67% and 57.75% of diarrheal episode at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, respectively. MEMA also significantly (p < 0.01) reduced the castor oil-induced intestinal volume (2.14 ± 0.16 to 1.61 ± 0.12 mL) in enteropooling test as well as intestinal transit (33.00 to 43.36%) in GI motility test, compared to their respective control. These observed effects are comparable to that of standard drug loperamide (5 mg/kg). On the other hand, in brine shrimp lethality test after 24 h, surviving brine shrimp larvae were counted and LD50 was assessed. Result showed that MEMA was potent against brine shrimp with LD50 value of 420 µg/mL. So the highest dose of 400 µg/mL of MEMA was not toxic to mice. So these results indicate that bioactive compounds are present in methanolic extract of Maranta arundinacea leaves including significant antidiarrheal activity and could be accounted for pharmacological effects.

Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers of North Tripura district, Tripura, North East India

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Information about ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in Tripura, India is very much limited. As there is rapid erosion of traditional knowledge in the state, needs has arisen to document the diversity of medicinal plants, their preparation and associated diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Attempts have been made to explore the herbal medicines used by the traditional healers belonging to the various communities in North Tripura district of Tripura, India and document the associated traditional knowledge on the utilisation of medicinal plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was based on ethnomedicinal field survey covering a period of 1 year from February 2012 to February 2013. The ethnomedicinal information was collected by using semi-structured questionnaires from different healers and knowledge holders. Collected data were analysed through informant consensus factor, Index of Specialisation and Relative frequency of citation to determine culturally significant plants.

RESULTS

A total of 75 species of plants under 68 genera belonging to 43 families were collected during the study for the treatment of 15 disease categories. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts and most of the medicines were prepared in the form of extract and administered orally. FIC values of the present study indicated that there was a high agreement in the use of plants in the treatment of digestive system disorders and respiratory system disorders among the healers. Plants having high ISu are Justicia adhatoda, Pajanelia longifolia, Catharanthus roseus etc.

CONCLUSION

The present study highlighted certain species having higher priority indices for further phytochemical investigation. Counselling of traditional health practitioners should be taken into consideration in order to smooth continuation and extension of traditional medical knowledge and practice for ensuring safe and effective therapy.

Antidiarrhoeal activity of aqueous extract of Mangifera indica L. leaves in female albino rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mangifera indica L. leaves have a long history of indigenous use, as an antidiarrhoeal agent among others, without any scientific study that has substantiated or refuted this claim. Therefore, the aims of this study were to determine the secondary metabolites in the aqueous extract of Mangifera indica leaves and its acclaimed antidiarrhoeal activity in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The aqueous leaf extract of Mangifera indica was screened for its constituent secondary plant metabolites. In each of the diarrhoeal models, female albino rats were assigned into 5 groups (A, B, C, D and E) containing five animals each such that rats in groups A and B were the positive and negative controls respectively while those in groups C, D and E received 25, 50 and 100mg/kg body weight of the extract respectively in addition to specific requirements of the model.

RESULTS

The extract contained alkaloids (4.20mg/g), flavonoids (13.60mg/g), phenolics (1.50mg/g) and saponins (3.10mg/g) while tannins, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides and steroids were not detected. In the castor oil-induced diarrhoeal model, the onset time of diarrhoea was significantly prolonged by the 25 and 50mg/kg body weight whereas there was no episode in the 100mg/kg body weight treated animals. The extract (25 and 50mg/kg body weight) decreased the number, water content, fresh weight and total number of wet feaces and increased the inhibition of defecations. All the doses of the extract significantly increased the Na(+) -K(+) ATPase activity in the small intestine. The extract dose dependently decreased the masses and volume of intestinal fluid with corresponding increase in inhibition of intestinal fluid content in the castor oil-induced enteropooling model. The extract also reduced the distance travelled by charcoal meal in the 30min gastrointestinal transit model. All these changes were similar to the reference drugs with the 100mg/kg body weight of the extract exhibiting the most profound antidiarrhoeal activity.

CONCLUSION

The study concluded that the aqueous extract of Mangifera indica leaves possess antidiarrhoeal activity in chemical induced diarrhoeal models and thus justifies its age long folkloric use in managing diarrhoea. The presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins and enhancement of Na(+) -K(+) ATPase activity might play roles in the antidiarrhoeal activity of the plant extract.