Microbiota and neurologic diseases: potential effects of probiotics

Probiotics and the microbiota-gut-brain axis in neurodegeneration: Beneficial effects and mechanistic insights

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a group of heterogeneous disorders with a high socioeconomic burden. Although pharmacotherapy is currently the principal therapeutic approach for the management of NDs, mounting evidence supports the notion that the protracted application of available drugs would abate their dopaminergic outcomes in the long run. The therapeutic application of microbiome-based modalities has received escalating attention in biomedical works. In-depth investigations of the bidirectional communication between the microbiome in the gut and the brain offer a multitude of targets for the treatment of NDs or maximizing the patient's quality of life. Probiotic administration is a well-known microbial-oriented approach to modulate the gut microbiota and potentially influence the process of neurodegeneration. Of note, there is a strong need for further investigation to map out the mechanistic prospects for the gut-brain axis and the clinical efficacy of probiotics. In this review, we discuss the importance of microbiome modulation and hemostasis via probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics and synbiotics in ameliorating pathological neurodegenerative events. Also, we meticulously describe the underlying mechanism of action of probiotics and their metabolites on the gut-brain axis in different NDs. We suppose that the present work will provide a functional direction for the use of probiotic-based modalities in promoting current practical treatments for the management of neurodegenerative-related diseases.

Advances in molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for central nervous system diseases based on gut microbiota imbalance

BACKGROUD

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases pose a serious threat to human health, but the regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic strategies of CNS diseases need to be further explored. It has been demonstrated that the gut microbiota (GM) is closely related to CNS disease. GM structure disorders, abnormal microbial metabolites, intestinal barrier destruction and elevated inflammation exist in patients with CNS diseases and promote the development of CNS diseases. More importantly, GM remodeling alleviates CNS pathology to some extent.

AIM OF REVIEW

Here, we have summarized the regulatory mechanism of the GM in CNS diseases and the potential treatment strategies for CNS repair based on GM regulation, aiming to provide safer and more effective strategies for CNS repair from the perspective of GM regulation.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

The abundance and composition of GM is closely associated with the CNS diseases. On the basis of in-depth analysis of GM changes in mice with CNS disease, as well as the changes in its metabolites, therapeutic strategies, such as probiotics, prebiotics, and FMT, may be used to regulate GM balance and affect its microbial metabolites, thereby promoting the recovery of CNS diseases.

The Interplay of Sports and Nutrition in Neurological Health and Recovery

This comprehensive review explores the dynamic relationship between sports, nutrition, and neurological health. Focusing on recent clinical advancements, it examines how physical activity and dietary practices influence the prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of various neurological conditions. The review highlights the role of neuroimaging in understanding these interactions, discusses emerging technologies in neurotherapeutic interventions, and evaluates the efficacy of sports and nutritional strategies in enhancing neurological recovery. This synthesis of current knowledge aims to provide a deeper understanding of how lifestyle factors can be integrated into clinical practices to improve neurological outcomes.

Opening avenues for treatment of neurodegenerative disease using post-biotics: Breakthroughs and bottlenecks in clinical translation

Recent studies have indicated the significant involvement of the gut microbiome in both human physiology and pathology. Additionally, therapeutic interventions based on microbiome approaches have been employed to enhance overall health and address various diseases including aging and neurodegenerative disease (ND). Researchers have explored potential links between these areas, investigating the potential pathogenic or therapeutic effects of intestinal microbiota in diseases. This article provides a summary of established interactions between the gut microbiome and ND. Post-biotic is believed to mediate its neuroprotection by elevating the level of dopamine and reducing the level of α-synuclein in substantia nigra, protecting the loss of dopaminergic neurons, reducing the aggregation of NFT, reducing the deposition of amyloid β peptide plagues and ameliorating motor deficits. Moreover, mediates its neuroprotective activity by inhibiting the inflammatory response (decreasing the expression of TNFα, iNOS expression, free radical formation, overexpression of HIF-1α), apoptosis (i.e. active caspase-3, TNF-α, maintains the level of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio) and promoting BDNF secretion. It is also reported to have good antioxidant activity. This review offers an overview of the latest findings from both preclinical and clinical trials concerning the use of post-biotics in ND.

Protocol for the Gut Bugs in Autism Trial: a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial of faecal microbiome transfer for the treatment of gastrointestinal symptoms in autistic adolescents and adults

INTRODUCTION

Autism (formally autism spectrum disorder) encompasses a group of complex neurodevelopmental conditions, characterised by differences in communication and social interactions. Co-occurring chronic gastrointestinal symptoms are common among autistic individuals and can adversely affect their quality of life. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of oral encapsulated faecal microbiome transfer (FMT) in improving gastrointestinal symptoms and well-being among autistic adolescents and adults.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial will recruit 100 autistic adolescents and adults aged 16-45 years, who have mild to severe gastrointestinal symptoms (Gastrointestinal Symptoms Rating Scale (GSRS) score ≥2.0). We will also recruit eight healthy donors aged 18-32 years, who will undergo extensive clinical screening. Recipients will be randomised 1:1 to receive FMT or placebo, stratified by biological sex. Capsules will be administered over two consecutive days following an overnight bowel cleanse with follow-up assessments at 6, 12 and 26 weeks post-treatment. The primary outcome is GSRS score at 6 weeks. Other assessments include anthropometry, body composition, hair cortisol concentration, gut microbiome profile, urine/plasma gut-derived metabolites, plasma markers of gut inflammation/permeability and questionnaires on general well-being, sleep quality, physical activity, food diversity and treatment tolerability. Adverse events will be recorded and reviewed by an independent data monitoring committee.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethics approval for the study was granted by the Central Health and Disability Ethics Committee on 24 August 2021 (reference number: 21/CEN/211). Results will be published in peer-reviewed journals and presented to both scientific and consumer group audiences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12622000015741.

Probiotic-fortified fruit juices: Health benefits, challenges, and future perspective

Consumers' growing interest in using foods that improve health has motivated researchers and the food industry to develop new functional products, such as foods containing probiotics or live microbes. Probiotics have functional attributes that could satisfy most basic nutritional and therapeutic supplementation requirements. These microbes positively respond to clinical therapies against diseases and illnesses such as rotavirus-associated diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome, and food allergies. Moreover, the role of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of obesity, diabetes, cancer, and diseases related to pathogenic microbes is an exciting and rapidly advancing research arena. Probiotic supplementation usually involves dairy products. However, because of the growing number of individuals affected by lactose intolerance and/or vegans, other food matrices like fruits, vegetables, cereals, and so on, have been studied as potential carriers for these microorganisms, presenting an alternative and better source in the process of assessing novel probiotic strains. The present review discusses the various factors affecting the survival of probiotics during storage in fruit juices, the possible effect of probiotics on sensory attributes and the overall acceptance of the products, and future technologies to improve the viability of probiotics.

Isolation and Evaluation of the Probiotic Activity of Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Pickled Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. et Coss

The naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria can be isolated from various sources. Pickled Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. et Coss. was used to isolate lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This study was conducted to compare the probiotic properties of probiotics isolated from pickled Vietnamese cabbage with some commercial strains of probiotics available on the Vietnamese market. The results showed that two strains (Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum) isolated from pickled Vietnamese cabbage and three commercial strains of probiotics (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus clausii, Lactobacillus acidophilus) all showed probiotic properties. Probiotic properties were evaluated through the ability to survive in low pH, pepsin, pancreatin, and bile salt media, the hydrophobicity of the bacteria, the antibiotic resistance, and the resistance to pathogenic bacteria. The isolated strain Lactiplantibacillus plantarum had fewer probiotic properties than Bacillus subtilis but more than the two commercial strains Bacillus clausii and Lactobacillus acidophilus, and the isolated Lactobacillus fermentum showed the fewest probiotic properties of the five strains.

