Spray dried plasma as an alternative to antibiotics in piglet feeds, mode of action and biosafety

Quantitative risk assessment model of the presence of porcine epidemic diarrhea and African swine fever viruses in spray-dried porcine plasma

Introduction

There are no microbiological regulatory limits for viruses in animal feed and feed ingredients.

Methods

A performance objective (PO) was proposed in this study to manufacture a spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) batch absent of any infectious viral particles. The PO levels of -7.0, -7.2, and -7.3 log TCID50/g in SDPP were estimated for three batch sizes (10, 15, and 20 tons).

Results and discussion

A baseline survey on the presence of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) in raw porcine plasma revealed a concentration of -1.0 ± 0.6 log TCID50/mL as calculated using a TCID50-qPCR derived standard curve. The mean African swine fever virus (ASFV) concentration in raw plasma was estimated to be 0.6 log HAD50/mL (0.1-1.4, 95% CI) during a pre-clinical scenario (collected from asymptomatic and undetected viremic pigs). Different processing scenarios (baseline: spray-drying + extended storage) and baseline + ultraviolet (UV) radiation were evaluated to meet the PO levels proposed in this study. The baseline and baseline + UV processing scenarios were >95 and 100% effective in achieving the PO for PEDV by using different batch sizes. For the ASFV in SDPP during a pre-clinical scenario, the PO compliance was 100% for all processing scenarios evaluated. Further research is needed to determine the underlying mechanisms of virus inactivation in feed storage to further advance the implementation of feed safety risk management efforts globally.

Enhancing Weaned Piglet Health and Performance: The Role of Autolyzed Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and β-Glucans as a Blood Plasma Alternative in Diets

The objective of this study was to evaluate the inclusion of the autolyzed yeast (AY) Saccharomyces cerevisiae with or without an immunomodulator (1,3/1,6 β-glucans) as a total/partial substitute for blood plasma (BP) in the diet of post-weaning piglets; zootechnical performance, intestinal health and microbiota, immune responses and energy metabolism were assessed. A total of 240 castrated male and female piglets, with a mean age of 22 days and mean initial weight of 5.24 ± 0.82 kg, were randomly divided into blocks of four treatments with 12 replicates. The dietary inclusions were blood plasma (BP), autolyzed yeast (AY), autolyzed yeast + immunomodulator (AYI) and 50% BP and 50% AY (BPAY). In pre-initial phase II (29-35 days), piglets fed AY showed better feed conversion (FCR = 1.358) than the piglets in the BP (1.484), AYI (1.379) and BPAY (1.442) groups, i.e., 8.49% (0.126), 1.52% (0.021) and 4.50% (0.084), respectively (p = 0.0293). In the total period (21-42 days), better FCR was observed in the AYI (1.458) group, i.e., 4.64% (0.071), 1.15% (0.017) and 4.58% (0.070), than in the BP (1.529), AY (1.475) and BPAY (1.528) groups, respectively (p = 0.0150). In piglets fed AY (n = 3) and BPAY (n = 2), there was a reduction in the number of medications, i.e., 82.35% (-14n) and 88.23% (-15n), respectively (p = 0.0001), compared with that in the BP group (n = 17). In the AY group (73.83 mg/dL), AYI group (69.92 mg/dL), and BPAY group (69.58 mg/dL), piglets exhibited increases in triglyceride levels of 79.32%, 69.83%, and 69.00%, respectively, in comparison to those in the BP group, which had triglyceride levels of 41.17 mg/dL (p = 0.0400). The beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration in the AY group (79.96 ng/μL) was lower by 31.95%, 22.64%, and 5.89% compared to the BP group (117.50 ng/μL), AYI group (103.36 ng/μL), and BPAY group (84.67 ng/μL), respectively (p = 0.0072). In the AYI group, there was modulation of the microbiota, with an increase in the relative abundance of bacteria of the genera Lactobacillus, Collinsella and Bulleidia. AY, associated or not associated with an immunomodulator, is a potential substitute for BP in diets for piglets in the nursery phase, with positive effects on immune, metabolic, and intestinal microbial performance.

Comparative Analysis of Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma and Hydrolyzed Porcine Protein as Animal-Blood-Derived Protein Ingredients for Pet Nutrition

Spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) and hydrolyzed porcine protein (HPP) are promising animal protein ingredients sourced from healthy animal blood that are rich in biomolecules, including immunoglobulins, and can be an appropriate and valuable animal protein ingredient to supply the growing need for ingredients that meet the natural needs of carnivorous pets. The aim of this preliminary study was to analyze the chemical composition and mineral profile of a novel HPP compared with results for SDPP. The basic composition analysis followed AOAC guidelines, and the elemental analysis utilized atomic absorption spectrometry. Statistical comparisons employed an independent Student's t-test (p < 0.05). Both SDPP and HPP are low in moisture (<4.3%) and rich in protein, with SDPP significantly exceeding HPP (75.4% vs. 71.4%). They boast mineral richness indicated by crude ash content (12.7% and 12.5%), featuring Na, K, P, and the trace elements Mo, Fe, and Zn. Notably, SDPP contains elevated molybdenum levels (51.39 mg/100 g vs. 10.93 mg/100 g in HPP), an essential element for diverse animal functions. Quantifying these elements in raw materials aids in achieving optimal nutrient levels in the final product. The study underscores SDPP as an excellent protein source, confirming that its nutritional value is similar to or better than other protein components in pet food.

Effect of glycoelectrolytic supplement on post-weaning piglet performance and intestinal integrity

This study evaluated the effects of glycoelectrolytic supplements on the performance, blood parameters, and intestinal morphology of piglets during the post-weaning period. In the study, a total of 240 piglets weaned aged 17 22.60 + 1.10 days were used. The control group (n = 120) received only water, and the treatment group (n = 120) received an oral glycoelectrolytic supplement diluted in water (0.75%) during the first three days after weaning. Feed intake, daily weight gain, final weight, feed conversion ratio, and post-weaning mortality were evaluated. On the third day after weaning, the blood glucose levels of all piglets were analyzed. Blood was collected from 12 piglets from each treatment group on day 3 after weaning for blood count analysis, and intestinal fragments were collected for anatomopathological and morphometric evaluation. Better feed conversion ratio (1.29) and higher consumption of liquids (0.639 L/day) were observed in the piglet group supplemented with glycoelectrolytes on day 3 after weaning (P < 0.05). The supplemented group presented a higher glycemic index (80.78 mg/dL), average corpuscular volume (67.35 fL), and average corpuscular hemoglobin (20.46 pg) than the control group (P < 0.05). The evaluation of intestinal integrity and the probability of diarrhea occurrence were similar between the groups (P > 0.05). Oral glycoelectrolytic supplementation can be an option for piglets immediately after weaning as it improves feed conversion and consumption of liquids, in addition to increasing blood glucose without the occurrence of diarrhea, thus reducing dehydration and energy deficit.

Inactivation of African swine fever virus inoculated in liquid plasma by spray drying and storage for 14 days at 4°C or 20°C

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a dsDNA virus that can cause high mortality in pigs of all ages. Spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) is a highly digestible ingredient used in feed because it benefits performance, gut function and immunity. The objectives were to test if the spray-drying (SD) conditions along with post-drying storage of product for 14 days can inactivate ASFV inoculated in liquid plasma. Fresh liquid porcine plasma was inoculated with ASFV (BA71V) to a final concentration of 105.18 ±0.08 TCID50/mL of liquid plasma. Triplicate 2-L samples of spiked plasma were SD in a lab drier set at an outlet temperature of 80°C or 71°C. The final dried samples were stored at 4°C or 20°C for 14 d. Liquid and SD samples were analyzed for ASFV infectivity in two mirror 24-well plaques containing VERO cells monolayers. Wells were inoculated with different dilutions of SDPP dissolved 1:9 in PBS. One plaque was immediately frozen at -80°C and the other was incubated at 37°C for 3 d. Each dilution was replicated 9 times. After incubation both plaques were analyzed for ASFV by qRT-PCR. Results indicated that the SD process inactivated between 3.2 to 4.2 Logs ASFV TCID50/mL and 2.53 to 2.75 Logs TCID50/mL when the outlet temperature were 80°C and 71°C respectively. All SD samples stored at 4°C or 20°C for 14 d were absent of infectious ASFV. The combination of SD and post drying storage at both temperatures for 14 d was able to inactive >5.18 ±0.08 Log10 of ASFV inoculated in liquid porcine plasma, demonstrating that the manufacturing process for SDPP can be considered safe regarding ASFV.

Chemical Composition and Functional Properties of Spray-Dried Animal Plasma and Its Contributions to Livestock and Pet Health: A Review

Spray-dried animal plasma (SDAP) is a functional ingredient derived from healthy animal blood, used as a nutritional additive in livestock and pet nutrition. SDAP is rich in macronutrients, micronutrients, and bioactive compounds such as immunoglobulins, albumin, growth factors, peptides, transferrin, and enzymes. This review focuses on the chemical composition of SDAP from porcine, bovine, and poultry sources, including protein quality and mineral profile. SDAP enhances performance and health in monogastric farm animals, aquaculture, and pets. It promotes growth rates and feed intake due to its high digestibility and superior amino acid profile compared to other protein sources. In pigs, SDAP's positive effects stem from tissue-specific actions in the gastrointestinal tract, impacting digestion, immunity, and barrier function. For poultry, SDAP shows promise as a substitute for antibiotic growth promoters, particularly in chick starter diets. SDAP contains functional proteins that regulate immune response, enhance intestinal health, and aid in stress conditions. It is also used as a binder in pet food, providing high protein content and other desirable properties. SDAP meets the dietary requirements of carnivorous pets, appealing to owners seeking animal-derived protein sources. Additionally, SDAP may help prevent cognitive impairment in senior dogs and cats.

Effect of Oral Administration with Lactobacillus plantarum CAM6 on the Hematological Profile, Relative Weight of Digestive Organs, and Cecal Traits in Growing Pigs

This study aimed to investigate the effects of oral administration with L. plantarum CAM6 on the hematological profile, relative weight of digestive organs, and cecal traits in growing pigs. A total of 36 castrated male pigs [(Landrace × Pietrain) × Duroc] aged 49 to 139 days old were randomly assigned to 3 experimental groups with 12 animals per treatment. The treatments included a control diet without additives (CTRL), a positive control with subtherapeutic antibiotics (TRT1), and CTRL supplemented with 5 mL Lactobacillus plantarum CAM6 preparation providing 10⁹ CFU/pig/day (TRT2). The TRT2 group showed a higher (p ≤ 0.05) small intestine length and the cecum relative weight compared to the CTRL group. Moreover, L. plantarum CAM6 supplementation promoted (p ≤ 0.05) increased thickness of the muscular and mucosal layers, as well as enhanced depth and width of the cecal crypts. The TRT2 group also showed well-defined crypts without lesions, while the CTRL and TRT1 groups exhibited congestion, lymphocytic infiltration in the crypt, and intestinal-associated lymphoid tissue atrophy, respectively. Additionally, TRT2 stimulated (p ≤ 0.05) the growth of the autochthonous cecal microbiota compared to other experimental groups. Overall, the results indicate that oral administration of L. plantarum CAM6 improved intestinal health and enhanced the growth of autochthonous cecal lactic acid bacteria and had no impact on the complete blood count in growing pigs.

Spray-Dried Animal Plasma as a Multifaceted Ingredient in Pet Food

Plasma is a co-product from pork and beef obtained during the processing of animals for human consumption. The spray-drying process maintains the solubility of spray-dried animal plasma (SDAP) and its nutritional and functional properties, making this ingredient multifunctional in human and animal nutrition. In pet food, SDAP has been used in the production of wet foods (pates and chunks in gravy) as an emulsifying and binding agent, with the potential to replace hydrocolloids partially or totally, which have some negative implications for digestibility, fecal quality, and intestinal inflammation. From a nutritional point of view, SDAP has high digestibility and an amino acid profile compatible with high-quality ingredients, such as powdered eggs. Studies in companion animals, especially in cats, have shown that SDAP is an ingredient with high palatability. Despite the immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, prebiotic, and neuroprotective properties demonstrated in some animal models, there are still few publications demonstrating these effects in dogs and cats, which limits its use as a functional ingredient for these species. In this review, the potential use of SDAP in pet food, aspects related to the sustainability of this ingredient, and opportunities for studies in companion animals are discussed.

Spray-Dried Plasma Promotes Broiler Chick Growth by Enhancing Immune Surveillance

Spray-dried plasma (SDP) contain a variety of functional proteins that play an immunomodulatory role. To evaluate the potential of SDP to stimulate the immune system, day-old Ross 708 male broiler chicks (200) were allocated randomly to five dietary treatments. Treatment 1 (CX) comprised chicks fed basal unmedicated corn-soybean meal (SBM) without the addition of SDP. Treatment 2 (MX) includes chicks fed unmedicated corn-SBM basal containing Bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD) at 0.055 g/kg diet. Treatments 3 (SDP1), 4 (SDP2), and 5 (SDP3) contained chicks given unmedicated corn-SBM basal, into which SDP was included at 10, 20, and 30 g/kg diet, respectively. On d 7, 14, and 21, chicks' body weight and FCR were calculated. Additionally, leucocyte counts, oxidative status, and IgY concentrations were determined in blood. On d 23, fecal populations of selected indicator bacteria species were determined. Results showed that FCR for SP3 was superior (p < 0.05) to other treatments. Likewise, heterophil numbers decreased in MX and SDP treatments compared to CX. Circulating IgY concentration was higher for SDP dietary treatments (p < 0.05) compared to MX. In conclusion, dietary SDP at 30 g/kg enhanced immune surveillance by increasing circulating IgY levels, maintaining a normal oxidative state, and increasing gut Bifidobacteria, thereby improving chick growth performance.