Probiotic and prebiotic supplementation ameliorates chronic restraint stress-induced male reproductive dysfunction

Restraint stress (RS) can induce male reproductive deficits by activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and causing oxidative stress. Previous studies have shown that probiotics can alleviate neurological and metabolic disorders induced by stress. However, the effects of probiotics on RS-induced reproductive deficits have not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate whether Lactobacillus rhamnosus NCDC-610 (Probiotic-1) and Lactobacillus fermentum NCDC-400 (Probiotic-2) with prebiotic (fructooligosaccharides (FOS)) could prevent RS-induced reproductive deficits. C57BL6/J mice were subjected to RS for four hours daily before oral administration of probiotics (4 × 109 CFU per mice) either separately or concurrently with FOS. The results showed that oral administration of Probiotic-1 and Probiotic-2 protected against RS-induced sperm deficits, including sperm count, motility, morphology, and histopathology of testes, and improved intestinal health. Furthermore, Probiotic-1 and Probiotic-2 prevented RS-induced changes in testosterone levels by up-regulating the expressions of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17βHSD) in the testes. Additionally, Probiotic-1 and Probiotic-2 increased the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase and reduced the fold change of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), indicating a protective effect against RS-induced oxidative stress. Oral administration of Probiotic-1 and Probiotic-2, either separately or concurrently with FOS (probiotic dose of 4 × 109 CFU per mice and prebiotic 5% w/v), prevented RS-induced activation of the HPA axis and improved male fertility. These findings suggest that L. rhamnosus NCDC-610 and L. fermentum NCDC-400 are safe and effective probiotics for mitigating stress-induced male reproductive deficits.

A Spectrum of Solutions: Unveiling Non-Pharmacological Approaches to Manage Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that causes difficulty while socializing and communicating and the performance of stereotyped behavior. ASD is thought to have a variety of causes when accompanied by genetic disorders and environmental variables together, resulting in abnormalities in the brain. A steep rise in ASD has been seen regardless of the numerous behavioral and pharmaceutical therapeutic techniques. Therefore, using complementary and alternative therapies to treat autism could be very significant. Thus, this review is completely focused on non-pharmacological therapeutic interventions which include different diets, supplements, antioxidants, hormones, vitamins and minerals to manage ASD. Additionally, we also focus on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies, herbal remedies, camel milk and cannabiodiol. Additionally, we concentrate on how palatable phytonutrients provide a fresh glimmer of hope in this situation. Moreover, in addition to phytochemicals/nutraceuticals, it also focuses on various microbiomes, i.e., gut, oral, and vaginal. Therefore, the current comprehensive review opens a new avenue for managing autistic patients through non-pharmacological intervention.

The role of probiotics in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM) as an emerging field is a multidisciplinary science and combines basic sciences such as biomaterials science, biology, genetics and medical sciences to achieve functional TERM-based products to regenerate or replace damaged or diseased tissues or organs. Probiotics are useful microorganisms which have multiple effective functions on human health. They have some immunomodulatory and biocompatibility effects and improve wound healing. In this article, we describe the latest findings on probiotics and their pro-healing properties on various body systems that are useable in regenerative medicine. Therefore, this review presents a new perspective on the therapeutic potential of probiotics for TERM.

The role of probiotics and prebiotics in modulating of the gut-brain axis

Pro-and prebiotics have been indicated to modulate the gut-brain axis, which have supportive impacts on central nervous systems, and decrease or control the incidence of some mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, autism, Schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's. In this review, complex communications among microbiota, gut, and the brain, and also recent scientific findings of the impacts and possible action mechanisms of pro-and prebiotics on mental disorders have been discussed. The results have shown that pro-and prebiotics can improve the function of central nervous system and play an important role in the prevention and treatment of some brain disorders; however, in order to prove these effects conclusively and firmly and to use these compounds in a therapeutic and supportive way, more studies are needed, especially human studies/clinical trials.

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Neuroprotection, What Is New? An Up-To-Date Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the potential role of probiotics has become prominent in the discoveries of neurotherapy against neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) exhibit neuroprotective properties and exert their effects via various mechanisms of actions. This review aimed to evaluate the effects of LAB on neuroprotection reported in the literature.

METHODS

A database search on Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct revealed a total of 467 references, of which 25 were included in this review based on inclusion criteria which comprises 7 in vitro, 16 in vivo, and 2 clinical studies.

RESULTS

From the studies, LAB treatment alone or in probiotics formulations demonstrated significant neuroprotective activities. In animals and humans, LAB probiotics supplementation has improved memory and cognitive performance mainly via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite promising findings, due to limited studies available in the literature, further studies still need to be explored regarding synergistic effects, efficacy, and optimum dosage of LAB oral bacteriotherapy as treatment or prevention against neurodegenerative diseases.

Effects of Probiotic Supplementation on Exercise and the Underlying Mechanisms

Long-term, high-intensity exercise can trigger stress response pathways in multiple organs, including the heart and lungs, gastrointestinal tract, skeletal muscle, and neuroendocrine system, thus affecting their material and energy metabolism, immunity, oxidative stress, and endocrine function, and reducing exercise function. As a natural, safe, and convenient nutritional supplement, probiotics have been a hot research topic in the field of biomedical health in recent years. Numerous studies have shown that probiotic supplementation improves the health of the body through the gut-brain axis and the gut-muscle axis, and probiotic supplementation may also improve the stress response and motor function of the body. This paper reviews the progress of research on the role of probiotic supplementation in material and energy metabolism, intestinal barrier function, immunity, oxidative stress, neuroendocrine function, and the health status of the body, as well as the underlying mechanisms.

COVID-19 Patients with Early Gastrointestinal Symptoms Show Persistent Deficits in Specific Attention Subdomains

Previous studies have shown that COVID-19 inpatients exhibited significant attentional deficits on the day of discharge. However, the presence of gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) has not been evaluated. Here, we aimed to verify: (1) whether COVID-19 patients with GIS exhibited specific attention deficits; (2) which attention subdomain deficits discriminated patients with GIS and without gastrointestinal symptoms (NGIS) from healthy controls. On admission, the presence of GIS was recorded. Seventy-four physically functional COVID-19 inpatients at discharge and sixty-eight controls underwent a Go/No-go computerized visual attentional test (CVAT). A Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) was performed to examine group differences in attentional performance. To discriminate which attention subdomain deficits discriminated GIS and NGIS COVID-19 patients from healthy controls, a discriminant analysis was applied using the CVAT variables. The MANCOVA showed a significant overall effect of COVID-19 with GIS on attention performance. The discriminant analysis indicated that the GIS group could be differentiated from the controls by variability of reaction time and omissions errors. The NGIS group could be differentiated from controls by reaction time. Late attention deficits in COVID-19 patients with GIS may reflect a primary problem in the sustained and focused attention subsystems, whereas in NGIS patients the attention problems are related to the intrinsic-alertness subsystem.