Feeding Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma to Pigs Reduces African Swine Fever Virus Load in Infected Pigs and Delays Virus Transmission-Study 1

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential benefits of feeding spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) to pigs infected with African swine fever virus (ASFV). Two groups of twelve weaned pigs each were fed with CONVENTIONAL or 8% SDPP enriched diets. Two pigs (trojans)/group) were injected intramuscularly with the pandemic ASFV (Georgia 2007/01) and comingled with the rest of the pigs (1:5 trojan:naïve ratio) to simulate a natural route of transmission. Trojans developed ASF and died within the first week after inoculation, but contact pigs did not develop ASF, viremia, or seroconversion. Therefore, three more trojans per group were introduced to optimize the ASFV transmission (1:2 trojan:naïve ratio). Blood, nasal, and rectal swabs were weekly harvested, and at end of the study ASFV-target organs collected. After the second exposure, rectal temperature of conventionally fed contact pigs increased >40.5 °C while fever was delayed in the SDPP contact pigs. Additionally, PCR Ct values in blood, secretions, and tissue samples were significantly lower (p < 0.05) for CONVENTIONAL compared to SDPP contact pigs. Under these study conditions, contact exposed pigs fed SDPP had delayed ASFV transmission and reduced virus load, likely by enhanced specific T-cell priming after the first ASFV-exposure.

Feeding Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma to Pigs Improves the Protection Afforded by the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) BA71∆CD2 Vaccine Prototype against Experimental Challenge with the Pandemic ASFV-Study 2

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of feeding spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) on the protection afforded by the BA71∆CD2 African swine fever virus (ASFV) vaccine prototype. Two groups of pigs acclimated to diets without or with 8% SDPP were intranasally inoculated with 10⁵ plaque-forming units (PFU) of live attenuated ASFV strain BA71∆CD2 and, three weeks later, left in direct contact with pigs infected with the pandemic Georgia 2007/01 ASFV strain. During the post-exposure (pe) period, 2/6 from the conventional diet group showed a transient peak rectal temperature >40.5 °C before day 20 pe, and some tissue samples collected at 20 d pe from 5/6 were PCR+ for ASFV, albeit showing Ct values much higher than Trojan pigs. Interestingly, the SDPP group did not show fever, neither PCR+ in blood nor rectal swab at any time pe, and none of the postmortem collected tissue samples were PCR+ for ASFV. Differential serum cytokine profiles among groups at vaccination, and a higher number of ASFV-specific IFNϒ-secreting T cells in pigs fed with SDPP soon after the Georgia 2007/01 encounter, confirmed the relevance of Th1-like responses in ASF protection. We believe that our result shows that nutritional interventions might contribute to improving future ASF vaccination strategies.

Spray-dried porcine plasma enhances feed efficiency, intestinal integrity, and immune response of broilers challenged with necrotic enteritis

Re-emergence of enteric diseases in the postantibiotic era has imposed severe loss to the poultry industry leading to the urgent need for appropriate additives to maintain gut health. Recently, more attention has been paid to animal plasma due to its high concentrations of active components such as albumins and globulins. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of spray-dried porcine plasma (SDP) supplementation during the starter phase (d 0-10) on growth performance, intestine health, and immune response of broilers under necrotic enteritis (NE) challenge. A total of 720 day-old male broiler parental line chicks (Ross 308) were randomly assigned to a 2 (NE challenge: no, yes) × 2 (SDP: 0, 2%) factorial arrangement with 12 replications of 15 chicks each. To induce NE, birds were inoculated with live Eimeria vaccine on d 9 and Clostridium perfringens on d 14. The body weight of birds and feed consumption were measured per pen on d 8, 10, 24, and 29 to calculate performance parameters. On d 16, three birds per pen were sampled to analyse the intestinal lesion score, gut permeability, villi morphology, relative weight of organs, and immune response. Results showed that SDP improved (P < 0.001) FCR in the pre-challenge phase (d 0-8). The results indicated that supplementing SDP lowered (P < 0.01) FCR at the end of the experiment (d 29). Dietary SDP decreased (P < 0.05) the concentration of FITC-d in serum samples of challenged broilers, although it did not affect the intestinal morphology and lesion score. Birds fed with SDP had a higher (P < 0.05) relative weight of bursa (g/kg live body weight) compared to non-supplemented birds. Supplementing SDP reduced the concentration of interleukin-6 (P < 0.05) and α-1 acid glycoprotein (P = 0.051) in serum samples of broilers. In conclusion, supplementation of SDP in the starter phase enhanced feed efficiency and gut integrity in NE challenged broilers, possibly through manipulating the immune response, while further studies targeting intestinal microflora and key genes are required to explore the mode of action.

Evaluating the Functional Properties of Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma in Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata) Fed Low Fish Meal Diets

Blood by-products are an untapped source of high-quality ingredients for aquafeeds, containing a broad variety of cytokines, hormones, growth factors, proteins, bioactive peptides, and amino acids. The effects of the spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP), a type of processed animal protein on several immune parameters, were evaluated in sea bream using ex vivo and in vitro assays. In this study, fish were fed with two isoproteic, isolipidic, and isoenergetic diets: control diet (7% fish meal, FM) and SDPP diet (2% FM and 5% SDPP). At the end of the 92-days trial, those fed the SDPP diet were larger in body weight (p < 0.05) without differences in feed conversion ratio (p > 0.05). The ex vivo immune stimulation of splenocytes indicated that SDPP had a beneficial effect in promoting systemic immunity, since the surface cell marker (cd4), pro- (il-1β), and anti-inflammatory (tgf-β1) cytokines, and genes involved in humoral immunity (IgM) were up-regulated. The co-culture assays of skin mucus corroborated that SDPP enhanced the antibacterial capacity of mucus against V. anguillarum. In addition, main mucus biomarkers did not show significant differences, except for cortisol levels which were lower in the SDPP diet. The present study indicated that SDPP may be considered a functional ingredient in aquafeeds formulated with low FM levels.