Probiotic-Fermented Camel Milk Attenuates Neurodegenerative Symptoms via SOX5/miR-218 Axis Orchestration in Mouse Models

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune-mediated myelin damage disorder in the central nervous system that is widespread among neurological patients. It has been demonstrated that several genetic and epigenetic factors control autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a murine model of MS, through CD4+ T-cell population quantity. Alterations in the gut microbiota influence neuroprotectiveness via unexplored mechanisms. In this study, the ameliorative effect of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens fermented in camel milk (BEY) on an autoimmune-mediated neurodegenerative model using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein/complete fraud adjuvant/pertussis toxin (MCP)-immunized C57BL6j mice is investigated. Anti-inflammatory activity was confirmed in the in vitro cell model, and inflammatory cytokines interleukins IL17 (from EAE 311 to BEY 227 pg/mL), IL6 (from EAE 103 to BEY 65 pg/mL), IFNγ (from EAE 423 to BEY 243 pg/mL) and TGFβ (from EAE 74 to BEY 133 pg/mL) were significantly reduced in BEY-treated mice. The epigenetic factor miR-218-5P was identified and confirmed its mRNA target SOX-5 using in silico tools and expression techniques, suggesting SOX5/miR-218-5p could serve as an exclusive diagnostic marker for MS. Furthermore, BEY improved the short-chain fatty acids, in particular butyrate (from 0.57 to 0.85 µM) and caproic (from 0.64 to 1.33 µM) acids, in the MCP mouse group. BEY treatment significantly regulated the expression of inflammatory transcripts in EAE mice and upregulated neuroprotective markers such as neurexin (from 0.65- to 1.22-fold) (p < 0.05), vascular endothelial adhesion molecules (from 0.41- to 0.76-fold) and myelin-binding protein (from 0.46- to 0.89-fold) (p < 0.03). These findings suggest that BEY could be a promising clinical approach for the curative treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and could promote the use of probiotic food as medicine.

Role of Gut Microbiota in Neurological Disorders and Its Therapeutic Significance

In humans, the gut microbiota (GM) are known to play a significant role in the metabolism of nutrients and drugs, immunomodulation, and pathogen defense by inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The role of the GM in the gut-brain axis (GBA) has been documented for different regulatory mechanisms and associated pathways and it shows different behaviors with individualized bacteria. In addition, the GM are known as susceptibility factor for neurological disorders in the central nervous system (CNS), regulating disease progression and being amenable to intervention. Bidirectional transmission between the brain and the GM occurs in the GBA, implying that it performs a significant role in neurocrine, endocrine, and immune-mediated signaling pathways. The GM regulates multiple neurological disorders by supplementing them with prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics, synbiotics, fecal transplantations, and/or antibiotics. A well-balanced diet is critically important for establishing healthy GM, which can alter the enteric nervous system (ENS) and regulate multiple neurological disorders. Here, we have discussed the function of the GM in the GBA from the gut to the brain and the brain to the gut, the pathways associated with neurology that interacts with the GM, and the various neurological disorders associated with the GM. Furthermore, we have highlighted the recent advances and future prospects of the GBA, which may require addressing research concerns about GM and associated neurological disorders.

Reviewing the state of the art of probiotics as clinical modalities for brain-gut-microbiota axis associated disorders

The rise in prevalence of mental and neurological disorders is causing a high burden on society, however adequate interventions are not always available. The brain-gut-microbiota axis (BGMA) may provide a new angle for the development of clinical modalities. Due to the intricate bi-directional signaling between the brain and the gut, it may be helpful to look into interventions that target the gut, such as probiotics. Therefore, this review aimed to investigate the state of the art of probiotics and their potential as clinical modalities for BGMA-associated indications by gaining insight into patents and clinical trials that have been applied for and executed since 1999. A total of 565 patents and 390 clinical trials were found, focusing on probiotic applications for 83 indications. Since the start of the 21st century, the highest numbers of patents and clinical trials were related to primary neuropsychological, affective (depression, anxiety) and cognitive disorders, neurodegenerative and/or inflammatory brain disorders (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amongst others), and gastrointestinal disorders (irritable bowel syndrome). The locations where the most patents and clinical trials were registered included China, the United States, and Iran. From 1999 to ~2013 a slight growth could be seen in the numbers of patents and clinical trials, followed by an almost exponential growth from ~2013 onwards. Overall, the developments of the state of the art were in accordance with previous research, however it appeared that clinical trials showed a slightly slower growth compared to patents, which may have implications for the future implementation of probiotics as clinical modalities for BGMA-associated indications.

Randomized Double-Blind Crossover Study for Evaluating a Probiotic Mixture on Gastrointestinal and Behavioral Symptoms of Autistic Children

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) represent a diagnostic challenge with a still partially uncertain etiology, in which genetic and environmental factors have now been assessed. Among the hypotheses underlying the involvement of biological and environmental factors, the gut–brain axis is of particular interest in autism spectrum disorders. Several studies have highlighted the related incidence of particular gastrointestinal symptoms (GISs) in children suffering from ASDs. Probiotics have shown success in treating several gastrointestinal dysbiotic disorders; therefore, it is plausible to investigate whether they can alleviate behavioral symptoms as well. On these bases, a randomized double-blind crossover study with a placebo was conducted, evaluating the effects of a mixture of probiotics in a group of 61 subjects aged between 24 months and 16 years old with a diagnosis of ASD. Behavioral evaluation was performed through the administration of a questionnaire including a Parenting Stress Index (PSI) test and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS). The Psycho-Educational Profile and the Autism Spectrum Rating Scale (ASRS) were also evaluated. Microbial composition analyses of fecal samples of the two groups was also performed. The study showed significant improvements in GISs, communication skills, maladaptive behaviors, and perceived parental stress level after the administration of probiotics. Microbiome alpha diversity was comparable between treatment arms and no significant differences were found, although beta diversity results were significantly different in the treatment group between T0 and T1 time points. Streptococcus thermophilus, Bifidobacterium longum, Limosilactobacillus fermentum, and Ligilactobacillus salivarius species were identified as some of the most discriminant taxa positively associated with T1 samples. This preliminary study corroborates the relationship between intestinal microbiota and ASD recently described in the literature.

ProbResist: a database for drug-resistant probiotic bacteria

Drug resistance remains a global threat, and the rising trend of consuming probiotic-containing foods, many of which harbor antibiotic resistant determinants, has raised serious health concerns. Currently, the lack of accessibility to location-, drug- and species-specific information of drug-resistant probiotics has hampered efforts to combat the global spread of drug resistance. Here, we describe the development of ProbResist, which is a manually curated online database that catalogs reports of probiotic bacteria that have been experimentally proven to be resistant to antibiotics. ProbResist allows users to search for information of drug resistance in probiotics by querying with the names of the bacteria, antibiotic or location. Retrieved results are presented in a downloadable table format containing the names of the antibiotic, probiotic species, resistant determinants, region where the study was conducted and digital article identifiers (PubMed Identifier and Digital Object Identifier) hyperlinked to the original sources. The webserver also presents a simple analysis of information stored in the database. Given the increasing reports of drug-resistant probiotics, an exclusive database is necessary to catalog them in one platform. It will enable medical practitioners and experts involved in policy making to access this information quickly and conveniently, thus contributing toward the broader goal of combating drug resistance.