Swine enteric colibacillosis: Current treatment avenues and future directions

Enteric colibacillosis is a common disease in nursing and weanling pigs. It is caused by the colonization of the small intestine by enterotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli (ETEC) that make use of specific fimbria or pili to adhere to the absorptive epithelial cells of the jejunum and ileum. Once attached, and when both the immunological systems and the gut microbiota are poorly developed, ETEC produce one or more enterotoxins that can have local and, further on, systemic effects. These enterotoxins cause fluid and electrolytes to be secreted into the intestinal lumen of animals, which results in diarrhea, dehydration, and acidosis. From the diversity of control strategies, antibiotics and zinc oxide are the ones that have contributed more significantly to mitigating post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) economic losses. However, concerns about antibiotic resistance determined the restriction on the use of critically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals and the prohibition of their use as growth promoters. As such, it is important now to begin the transition from these preventive/control measures to other, more sustainable, approaches. This review provides a quick synopsis of the currently approved and available therapies for PWD treatment while presenting an overview of novel antimicrobial strategies that are being explored for the control and treatment of this infection, including, prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, organic acids, bacteriophages, spray-dried plasma, antibodies, phytogenic substances, antisense oligonucleotides, and aptamers.

Estimated quantity of swine virus genomes based on quantitative PCR analysis in spray-dried porcine plasma samples collected from multiple manufacturing plants

This survey was conducted to estimate the incidence and level of potential viral contamination in commercially collected porcine plasma. Samples of spray dried porcine plasma (SDPP) were collected over a 12- month period from eight spray drying facilities in Spain, England, Northern Ireland, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. In this survey, viral load for several porcine pathogens including SVA, TGEV, PRRSV (EU and US strains), PEDV, PCV-2, SIV, SDCoV and PPV were determined by qPCR. Regression of Ct on TCID₅₀ of serial diluted stock solution of each virus allowed the estimate of potential viral level in SDPP and unprocessed liquid plasma (using typical solids content of commercially collected porcine plasma). In this survey SVA, TGEV or SDCoV were not detected in any of the SDPP samples. Brazil SDPP samples were free of PRRSV and PEDV. Samples of SDPP from North America primarily contained the PRRSV-US strain while the European samples contained the PRRSV-EU strain (except for one sample from each region containing a relatively low estimated level of the alternative PRRSV strain). Estimated viral level tended to be in the range from <1.0 log₁₀ TCID₅₀ to <2.5 log₁₀ TCID₅₀. Estimated level of SIV was the exception with a very low incidence rate but higher estimated viral load <3.9 log₁₀ TCID₅₀. In summary, the incidence of potential viral contamination in commercially collected porcine plasma was variable and estimated virus level in samples containing viral DNA/RNA was relatively low compared with that occurring at the peak viremia during an infection for all viruses or when considering the minimal infectious dose for each of them.

Invited review: strategic adoption of antibiotic-free pork production: the importance of a holistic approach

The discovery of the use of antibiotics to enhance growth in the 1950s proved to be one of the most dramatic and influential in the history of animal agriculture. Antibiotics have served animal agriculture, as well as human and animal medicine, well for more than seven decades, but emerging from this tremendous success has been the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance. Consequently, human medicine and animal agriculture are being called upon, through legislation and/or marketplace demands, to reduce or eliminate antibiotics as growth promotants and even as therapeutics. As explained in this review, adoption of antibiotic-free (ABF) pork production would represent a sea change. By identifying key areas requiring attention, the clear message of this review is that success with ABF production, also referred to as "no antibiotics ever," demands a multifaceted and multidisciplinary approach. Too frequently, the topic has been approached in a piecemeal fashion by considering only one aspect of production, such as the use of certain feed additives or the adjustment in health management. Based on the literature and on practical experience, a more holistic approach is essential. It will require the modification of diet formulations to not only provide essential nutrients and energy, but to also maximize the effectiveness of normal immunological and physiological capabilities that support good health. It must also include the selection of effective non-antibiotic feed additives along with functional ingredients that have been shown to improve the utility and architecture of the gastrointestinal tract, to improve the microbiome, and to support the immune system. This holistic approach will require refining animal management strategies, including selection for more robust genetics, greater focus on care during the particularly sensitive perinatal and post-weaning periods, and practices that minimize social and environmental stressors. A clear strategy is needed to reduce pathogen load in the barn, such as greater emphasis on hygiene and biosecurity, adoption of a strategic vaccine program and the universal adoption of all-in-all-out housing. Of course, overall health management of the herd, as well as the details of animal flows, cannot be ignored. These management areas will support the basic biology of the pig in avoiding or, where necessary, overcoming pathogen challenges without the need for antibiotics, or at least with reduced usage.

Effects of spray-dried animal plasma on growth performance, survival, feed utilization, immune responses, and resistance to Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

Spray-dried animal plasma (SDP) in feed for several animal species provides health benefits, but research about use of SDP in shrimp feed is very limited. The objectives of the present study were to investigate the effects of dietary SDP on growth performance, feed utilization, immune responses, and prevention of Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). In Experiment 1, the post-larvae were divided into five groups (four tank/group and 80 shrimp/tank) and fed four times daily diets with porcine SDP at 0, 1.5, 3, 4.5, and 6% of the diet for 45 days. In Experiment 2, the surviving shrimp from Experiment 1 were redistributed into six groups: four SDP groups as in Experiment 1 plus the positive and negative controls (four tank/group and 30 shrimp/tank). They were then challenged with V. parahaemolyticus by immersion at 10⁵ colony-forming units (CFU)/mL and were fed with the same diets for another 4 days. In Experiment 1, shrimp fed 4.5% or 6% SDP diets had significantly higher body weight, survival rate, and improved feed conversion ratio. The immune parameters (total hemocyte count and phagocytic, phenoloxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities) of the shrimp fed 3–6% SDP diets also showed significant enhancement compared to the control. In Experiment 2, the survival rates of the 3–6% SDP groups were significantly higher than the positive control at day 4 after the immersion challenge. Likewise, the histopathological study revealed milder signs of bacterial infection in the hepatopancreas of the 3–6% SDP groups compared to the challenged positive control and 1.5% SDP groups. In conclusion, shrimp fed diets with SDP, especially at 4.5–6% of the diet, showed significant improvement in overall health conditions and better resistance to V. parahaemolyticus infection.