Alteration of Gut Microbiota of a Food-Storing Hibernator, Siberian Chipmunk Tamias sibiricus

Hibernation represents a state of fasting because hibernators cease eating in the torpid periods. Therefore, food deprivation during hibernation is expected to modify the gut microbiota of host. However, there are few reports of gut microbiota in food-storing hibernators that feed during the interbout arousals. Here we collected fecal samples of Siberian chipmunk T. sibiricus to character and examine changes in the gut microbiota at various stages relative to hibernation: pre-hibernation, early-hibernation, mid-hibernation, late-hibernation, and post-hibernation. Compared to the pre-hibernation state, alpha-diversity of gut microbiota was significantly increased during the interbout arousal periods. In addition, beta-diversity of the fecal communities from pre-hibernation and interbout arousal periods grouped together, and post-hibernation gut microbiota resembled the counterpart at late-hibernation. Hibernation significantly decreased the relative abundance of Firmicutes but increased Bacteroidetes, reflecting a shift of microbiota toward taxa in favor of host-derived substrates. The increased abundance of Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014, Lactobacillus, and Christensenellaceae_R-7_group in gut microbiota may help the chipmunks reduce intestinal inflammation and then maintain healthy bowel during hibernation. KEGG pathway indicated that hibernation altered the metabolic function of gut microflora of T. sibiricus. Our study provides evidence that the gut microbiota of food-storing hibernators, despite feeding during the interbout arousals, shows similar response to hibernation that has well documented in fat-storing counterparts, suggesting the potential for a core gut microbiota during hibernation of mammals. Importantly, these results will broaden our understanding of the effects of hibernation on gut microbiota of mammal hibernators.

Role of Gut Microbiome in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Its Therapeutic Regulation

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder that affects normal brain development. The recent finding of the microbiota–gut–brain axis indicates the bidirectional connection between our gut and brain, demonstrating that gut microbiota can influence many neurological disorders such as autism. Most autistic patients suffer from gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Many studies have shown that early colonization, mode of delivery, and antibiotic usage significantly affect the gut microbiome and the onset of autism. Microbial fermentation of plant-based fiber can produce different types of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) that may have a beneficial or detrimental effect on the gut and neurological development of autistic patients. Several comprehensive studies of the gut microbiome and microbiota–gut–brain axis help to understand the mechanism that leads to the onset of neurological disorders and find possible treatments for autism. This review integrates the findings of recent years on the gut microbiota and ASD association, mainly focusing on the characterization of specific microbiota that leads to ASD and addressing potential therapeutic interventions to restore a healthy balance of gut microbiome composition that can treat autism-associated symptoms.

The Use of Probiotic Therapy in Metabolic and Neurological Diseases

The human gut is home to trillions of microbes that interact with host cells to influence and contribute to body functions. The number of scientific studies focusing on the gut microbiome has exponentially increased in recent years. Studies investigating factors that may potentially affect the gut microbiome and may be used for therapeutic purposes in diseases where dysbioses in the gut microbiome have been shown are of particular interest. This review compiles current evidence available in the scientific literature on the use of probiotics to treat metabolic diseases and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) to analyze the efficacy of probiotics in these diseases. To do this, we must first define the healthy gut microbiome before looking at the interplay between the gut microbiome and diseases, and how probiotics affect this interaction. In metabolic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, probiotic supplementation positively impacts pathological parameters. Conversely, the gut–brain axis significantly impacts neurodevelopmental disorders such as ASDs. However, manipulating the gut microbiome and disease symptoms using probiotics has less pronounced effects on neurodevelopmental diseases. This may be due to a more complex interplay between genetics and the environment in these diseases. In conclusion, the use of microbe-based probiotic therapy may potentially have beneficial effects in ameliorating the pathology of various diseases. Validation of available data for the development of personalized treatment regimens for affected patients is still required.

Guts Imbalance Imbalances the Brain: A Review of Gut Microbiota Association With Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders

Over the last 10 years, there has been a growing interest in the relationship between gut microbiota, the brain, and neurologic-associated affections. As multiple preclinical and clinical research studies highlight gut microbiota’s potential to modulate the general state of health state, it goes without saying that gut microbiota plays a significant role in neurogenesis, mental and cognitive development, emotions, and behaviors, and in the progression of neuropsychiatric illnesses. Gut microbiota produces important biologic products that, through the gut-brain axis, are directly connected with the appearance and evolution of neurological and psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, autism, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy. This study reviews recent research on the link between gut microbiota and the brain, and microbiome’s role in shaping the development of the most common neurological and psychiatric illnesses. Moreover, special attention is paid to the use of probiotic formulations as a potential non-invasive therapeutic opportunity for prevention and management of neuropsychiatric-associated affections.

Novel probiotic treatment of autism spectrum disorder associated social behavioral symptoms in two rodent models

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has rapidly increased in the past decades, and several studies report about the escalating use of antibiotics and the consequent disruption of the gastrointestinal microbiome leading to the development of neurobehavioral symptoms resembling to those of ASD. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate whether depletion of the gastrointestinal microbiome via antibiotics treatment could induce ASD-like behavioral symptoms in adulthood. To reliably evaluate that, validated valproic acid (VPA) ASD animal model was introduced. At last, we intended to demonstrate the assessed potential benefits of a probiotic mixture (PM) developed by our research team. Male Wistar rats were used to create antibiotics treated; antibiotics and PM treated; PM treated, VPA treated; VPA and PM treated; and control groups. In all investigations we focused on social behavioral disturbances. Antibiotics-induced microbiome alterations during adulthood triggered severe deficits in social behavior similar to those observed in the VPA model. Furthermore, it is highlighted that our PM proved to attenuate both the antibiotics- and the VPA-generated antisocial behavioral symptoms. The present findings underline potential capacity of our PM to improve social behavioral alterations thus, indicate its promising therapeutic power to attenuate the social-affective disturbances of ASD.

Effect of fermented foods on some neurological diseases, microbiota, behaviors: mini review

Fermented foods are among the traditional foods consumed for centuries. In recent years, awareness of fermented foods has been increasing due to their positive health benefits. Fermented foods contain beneficial microorganisms. Fermented foods, such as kefir, kimchi, sauerkraut, and yoghurt, contain Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, and their primary metabolites (lactic acid). Although studies on the effect of consumption of fermented foods on diabetes, cardiovascular, obesity, gastrointestinal diseases on chronic diseases have been conducted, more studies are needed regarding the relationship between neurological diseases and microbiota. There are still unexplored mechanisms in the relationship between the brain and intestine. In this review, we answer how the consumption of fermented foods affects the brain and behavior of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis disease, stroke, and gut microbiota.

Beneficial Role of Fruits, Their Juices, and Freeze-Dried Powders on Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Related Dysbiosis

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of complex chronic inflammatory conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract. It is linked to a number of genetic and environmental factors able to perturb the immune-microbiome axis. Diet is the most investigated variable both for its role in the etiology of IBD and for its beneficial potential in the treatment of the symptoms. Dietary products may influence intestinal inflammation through different mechanisms of action, such as the modulation of inflammatory mediators, the alteration of gene expression, changes in gut permeability, and modifications in enteric flora composition. A consisting number of studies deal with the link between nutrition and microbial community, and particular attention is paid to plant-based foods. The effects of the dietary intake of different fruits have been investigated so far. This review aims to present the most recent studies concerning the beneficial potential of fruit consumption on human gut microbiota. Investigated plant species are described, and obtained results are presented and discussed in order to provide an overview of both in vitro and in vivo effects of fruits, their juices, and freeze-dried powders.

Intermittent Fasting Reshapes the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome and Reduces Weight Gain More Effectively Than Melatonin in Mice

Background: Intermittent fasting (IF) can reduce energy intake and body weight (BW). Melatonin has many known functions, which include reducing appetite and preventing excessive weight gain. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of IF on body fat and the gut microbiota and metabolome as well as a potential interaction with melatonin. Methods: Male C57BL/6J mice (23.0 ± 0.9 g, 6 wk old) were randomly assigned into four groups (12 mice/group): control (C), intermittent fasting (F), melatonin (M), and intermittent fasting plus melatonin (MF). The C and M groups mice were provided with ad libitum access to food and water, while the F and MF groups underwent alternative-day feed deprivation (15 cycles total). Melatonin was administered in the drinking water of the M and MF groups. Blood, epididymal fat, liver tissue, and intestinal tissue and contents were collected for lab measurements, histology, and microbiota and metabolome analysis. Main effects and interactions were tested by 2-factor ANOVA. Results: IF significantly reduced BW gain and serum glucose, total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels. Adipocyte size significantly decreased with IF, then the number of adipocytes per square millimeter significantly increased (P < 0.05). Compared to the C group, the M and MF groups had significantly higher serum melatonin levels (17 and 21%, respectively), although melatonin monotherapy had no effect on serum parameters and adipocytes. There was no interaction between IF and melatonin on BW gain and serum parameters except for on adipocyte area and number per square millimeter, Bacteroidetes and Akkermansia bacterial abundance, and the levels of the intestinal metabolites alanine, valine and isoleucine. IF changed the intestinal microbiota structure, with the F and MF groups clearly separating from the C and M groups. Metabolomic analysis showed that there was obvious separation between all four groups. Conclusions: IF, but neither melatonin nor the interaction between IF and melatonin, could alter intestinal microbiota and metabolism and prevent obesity by reducing BW gain, serum glucose, TC, and TG, and adipocyte size in mice.

The effect of probiotic, prebiotic and gut microbiota on ASD: A review and future perspectives

Autism spectrum disorder is a serious neurodevelopmental disease that affects social communication and behavior, characterized by an increasingly common immune mechanism and various complications in the gastrointestinal system. Symptoms of autism can generally vary according to the genetic background of the individuals, the environment in which they live. The microbiota of individuals with autism is also different from healthy individuals. Recently, probiotics, prebiotic, fecal microbiota transplantation, diet therapy, etc. options have come to the fore. Cofactors are even more important at this stage. Since it is related to the gut microbiota, immune mechanism, gastrointestinal system, attention has been drawn to the relationship between dysbiosis, autism in the intestine. The component of the gut microbiota in individuals with autism has been linked with gastrointestinal symptoms that develop with autism severity. However, the role of the microbiota in diagnosis, follow-up, treatment is not clear yet, and its two-way relationship with the nervous system makes it difficult to establish a cause-effect relationship. Nutritional cofactors required in neurotransmitter synthesis and enzyme activation must be regularly and adequately taken to maximize brain functions in autistic individuals. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the cause-effect relationship of ASD with microbiota and brain-gut axis, probiotic-prebiotic use.

Technology for evaluating the ability of probiotic strains to accumulate copper ions in vitro and in vivo using Bacillus bacteria

Background and Aim:

Microorganisms of the genus Bacillus comprising probiotics could have an antitoxic effect that is manifested in the active excretion of toxic substances from the body, as well as heavy metals. This study was conducted to assess the effects of copper ions on probiotic strains based on the members of the genus Bacillus in vitro and in vivo.

Materials and Methods:

The following probiotic preparations were selected for this experiment: “Sporobacterin,” “Bactisubtil,” and “Vetom-2.” Sporobacterin liquid, manufactured by Bakoren LLC, is based on Bacillus subtilis 534. Bactisubtil, manufactured by Marion Merrell Dow, Inc., is based on Bacillus cereus 5832. The first part of the experiment (in vitro) was conducted to assess the influence of copper ions on the growth and bioaccumulating ability of probiotic strains. The second part of the experiment (in vivo) was conducted to assess the influence of copper ions on the body of laboratory animals and to determine the ability of probiotic strains to remove copper ions from the body of laboratory animals. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, calculating the average value (M), standard deviation (s), and standard deviation error (m). p<0.05 was used to denote statistical significance.

Results:

In the previous studies, we found the presence of pronounced sorption characteristics of representatives of both the intestinal microbiome and probiotic strains based on them. In this study, we have studied the prospects of using physiological and adaptive mechanisms of resistance of transient probiotic strains in the system of correction of the elemental status of the animal body due to excessive intake of copper ions into the body. The advantage of their use is due to not only sorption but also the high levels of elimination of complexes accumulated on the surface. Analyzing the data, we can state the following. The excessive content of copper ions inhibits the activity of all microorganisms, and the presence of CuSO₄ in the nutrient medium reduces the exponential growth phase by 6 h for B. licheniformis. The analysis of data on the bioaccumulating property of the probiotic strains under study shows that B. cereus (part of Bactisubtil) had the most pronounced sorbing effect with the level of accumulation of 23.96%.

Conclusion:

We found that probiotic preparations do not affect biochemical indices of blood and biotissues (the muscle and bone tissue, and the cutaneous covering). As a result of determining the ability of Bacillus bacteria comprising the probiotics under this study to accumulate heavy metals by measuring their concentration in the tissues of laboratory animals, the preparations contribute to reducing the toxic effects of copper ions on the body. The cutaneous covering has the greatest accumulation property relative to copper ions. The most effective probiotic under this study in copper ion poisoning was Bactisubtil, and the least effective was Vetom-2.

Effects of probiotics on pentylenetetrazol-induced convulsions in mice

OBJECTIVE

There are some reports of the effect of the gut microbiota on the central nervous system. The aim of this study was to find out the effect of probiotics on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced convulsions in mice.

METHODS

The mice were pretreated with probiotic powder (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, and Bifidobacterium bifidum) suspended in normal saline by intragastric gavage (IG-gavage) for 14 (group 1) or 28 (group 2) days prior to injection of PTZ (90 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Diazepam (DZP, 1 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) was used as the reference drug. The latency and duration of induced convulsion, as well as mortality protection percentage were recorded 30 min after PTZ injection. For the next step, flumazenil (FLZ) was used to block the effect of DZP.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with probiotics for 14 or 28 days had not a significant effect on the latency and duration of seizures induced by PTZ. Neither seizure nor mortality was observed in co-administration of probiotics with DZP. FLZ pretreatment decreased the DZP-induced seizure latency; however, FLZ could not have such an effect in probiotic and DZP group.

CONCLUSION

Probiotics alone did not show anticonvulsant effects, but enhanced the anticonvulsant effect of DZP; this suggests the involvement of GABAergic system.

The Conditioned Medium of Lactobacillus rhamnoides GG Regulates Microglia/Macrophage Polarization and Improves Functional Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

Lactobacillus rhamnoides, a human intestinal colonizer, can act through various pathways to induce microglia/macrophages to produce cytokines and to polarize microglia/macrophages to different phenotypes to reduce the inflammatory response. In this article, we evaluated the treatment potential of the Lactobacillus rhamnoides GG conditioned medium (LGG-CM) in rat model with SCI (acute spinal cord injury), including functional, neurophysiological, and histological outcomes and the underlying neuroprotective mechanisms. In our experiment, LGG-CM (30 mg/kg) was injected directly into the injury site in rats immediately after SCI. Measured by the BBB scale (Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor rating scale) and inclined plane test, rats in the LGG-CM-treated group showed better locomotor scores. Moreover, compared to the vehicle treatment group, LGG-CM increased the mRNA level of the M2 marker (CD206), and decreased that of the M1 marker (iNOS). Western blot assays showed that LGG-CM-treated SCI rats had a higher grayscale ratio of p65 and a lower ratio of p-IκBα/IκBα. Our study shows that local injection of LGG-CM after acute SCI can inhibit inflammatory responses and improve motor function recovery. These effects may be related with the inhibition to the NF-κB (The nuclear factor-kappa B) signal pathway which leads to M2 microglia/macrophage polarization.