Dietary spray-dried plasma supplementation in late-gestation and lactation enhanced productive performance and immune responses of lactating sows and their litters

The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of spray-dried plasma (SDP) supplementation during late gestation and lactation on productive performance and immune responses of sows and their litters. Twelve sows (227.78 ± 2.16 kg average body weight; 2.0 average parity) were randomly allotted to two dietary treatments: a basal diet (CON) and the basal diet supplemented with 1% SDP. Sows were fed experimental diets from d 30 before farrowing to weaning of their piglets. Blood samples were collected from sows on d 1, 3, and 7 of lactation and from two randomly selected nursing pigs per litter on d 3 and 7 after birth, and d 1, 3, and 7 after weaning. Productive performance and immune responses of sows and their piglets were measured. There was a trend of less body weight loss in sows supplemented with SDP (p < 0.10) during the lactation period and a trend of greater (p < 0.10) average daily gain in SDP piglets compared to those in the CON group. Sows in the SDP group tended to have lower (p < 0.10) serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and cortisol on d 3 and lower serum concentration of TNF-α on d 7 compared with sows in CON group. In comparison with CON piglets, piglets from SDP sows tended to have lower (p < 0.10) serum concentrations of TNF-α, TGF-β1, and cortisol on d 7 after birth, lower (p < 0.10) serum TNF-α and C-reactive protein on d 3 and 7 after weaning, and greater (p < 0.10) average daily gain after weaning. Moreover, weaned pigs from sows fed SDP had significantly lower (p < 0.05) serum concentrations of cortisol and TGF-β1 on d 3 and 7 postweaning, respectively, than CON piglets. In conclusion, SDP supplementation in sow diets from late gestation to weaning improved the productive performance of sows and their offspring; the beneficial effects of SDP may be mediated in part through modulation of immune responses of both sows and piglets.

Stability of African swine fever virus on spiked spray-dried porcine plasma

African swine fever (ASF) is a viral disease that affects members of the Suidae family. The notifiable disease is considered a major threat to the pig industry, animal health, and food security worldwide. According to the European Food Safety Authority, ASF virus (ASFV) survival and transmission in feed and feed materials is a major research gap. Against this background, the objective of this study was to determine the survival of ASFV on spiked spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) when stored at two different temperatures. To this means, commercial SDPP granules were contaminated with high titers of ASFV in a worst-case external contamination scenario. Three samples per time point and temperature condition were subjected to blind passaging on macrophage cultures and subsequent haemadsorption test to determine residual infectivity. In addition, viral genome was detected by real-time PCR. The results indicate that heavily contaminated SDPP stored at 4°C remains infectious for at least 5 weeks. In contrast, spiked SDPP stored at room temperature displayed a distinct ASFV titer reduction after 1 week (>2.8 log levels) and complete inactivation after 2 weeks (>5.7 log levels). In conclusion, the residual risk of ASFV transmission through externally contaminated SDPP is low if SDPP is stored at room temperature (21 ± 2°C) for a period of at least 2 weeks before feeding.

Evaluation of a Product Derived from Porcine Plasma Protein and a Yeast Product with Similar Biological Activity in Diets of Growing Broilers

Simple Summary

A 42-day feeding trial was carried out in a commercial research institution to determine the efficacy of two bioactive protein products, betaGRO^® (BG) and celluTEIN^® (CT). The birds were grown under two different environments. One was a low stress environment using clean wood shavings, while the other was a high stress environment where used wood shavings were obtained from a commercial farm that had suffered high mortality to simulate a commercial environment. Growing birds in the high stress environment had a negative impact upon overall bird performance; however, the addition of either BG or CT successfully mitigated these detriments. Improvements in 42-day body weight and feed conversion were observed in chicks grown in both environments in response to the addition of either BG or CT. Birds fed BG and CT were more uniform than birds grown on control diets. Mortality of birds in the high stress environment was significantly reduced by the addition of BG or CT. Addition of BG and CT resulted in improvements in total carcass yield and breast meat yield. This was observed under both environmental conditions, and in a similar magnitude for both products.

Abstract

The post-hatch period of a broiler is an integral point in their development and for the programming of musculoskeletal and immune cells. Therefore, the efficacy of two bioactive protein products, betaGRO^® (BG) and celluTEIN^® (CT) to impact post-hatch and lifelong development was evaluated. Birds were grown under a low stress environment using clean wood shavings litter and a high stress environment with used litter from a commercial farm that had suffered high mortality. Each additive was fed at 300 g/ton from day 1–14 and 50 g/ton from day 15–42. Growing birds in the high stress environment had a negative impact on performance (p < 0.05); however, addition of either BG or CT successfully mitigated the detriments of the high stress environment (p < 0.05), and in many cases, the performance was equal to or better than the performance of birds on the control diet in the low stress environment. Birds fed BG and CT experienced improvements in 42-day feed conversion, and were more uniform than birds grown consuming the control diet (p < 0.05). Mortality of birds in the high stress environment was reduced by addition of BG or CT (p < 0.05). Addition of BG and CT resulted in improvements in carcass and breast meat yield (p < 0.05). Together, these data suggest that BG and CT can be used interchangeably to improve broiler health and performance.

New perspectives for evaluating relative risks of African swine fever virus contamination in global feed ingredient supply chains

There are no published reports indicating that the African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been detected in feed ingredients or complete feed. This is primarily because there are only a few laboratories in the world that have the biosecurity and analytical capabilities of detecting ASFV in feed. Several in vitro studies have been conducted to evaluate ASFV concentration, viability and inactivation when ASFV was added to various feed ingredients and complete feed. These inoculation studies have shown that some feed matrices support virus survival longer than others and the reasons for this are unknown. Current analytical methodologies have significant limitations in sensitivity, repeatability, ability to detect viable virus particles and association with infectivity. As a result, interpretation of findings using various measures may lead to misleading conclusions. Because of analytical and technical challenges, as well as the lack of ASFV contamination data in feed supply chains, quantitative risk assessments have not been conducted. A few qualitative risk assessments have been conducted, but they have not considered differences in potential scenarios for ASFV contamination between various types of feed ingredient supply chains. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a more holistic understanding of the relative potential risks of ASFV contamination in various global feed ingredient supply chains and provide recommendations for addressing the challenges identified.

Unveiling the Impact of Antibiotics and Alternative Methods for Animal Husbandry: A Review

Since the 1950s, antibiotics have been used in the field of animal husbandry for growth promotion, therapy and disease prophylaxis. It is estimated that up to 80% of the antibiotics produced by the pharmaceutical industries are used in food production. Most of the antibiotics are used as feed additives at sub-therapeutic levels to promote growth. However, studies show the indiscriminate use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens that threaten both animal health and human health, including vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE). This scenario is further complicated by the slow progress in achieving scientific breakthroughs in uncovering novel antibiotics following the 1960s. Most of the pharmaceutical industries have long diverted research funds away from the field of antibiotic discovery to more lucrative areas of drug development. If this situation is allowed to continue, humans will return to the pre-antibiotics era and potentially succumb to huge health and economic consequences. Fortunately, studies investigating various alternatives to antibiotics use in livestock show promising results. These alternatives include the application of bacteriophages and phage derived peptidoglycan degrading enzymes, engineered peptides, egg yolk antibodies, probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics, as well as quorum quenching molecules. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the use of growth-promoting antibiotics and their impact on livestock and provide insights on the alternative approaches for animal husbandry.