Probiotics in Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19: Current Perspective and Future Prospects

Saving lives and flattening the curve are the foremost priorities during the ongoing pandemic spread of SARS-CoV-2. Developing cutting-edge technology and collating available evidence would support frontline health teams. Nutritional adequacy improves general health and immunity to prevent and assuage infections. This review aims to outline the potential role of probiotics in fighting the COVID-19 by covering recent evidence on the association between microbiota, probiotics, and COVID-19, the role of probiotics as an immune-modulator and antiviral agent. The high basic reproduction number (R0) of SARS-CoV-2, absence of conclusive remedies, and the pleiotropic effect of probiotics in fighting influenza and other coronaviruses together favour probiotics supplements. However, further support from preclinical and clinical studies and reviews outlining the role of probiotics in COVID-19 are critical. Results are awaited from many ongoing clinical trials investigating the benefits of probiotics in COVID-19.

Immunoregulatory Effects of Tolerogenic Probiotics in Multiple Sclerosis

Gut microbiota has essential roles in the prevention and progression of multiple sclerosis (MS). The association between the gut microbiota and the central nervous system (CNS) or immune system response of MS patients has been documented in many studies. The composition of the gut microbiota could lead to sensitization or resistance against promotion and development of MS disease. Probiotics are the major part of gut microflorapopulation and could be substituted with tolerogenic probiotics that protect the CNS against autoimmune responses. Tolerogenic probiotics with anti-inflammatory and immuno-modulatory properties have effects on intestinal flora and can reestablish regulatory mucosal and systemic immune responses. Probiotics are able to prevent and restore excessive activation of inflammatory responses, especially autoreactive T cells and inflammatory cytokines. Tolerogenic probiotics, through induction of regulatory T cells and increase of anti-inflammatory cytokines, play a crucial role in controlling inflammation and maintaining tolerance and hemostasis. Therefore, probiotics can be considered as a preventive or therapeutic tool in MS. In the present review, we focus on the immunoregulatory effects of tolerogenic probiotics on the severity of disease, as well as Th1, Th2, and Treg populations in different experimental and human studies of MS.

Impact of Microbial Metabolites on Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The complex bidirectional communication system existing between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain initially termed the "gut-brain axis" and renamed the "microbiota-gut-brain axis", considering the pivotal role of gut microbiota in sustaining local and systemic homeostasis, has a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). The integration of signals deriving from the host neuronal, immune, and endocrine systems with signals deriving from the microbiota may influence the development of the local inflammatory injury and impacts also more distal brain regions, underlying the psychophysiological vulnerability of IBD patients. Mood disorders and increased response to stress are frequently associated with IBD and may affect the disease recurrence and severity, thus requiring an appropriate therapeutic approach in addition to conventional anti-inflammatory treatments. This review highlights the more recent evidence suggesting that alterations of the microbiota-gut-brain bidirectional communication axis may concur to IBD pathogenesis and sustain the development of both local and CNS symptoms. The participation of the main microbial-derived metabolites, also defined as "postbiotics", such as bile acids, short-chain fatty acids, and tryptophan metabolites in the development of IBD-associated gut and brain dysfunction will be discussed. The last section covers a critical evaluation of the main clinical evidence pointing to the microbiome-based therapeutic approaches for the treatment of IBD-related gastrointestinal and neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Dietary inflammatory index (DII®) and the risk of depression symptoms in adults

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Findings from observational studies investigating the association between Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII®) scores and depression symptoms (DepS) are inconsistent. This study aims to assess the association between energy-adjusted DII (E-DII™) and DepS using the North West Adelaide Health Study (NWAHS) cohort as well as update a previous meta-analysis.

METHODS

A total of 1743 (mean ± SD age: 56.6 ± 13.6 years, 51% female) study participants from NWAHS were included in the cross-sectional study and 859 (mean ± SD age: 58.4 ± 12.1 years, 52.6% female) in the longitudinal analyses. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was used for the measurement of DepS. E-DII scores were calculated from the dietary data collected using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Data from two stages [Stage 3 (2008-10) and North West 15 (NW15) (2015)] were used. Log- and negative binomial regression were used to assess the association between quartiles of E-DII and DepS. A recent meta-analysis was updated by including 12 publications (six cross-sectional and six cohort studies) on the association between DII and DepS.

RESULTS

In the cross-sectional analysis, a higher E-DII score (i.e., more pro-inflammatory diet) was associated with a 79% increase in odds of reporting DepS [OR_Quartile4vs1: 1.79; 95% CI: 1.14-2.81; p = 0.01; p for trend (p_trend) = 0.03]. Males with higher E-DII had a more than two-fold higher odds of DepS (OR_Quartile4vs1: 2.27; 95% CI: 1.02-5.06; p = 0.045; p_trend = 0.09). Females with higher E-DII had an 81% increase in odds of DepS (OR_Quartile4vs1: 1.81; 95% CI: 1.01-3.26; p = 0.046; p_trend = 0.07). These associations were consistent in the longitudinal analysis. Comparing highest to lowest quintiles of E-DII, the updated meta-analysis showed that a pro-inflammatory diet is associated with a 45% increase in odds of having DepS (OR: 1.45; 95% CI: 1.20-1.74; p < 0.01) with higher odds in females (OR: 1.53; 95% CI: 1.16-2.01; p = 0.01) compared to their male counterparts (OR: 1.29; 95% CI: 0.98-1.69; p = 0.15).

CONCLUSION

The data from the NWAHS and the updated meta-analysis of observational studies provide further evidence that a pro-inflammatory diet is positively associated with increased risk of DepS. These findings support the current recommendation on consuming a less inflammatory diet to improve DepS.

Gut Microbiota and Obesity in Adults and Children: The State of the Art

In recent decades, obesity has become a serious public health problem affecting both children and adults. Considering the multifactorial origin of obesity, including modifiable factors, childhood was identified as the golden age for investing in obesity prevention by both promoting proper lifestyles and actively intervening in possible triggers. The gut microbiota is at the center of the most recent scientific studies and plays a key role in obesity development because it is intimately linked to energetic-humoral variations in the host: its alterations can promote a state of excessive energy storage, and it can be manipulated to maintain energy homoeostasis. This review aims to offer a panoramic understanding of the interplay between obesity and the gut microbiota, focusing on the contribution that the gut microbiota could have to the prevention of childhood obesity and its complications in adulthood. Currently, the use of some specific probiotic strains has been shown to be able to act on some secondary metabolic consequences of obesity (such as liver steatosis and insulin resistance) without any effect on weight loss. Although definitive conclusions cannot be drawn on the real impact of probiotics and prebiotics, there is no doubt that they represent an exciting new frontier in the treatment of obesity and associated metabolic dysfunctions. Targeted studies randomized on specific populations and homogeneous for ethnicity, sex, and age are urgently needed to reach definitive conclusions about the influence of microbiota on weight. In particular, we still need more studies in the pediatric population to better understand when the switch to an obese-like gut microbiota takes place and to better comprehend the right timing of each intervention, including the use of pre/probiotics, to improve it.

Lactic Acid Bacteria: Food Safety and Human Health Applications

Research on lactic acid bacteria has confirmed how specific strains possess probiotic properties and impart unique sensory characteristics to food products. The use of probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in many food products, thus confers various health benefits to humans when they are frequently consumed in adequate amounts. The advent of functional food or the concept of nutraceuticals objectively places more emphasis on seeking alternatives to limit the use of medications thus promoting the regular consumption of fermented foods. Probiotic use has thus been recommended to fulfill the role of nutraceuticals, as no side effects on human health have been reported. Probiotics and lactic acid bacteria can boost and strengthen the human immune system, thereby increasing its resistance against numerous disease conditions. Consumer safety and confidence in dairy and fermented food products and the desire of the food industry to meet the sensory and health needs of consumers, has thus increased the demand for probiotic starter cultures with exceptional performance coupled with health benefiting properties. The potential of probiotic cultures and lactic acid bacteria in many industrial applications including fermented food products generally affects product characteristics and also serves as health-promoting foods for humans. The alleviation of lactose intolerance in many populations globally has been one of the widely accepted health claims attributed to probiotics and lactic acid bacteria, although many diseases have been treated with probiotic lactic acid bacteria and have been proven with scientific and clinical studies. The aim of our review was to present information related to lactic acid bacteria, the new classification and perspectives on industrial applications with a special emphasis on food safety and human health.

Engineered probiotic and prebiotic nutraceutical supplementations in combating non-communicable disorders: A review

Nutritional supplementations are a form of nutrition sources that may help in improving health complexities throughout the life span of a person. Under the umbrella of food supplementations, nutraceuticals are products extracted from edible sources that provide medical benefits along with primary nutritional value, these can be considered as functional foods. These nutraceutical supplementations are also evidenced in altering the commensal gut microbiota and help to prevent or fight against chronic non-communicable degenerative diseases in adults including neurological disorders (Autism Spectrum Disorder [ASD], Parkinson's disease [PD] and Multiple sclerosis [MS]) and metabolic disorder (Type-II Diabetes, Obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease). Even the complexities of preterm babies like extra-uterine growth restriction, necrotizing enterocolitis, infant eczema and allergy (during pregnancy) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia, etc. could also be lessened up by providing proper nutrition. Molecular perceptive of inflammatory and apoptotic modulators regulating the pathogenesis of these health risks, their control and management by probiotics and prebiotics could further emphasize the scientific overview of their utility. The pivotal role of nutraceutical supplementations in regulating or modulating molecular pathways coupled with the above mentioned non-communicable diseases are briefly described. Lastly, an overall introduction to the sophisticated genome-editing techniques and advanced delivery systems in therapeutic activities applicable under these health risks are also emphasized in this paper.

Probiotics in Medicine: A Long Debate

During the last years probiotics gained the attention of clinicians for their use in the prevention and treatment of multiple diseases. Probiotics main mechanisms of action include enhanced mucosal barrier function, direct antagonism with pathogens, inhibition of bacterial adherence and invasion capacity in the intestinal epithelium, boosting of the immune system and regulation of the central nervous system. It is accepted that there is a mutual communication between the gut microbiota and the liver, the so-called “microbiota-gut-liver axis” as well as a reciprocal communication between the intestinal microbiota and the central nervous system through the “microbiota-gut-brain axis.” Moreover, recently the “gut-lung axis” in bacterial and viral infections is considerably discussed for bacterial and viral infections, as the intestinal microbiota amplifies the alveolar macrophage activity having a protective role in the host defense against pneumonia. The importance of the normal human intestinal microbiota is recognized in the preservation of health. Disease states such as, infections, autoimmune conditions, allergy and other may occur when the intestinal balance is disturbed. Probiotics seem to be a promising approach to prevent and even reduce the symptoms of such clinical states as an adjuvant therapy by preserving the balance of the normal intestinal microbiota and improving the immune system. The present review states globally all different disorders in which probiotics can be given. To date, Stronger data in favor of their clinical use are provided in the prevention of gastrointestinal disorders, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, allergy and respiratory infections. We hereby discuss the role of probiotics in the reduction of the respiratory infection symptoms and we focus on the possibility to use them as an adjuvant to the therapeutic approach of the pandemic COVID-19. Nevertheless, it is accepted by the scientific community that more clinical studies should be undertaken in large samples of diseased populations so that the assessment of their therapeutic potential provide us with strong evidence for their efficacy and safety in clinical use.

Disrupting Myelin-Specific Th17 Cell Gut Homing Confers Protection in an Adoptive Transfer Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common autoimmune disease of the CNS. Although an association between MS and inflammatory bowel diseases is observed, the link connecting intestinal immune responses and neuroinflammation remains unclear. Here we show that encephalitogenic Th17 cells infiltrate the colonic lamina propria before neurological symptom development in two murine MS models, active and adoptive transfer experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Specifically targeting Th17 cell intestinal homing by blocking the α4β7-integrin and its ligand MAdCAM-1 pathway impairs T cell migration to the large intestine and dampens EAE severity in the Th17 cell adoptive transfer model. Mechanistically, myelin-specific Th17 cells proliferate in the colon and affect gut microbiota composition. The beneficial effect of blocking the α4β7-integrin and its ligand MAdCAM-1 pathway on EAE is interdependent with gut microbiota. Those results show that disrupting myelin-specific Th17 cell trafficking to the large intestine harnesses neuroinflammation and suggests that the gut environment and microbiota catalyze the encephalitogenic properties of Th17 cells.

Neurological and cognitive significance of probiotics: a holy grail deciding individual personality

The role of the human microbiome in the brain and behavioral development is an area of increasing attention. Recent investigations have found that diverse mechanisms and signals including the immune, endocrine and neural associations are responsible for the communication between gut microbiota and the brain. The studies have suggested that alteration of intestinal microbiota using probiotic formulations may offer a significant role in the maturation and organization of the brain and can shape the brain and behavior as well as mood and cognition in human subjects. The understanding of the possible impact of gut microflora on neurological function is a promising phenomenon that can surely transform the neurosciences and may decipher the novel etiologies for neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders.

A Revolutionizing Approach to Autism Spectrum Disorder Using the Microbiome

The study of human microbiota and health has emerged as one of the ubiquitous research pursuits in recent decades which certainly warrants the attention of both researchers and clinicians. Many health conditions have been linked to the gut microbiota which is the largest reservoir of microbes in the human body. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the neurodevelopmental disorders which has been extensively explored in relation to gut microbiome. The utilization of microbial knowledge promises a more integrative perspective in understanding this disorder, albeit being an emerging field in research. More interestingly, oral and vaginal microbiomes, indicating possible maternal influence, have equally drawn the attention of researchers to study their potential roles in the etiopathology of ASD. Therefore, this review attempts to integrate the knowledge of microbiome and its significance in relation to ASD including the hypothetical aetiology of ASD and its commonly associated comorbidities. The microbiota-based interventions including diet, prebiotics, probiotics, antibiotics, and faecal microbial transplant (FMT) have also been explored in relation to ASD. Of these, diet and probiotics are seemingly promising breakthrough interventions in the context of ASD for lesser known side effects, feasibility and easier administration, although more studies are needed to ascertain the actual clinical efficacy of these interventions. The existing knowledge and research gaps call for a more expanded and resolute research efforts in establishing the relationship between autism and microbiomes.