Effect of spray-drying and ultraviolet C radiation as biosafety steps for CSFV and ASFV inactivation in porcine plasma

Spray-dried animal plasma (SDAP) is widely used in diets of domestic animals to improve health status and increase growth and feed efficiency. Individual steps in the SDAP manufacturing process, including spray-drying, have been validated to inactivate potential pathogens. Manufacturing standards have established a minimum exit temperature of 80°C and a minimum post-drying storage period of 14 days at 20°C for production of SDAP. Also, UV-C irradiation has been evaluated as another inactivation step that could be included in the manufacturing process. The aim of this study was to assess the inactivation effectiveness of spray-drying on Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) and African swine fever virus (ASFV) and the effect of UV-C inactivation on ASFV as redundant biosafety steps of the manufacturing process for producing spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP). This study demonstrated that UV-C treatment of liquid porcine plasma can inactivate more than 4 Log10 TCID50/mL of ASFV at 3000 J/L. Spray-drying effectively inactivated at least 4 Log10 TCID50/mL of both CSFV and ASFV. Incorporating UV-C technology within the SDAP manufacturing process can add another biosafety step to further enhance product safety.

Field evaluation of feeding spray-dried plasma in the starter period on final performance and overall health of broilers

The effect of feeding spray-dried plasma (SDP) during the starter period was evaluated with a commercial broiler integrator on performance and overall health of broilers. The I See Inside (ISI) methodology assessing gut health in broilers was used as a tool to evaluate the impact of dietary interventions under commercial conditions. One hundred farms with approximately 1.1 million broilers were used at a Brazilian broiler integrator. Two groups of farms were fed either a control or an SDP diet containing 1% SDP, from 0 to 10 d of age. Diets were formulated to have similar nutritional density, containing zinc bacitracin and CuSO₄ from 0 to 28 d. After 10 d, both groups were fed common commercial diets. Performance data were analyzed together or by type of ventilation system: positive pressure or negative pressure. Birds were sent to market as they reached 3.05 kg; therefore, age at slaughter (AS) was evaluated as a dependent variable along with other performance measures. From the 100 farms in the trial, 35 (16 control and 19 SDP farms) were selected for the assessment of broilers health, biosecurity, and local management. For that, 6 broilers per farm at 14 ± 2 d of age were necropsied and ileum sampled for the ISI methodology evaluation. Biosecurity and management were also evaluated to obtain the influence of those parameters on animal health. SDP-fed birds demonstrated improved feed conversion ratio, reduced mortality, and 1 d less for AS (P < 0.05) vs. control group (P < 0.05) regardless of the type of ventilation. During necropsy, birds fed SDP showed lower coccidiosis and locomotor system lesions as the overall ISI score compared to controls. Histologic intestinal alterations were also lower in SDP-fed broilers (P < 0.05). In conclusion, feeding 1% SDP in the starter period to broilers resulted in improved performance and health under both good and bad management and biosecurity standards independent of the type of ventilation. Overall, there was good agreement between the ISI method and performance improvements observed.

Towards Zero Zinc Oxide: Feeding Strategies to Manage Post-Weaning Diarrhea in Piglets

Simple Summary

Zinc oxide (ZnO) supplementation at pharmacological doses in post-weaning piglets is a consolidated practice that allows efficient control of post-weaning diarrhea (PWD), a condition exacerbated by Escherichia coli F4 (K88) infections. Far from being completely elucidated, the multifactorial ZnO mechanism of action is in all likelihood exerted at the gastrointestinal level. However, increasing environmental concerns are arising from prolonged ZnO use. This article reviews the utilization of ZnO in piglets, the biological rationale behind its powerful activity, and the emerging threats that are leading towards a significant reduction in its use. Finally, a wide analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of innovative alternative strategies to manage PWD at the nutritional level is given.

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) at pharmacological doses is extensively employed in the pig industry as an effective tool to manage post-weaning diarrhea (PWD), a condition that causes huge economic losses because of its impact on the most pivotal phase of a piglet’s production cycle. In a multifactorial way, ZnO exerts a variety of positive effects along the entire gastrointestinal tract by targeting intestinal architecture, digestive secretions, antioxidant systems, and immune cells. ZnO also has a moderate antibacterial effect against Escherichia coli F4 (K88), the main causative agent of PWD. However, the environmental impact of ZnO and new emerging threats are posing serious questions to the sustainability of its extensive utilization. To work towards a future free from pharmacological ZnO, novel nutritional approaches are necessary, and many strategies have been investigated. This review article provides a comprehensive framework for ZnO utilization and its broad mode of action. Moreover, all the risks related to pharmacological ZnO levels are presented; we focus on European institutions’ decisions subsequently. The identification of a novel, complete solution against PWD should be accompanied by the adoption of holistic strategies, thereby combining good management practices to feeding approaches capable of mitigating Escherichia coli F4 (K88) infections and/or lowering ZnO utilization. Promising results can be obtained by adjusting diet composition or employing organic acids, natural identical compounds, polyphenol-rich extracts, prebiotics, and probiotics.

Skin Multi-Omics-Based Interactome Analysis: Integrating the Tissue and Mucus Exuded Layer for a Comprehensive Understanding of the Teleost Mucosa Functionality as Model of Study

From a general structural perspective, a mucosal tissue is constituted by two main matrices: the tissue and the secreted mucus. Jointly, they fulfill a wide range of functions including the protection of the epithelial layer. In this study, we simultaneously analyzed the epithelial tissue and the secreted mucus response using a holistic interactome-based multi-omics approach. The effect of the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) skin mucosa to a dietary inclusion of spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) was evaluated. The epithelial skin microarrays-based transcriptome data showed 194 differentially expressed genes, meanwhile the exuded mucus proteome analysis 35 differentially synthesized proteins. Separately, the skin transcripteractome revealed an expression profile that favored biological mechanisms associated to gene expression, biogenesis, vesicle function, protein transport and localization to the membrane. Mucus proteome showed an enhanced protective role with putatively higher antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The integrated skin mucosa multi-interactome analysis evidenced the interrelationship and synergy between the metabolism and the exuded mucus functions improving specifically the tissue development, innate defenses, and environment recognition. Histologically, the skin increased in thickness and in number of mucous cells. A positive impact on animal performance, growth and feed efficiency was also registered. Collectively, the results suggest an intimate crosstalk between skin tissue and its exuded mucus in response to the nutritional stimulus (SDPP supplementation) that favors the stimulation of cell protein turnover and the activation of the exudation machinery in the skin mucosa. Thus, the multi-omics-based interactome analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the biological context of response that takes place in a mucosal tissue. In perspective, this strategy is applicable for evaluating the effect of any experimental variable on any mucosal tissue functionality, including the benefits this assessment may provide on the study of the mammalian mucosa.