Detrimental Effect of Broad-spectrum Antibiotics on Intestinal Microbiome Diversity in Patients After Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation: Lack of Commensal Sparing Antibiotics

BACKGROUND

Maintaining gastrointestinal (GI) microbiome diversity plays a key role during allogeneic stem cell transplantation (ASCT), and loss of diversity correlates with acute GI graft versus host disease (GvHD) and poor outcomes.

METHODS

In this retrospective analysis of 161 ASCT patients, we used serial analyses of urinary 3-indoxyl sulfate (3-IS) levels and GI microbiome parameters within the first 10 days after ASCT to identify potential commensal microbiota-sparing antibiotics. Based on antibiotic activity, we formed 3 subgroups (Rifaximin without systemic antibiotics, Rifaximin with systemic antibiotics, and Ciprofloxacin/Metronidazole with/without systemic antibiotics).

RESULTS

Mono-antibiosis with Rifaximin revealed higher 3-IS levels (P < .001), higher Clostridium cluster XIVa (CCXIVa) abundance (P = .004), and higher Shannon indices (P = .01) compared to Ciprofloxacin/Metronidazole with/without systemic antibiotics. Rifaximin followed by systemic antibiotics maintained microbiome diversity compared to Ciprofloxacin/Metronidazole with/without systemic antibiotics, as these patients showed still higher 3-IS levels (P = .04), higher CCXIVa copy numbers (P = .01), and higher Shannon indexes (P = .01). Even for this larger cohort of patients, the outcome was superior with regard to GI GvHD (P = .05) and lower transplant-related mortality (P < .001) for patients receiving Rifaximin plus systemic antibiotics compared to other types of systemic antibiotic treatment. Antibiosis with Ciprofloxacin/Metronidazole (n = 12, P = .01), Piperacillin/Tazobactam (n = 52, P = .01), Meropenem/Vancomycin (n = 16, P = .003), Ceftazidime (n = 10, P = .03), or multiple systemic antibiotics (n = 53, P = .001) showed significantly lower 3-IS levels compared to mono-antibiosis with Rifaximin (n = 14) or intravenous Vancomycin (n = 4, not statistically significant).

CONCLUSIONS

Different types of antibiotic treatments show different impacts on markers of microbiome diversity. The identification of antibiotics sparing commensal bacteria remains an ongoing challenge. However, Rifaximin allowed a higher intestinal microbiome diversity, even in the presence of systemic broad-spectrum antibiotics.

The Promising Role of Probiotics in Managing the Altered Gut in Autism Spectrum Disorders

Gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) have been reported repeatedly in people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and studies have reported interesting correlations between severity of behavioral and gastrointestinal symptoms. Growing evidence indicates that the gut microbiota in ASD is altered with various shifts described at different taxonomic levels, pointing to the importance of considering the gut-brain axis in treatment of these disorders. Probiotics are live beneficial bacteria that are ingested as food or customized pills. These beneficial bacteria, when added in sufficient amounts, can correct the dysbiosis. Because probiotics have shown success in treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), it is plausible to investigate whether they can induce alleviation of behavioral symptoms as well. Probiotics show, in some clinical studies, their potential benefits (1) in improving gastrointestinal dysfunction, (2) in correcting dysbiosis, (3) in consequently reducing the severity of ASD symptoms. This review compiles data from selected studies that investigate these benefits and the mechanisms that mediate these effects, which include the production of metabolites, hormones, and neurotransmitters and the regulation of pro-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines. Future research based on more randomized, controlled studies with a larger population size and standardized use of strains, concentration of probiotics, duration of treatments, and methods of DNA extraction is still needed in this area, which may lead to more robust results.

Effects of long-term administration of Multi-Strain Probiotic on circulating levels of BDNF, NGF, IL-6 and mental health in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background: Mental disorders is one of the main causes of disability and lower life expectancy among patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). The present trial aimed to examine the efficacy of multi-strain probiotic supplementation on circulating levels of BDNF, NGF, IL-6 and mental health in patients with MS.Methods: This trial was conducted among 70 patients with MS that referred to the MS Association. Patients were randomized into intervention and control groups to receive 2 multi-strain probiotic capsules or placebo, daily for six months. Serum BDNF, NGF and IL-6 was measured by ELISA kits. Mental health parameters were assessed by valid questionnaires in the baseline and end of the study.Results: Of the 70 patients enrolled in this study, 65 subjects were included in the final analysis. From baseline to 6 months, probiotic supplementation resulted in a significant increase in BDNF and a significant reduction in the IL-6 levels (P < 0.001). Our findings revealed that probiotic supplementation compared to placebo caused a significant improvement in the general health questionnaire-28 (GHQ-28) (-5.31 ± 4.62 vs. -1.81 ± 4.23; P = 0.002), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) (-4.81 ± 0.79 vs. -1.90 ± 0.96; P = 0.001), Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS) (-3.81 ± 6.56 vs. 0.24 ± 5.44; P = 0.007) and Pain Rating Index (PRI) (-3.15 ± 4.51 vs. -0.09 ± 3.67; P = 0.004). However, we not found any significant difference between the two groups in other factors (P > 0.05).Conclusion: Overall, six months of probiotic supplementation resulted in greater improvement in mental health parameters.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium bifidum TMC3115 Can Affect Development of Hippocampal Neurons Cultured In Vitro in a Strain-Dependent Manner

This study examined whether Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Bifidobacterium bifidum TMC3115 (TMC3115) could morphologically or physiologically influence hippocampal neuronal development in vitro. Hippocampal neurons cultured in vitro were exposed to live or heat-inactivated LGG or TMC3115 for either 6 or 24 h. Neuronal morphological changes and drebrin (DRB) and synaptophysin (SYP) protein levels were monitored using immunofluorescence. And the levels of DRB, SYP, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) mRNA were detected using RT-PCR. The BDNF, CREB, and phosphorylated-CREB (P-CREB) protein levels were detected by extraction-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or Western blot assays. Heat-inactivated LGG and TMC3115 could enhance neuron viability, DRB and SYP protein levels, and BDNF mRNA level were significantly altered after exposure to the tested bacteria with 6 h or 24 h. There were no significant differences in neuronal morphology or DRB, SYP, or CREB mRNA levels among the groups following bacterial exposure. However, following exposure of live TMC3115 for 24 h, the neuronal BDNF and P-CREB protein levels were both significantly up-regulated as detected by western blot assays. These results demonstrated that LGG and TMC3115 could affect neuronal viability, along with hippocampal synaptic and functional development, in a strain-dependent manner, which may also be closely associated with the physiological and culture conditions of each strain. Up-regulated P-CREB may be one of the underlying mechanisms by which the bacteria, especially neurons following exposure of live TMC3115 for 24 h, are able to regulate neuronal BDNF protein production.

Clinical Trials of Probiotic Strains in Selected Disease Entities

Probiotics are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host. Although their mechanism of action is not clearly explained, it is known that they positively modulate the immune system, which leads to immunity potentiation. A number of studies prove that probiotics strengthen cognitive functions, reduce anxiety, and regulate the lipid metabolism in the human body. Probiotics used in humans are most often of the Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species. However, as more research is conducted, new species with beneficial, probiotic properties are being discovered. This paper provides a review of available information about the influence of probiotics on human health. It summarizes the current knowledge on the mechanism of action of probiotics as well as clinical trial results proving their efficacy in allergic, neurodegenerative, and cardiac diseases. This review also discusses the data concerning the safety of probiotics in clinical treatment.