Management and Feeding Strategies in Early Life to Increase Piglet Performance and Welfare around Weaning: A Review

The performance of piglets in nurseries may vary depending on body weight, age at weaning, management, and pathogenic load in the pig facilities. The early events in a pig's life are very important and may have long lasting consequences, since growth lag involves a significant cost to the system due to reduced market weights and increased barn occupancy. The present review evidences that there are several strategies that can be used to improve the performance and welfare of pigs at weaning. A complex set of early management and dietary strategies have been explored in sows and suckling piglets for achieving optimum and efficient growth of piglets after weaning. The management strategies studied to improve development and animal welfare include: (1) improving sow housing during gestation, (2) reducing pain during farrowing, (3) facilitating an early and sufficient colostrum intake, (4) promoting an early social interaction between litters, and (5) providing complementary feed during lactation. Dietary strategies for sows and suckling piglets aim to: (1) enhance fetal growth (arginine, folate, betaine, vitamin B12, carnitine, chromium, and zinc), (2) increase colostrum and milk production (DL-methionine, DL-2-hydroxy-4-methylthiobutanoic acid, arginine, L-carnitine, tryptophan, valine, vitamin E, and phytogenic actives), (3) modulate sows' oxidative and inflammation status (polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, selenium, phytogenic actives, and spray dried plasma), (4) allow early microbial colonization (probiotics), or (5) supply conditionally essential nutrients (nucleotides, glutamate, glutamine, threonine, and tryptophan).

Development of livestock feed additives using porcine blood cells

Livestock blood discarded during slaughtering has potentially valuable components such as plasma proteins and haemoglobin. Plasma is used as a feed additive following processing via different methods, including spray drying, whereas blood cells have been underutilized. In this study, we developed haemoglobin hydrolysate (HH) and iron-enriched residue (IER) from porcine blood cells and investigated whether their oral administration regulates the immune system and gut microbiota in growing rats. Twenty-one Sprague-Dawley male rats (n = 7) were used during a 4-week trial and were fed a control, HH or IER diet. The ratio of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Akkermansia strains increased in rats fed HH or IER diets. Moreover, compared with the control group, the IER group had an elevated ratio of Lactobacillus to Enterobacteria, which is regarded as an index of beneficial aspect in the gut. Phagocytosis of peripheral blood leucocytes was higher in the HH and IER groups than in the control group. The level of plasma immunoglobulin G increased to approximately 72.7 mg/ml and 152.0 mg/ml in the HH and IER groups, respectively, which was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that in the control group. These results confirm that HH and IER developed in this study may be a potential additive for animal feeds.

Effect of spray-dried porcine plasma in peripartum sow feed on subsequent litter size

BACKGROUND

Nutritional strategies for sows designed to reduce peripartum stress are suggested to support postpartum recovery and productivity. Spray-dried plasma (SDP) in sow feed has been reported to benefit sow and litter performance. Stressed animals fed diets with SDP have a more efficient immune response supporting animal recovery and health. The objectives of the present study using 452 sows (147 parity 1 sows, 148 parity 2 sows) were to determine if 0, 0.5 or 2.5% spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) in peripartum feed provided from entry in maternity through day 5 of lactation affects sow productivity and serological immune and oxidation status markers around parturition. Post-weaning sow productivity parameters including litter size at the next parturition was evaluated, but peripartum diets were only provided during the first parturition.

RESULTS

In the first parturition, total born litter size was lower (P <  0.05) especially for sows allotted to the peripartum diet with 2.5% SDPP. Percentage of stillborn pigs decreased quadratically (P <  0.05) for sows fed 0.5% or 2.5% SDPP compared to 0% SDPP in peripartum feed and this result was not affected by total born litter size. Serum glutathione peroxidase activity linearly increased (P <  0.01) with increased dietary SDPP for both prepartum and postpartum sampling periods. In the next parturition, total born pigs from combined data of parity 1 and 2 sows linearly increased (P <  0.05) and live born pigs tended (P = 0.09) to linearly increase as level of SDPP increased and this result was not affected by total born litter size in the first parturition. The change in total and live born pigs from the first to the next parturition linearly (P <  0.01) increased as dietary SDPP increased for parity 1 and 2 sows.

CONCLUSIONS

The reduced percentage of stillborn pigs and increased litter size of parity 1 and 2 sows in the next parturition was independent of total born litter size in the first parturition suggesting SDPP in peripartum sow feed may have merit for reducing stillborn pigs and benefit litter size in the next parturition for parity 1 and parity 2 sows.

Porcine Digestible Peptides (PDP) in Weanling Diets Regulates the Expression of Genes Involved in Gut Barrier Function, Immune Response and Nutrient Transport in Nursery Pigs

Simple Summary

Porcine digestive peptides (PDP) are a coproduct of the heparin industry obtained from the enzymatic hydrolysis of porcine intestinal mucosa. They have proven to be a valid substitute for other high quality dietary protein sources for piglets, like spray-dried plasma (SDP), but knowledge about their influence on intestinal function is still scarce. This study found that substituting soybean ingredients with PDP and SDP to the diets of weaned piglets increased growth rate at 14 d post-weaning. In addition, the combination of PDP with SDP increased the expression of certain genes related to intestinal function in the jejunum, which suggests that this combination might have functional properties that contribute to improving the intestinal health of the pigs, although more research is needed to confirm it.

Abstract

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary supplementation of porcine digestible peptides (PDP), spray-dried plasma (SDP), or a combination of both, on growth performance and the expression of genes related to intestinal function of weaned pigs. A total of 180 piglets (trial 1) and 198 piglets (trial 2) were used to evaluate the partial substitution of soybean ingredients with 2% SDP or 2% PDP (trial 1), and with 3% SDP or the combination of 1% SDP and 2% PDP (SDP-PDP; trial 2) during the pre-starter period (0–14 days). The gene expression of 56 genes was quantified in a qPCR platform in jejunum and ileum samples obtained from piglets 14 d after weaning (trial 2). Piglets fed SDP, PDP and SDP-PDP had a higher body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (G:F) than the soybean control on day 14 (p < 0.05). In addition, the combination of SDP and PDP upregulated ten genes in jejunum samples (p < 0.05) related to intestinal function. More research is needed to confirm that gene expression upregulation by PDP in combination with SDP has an impact on intestinal function and to elucidate its underlying mechanisms.

Effect of antibiotic-free, low-protein diets with specific amino acid compositions on growth and intestinal flora in weaned pigs

This study investigated the effects of modulation of the amino acid profile on growth performance and gut health in weaned pigs fed an antibiotic-free, low-protein diet. In experiment 1, 5 treatments were included: a control diet with antibiotics; a low-protein diet with antibiotics; a low-protein diet without antibiotics (LP); a LP diet with 10% more dietary essential amino acids (LP110); and an LP110 diet with 12% more dietary Met + Cys, Thr and Trp. The intestinal digestive enzyme activity and morphology were improved with the increase in dietary essential amino acid levels, while the growth performance was decreased, indicating that the dietary amino acid level was too high. In experiment 2, all 5 treatments of experiment 1 were included, plus a LP diet with 5% more dietary essential amino acids (LP105) and an LP105 diet with 6% more dietary Met + Cys, Thr and Trp. The LP105 treatment showed optimal feed efficiency, a reduced plasma endotoxin concentration, and an increased fecal lactate concentration and increased abundances of Prevotellaceae and Roseburia bacteria. Our results demonstrate that the optimal amino acid profile in an antibiotic-free, low-protein diet can efficiently improve growth performance and gut health and modulate the fecal microbial structure in weaned pigs.

Effects of spray-dried animal plasma on the growth performance of weaned piglets-A review

Spray-dried animal plasma sourced from bovine, porcine or other animal origin is often used as a main feed ingredient in the diets of weanling piglets to improve growth performance. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of animal plasma in diets on the performance of piglets in the post-weaning period, with and/or without pathogenic challenge, by undertaking a meta-analysis. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed reports published in scientific journals. The average initial weight of the piglets was 5.8 kg and the average initial age 19 days (2-56 days). The average duration of feeding animal plasma was 40 days. Average daily gain (ADG), feed intake (ADFI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were found to be 22-28 g/day, 20-27 g/day and -0.28 to 0.06 g/g. Generally, diet supplemented with spray-dried bovine plasma (SDBP) improved the ADG of the piglets and spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) led to increases in the ADFI. For the first week post-weaning alone, as the dietary animal plasma percentage increased there was an increase in ADG and ADFI; similarly, the latter two measures increased as weaning age increased. The evidence suggests that mainly IgG present in animal plasma prevents the binding of pathogens to the gut wall and reduces the incidence of sub-clinical infection in the post-weaning stage. Animal plasma containing IgG appears to be a useful in-feed supplement for piglets in the post-weaning phase.

The impact of porcine spray-dried plasma protein and dried egg protein harvested from hyper-immunized hens, provided in the presence or absence of subtherapeutic levels of antibiotics in the feed, on growth and indicators of intestinal function and physiology of nursery pigs

The objective of this experiment was to compare the effects of spray-dried plasma protein (SDPP) and dried egg protein (DEP), without (AB-) or with (AB+) in-feed antibiotics, on growth performance and markers of intestinal health in nursery pigs raised in commercial conditions. This 42-d experiment utilized 1,230 pigs (4.93 ± 0.04 kg body weight; approximately 15-18 d of age). Pigs were randomly assigned to one of six dietary treatments that were arranged as a 2 × 3 factorial of in-feed antibiotics (AB- vs. AB+) and a specialty protein additive (none [CON], porcine SDPP, or DEP). Diets were fed in four phases with phases 3 and 4 as a common diet across all treatments. Specialty protein additives were fed in phases 1 (0-13 d; 3% SDPP, and 0.20% DEP) and 2 (13-26 d; 2% SDPP, and 0.10% DEP). Antibiotics were fed in phases 1-3 (662 mg chlortetracycline [CTC]/kg, 28 mg carbadox/kg, and 441 mg CTC/kg, respectively). Ileal tissue and blood samples were collected from 48 pigs (8 per treatment) on d 20. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS (9.4) with pen as the experimental unit; protein additives, antibiotics, and their interaction were fixed effects and block was a random effect. The pigs experienced naturally occurring health challenges in weeks 2 and 4. In the AB- diets, SDPP and DEP increased average daily gain (ADG; P = 0.036) and average daily feed intake (ADFI; P = 0.040) compared to CON; in the AB+ diets, neither SDPP nor DEP increased ADG or ADFI compared to CON but SDPP did increase these parameters over DEP. The SDPP and DEP diets decreased the number of individual medical treatments compared to CON (P = 0.001). The AB+ increased ileal mucosal interleukin (IL)-1 receptor antagonist (P = 0.017). Feeding DEP reduced the concentration of mucosal IL-1β compared to CON, but not SDPP (P = 0.022). There was a trend for SDPP and DEP to increase villus height:crypt depth compared to CON (P = 0.066). Neither antibiotics or protein additive affected serum malondialdehyde concentration or ileal mRNA abundance of claudin-3 or 4, occludin, or zonula occludens-1 (P > 0.10). In conclusion, SDPP and DEP improved growth performance of weaned pigs in the absence of antibiotics but neither improved growth compared to CON when feeding standard antibiotic levels. The specialty proteins had a positive effect on health; specialty proteins and antibiotics were able to modulate some markers of intestinal inflammation and morphology.

Diet Modulates the High Sensitivity to Systemic Infection in Newborn Preterm Pigs

Background: Preterm infants are born with an immature immune system, limited passive immunity, and are at risk of developing bacteremia and sepsis in the postnatal period. We hypothesized that enteral feeding, with or without added immunoglobulins, improves the clinical response to systemic infection by coagulase negative staphylococci.

Methods: Using preterm cesarean delivered pigs as models for preterm infants, we infused live Staphylococcus epidermidis (SE, 5 × 10⁹ colony forming units per kg) systemically 0–3 days after birth across five different experiments. SE infection responses were assessed following different gestational age at birth (preterm vs. term), enteral milk diets (bovine colostrum, infant formula with or without added porcine plasma) and with/without systemic immunoglobulins. Pigs infected with SE were assessed 12–48 h for clinical variables, blood bacteriology, chemistry, hematology, and gut dysfunction (intestinal permeability, necrotizing enterocolitis lesions).

Results: Adverse clinical responses and increased mortality were observed in preterm vs. term pigs, when infected with SE just after birth. Feeding bovine colostrum just after birth improved blood SE clearance and clinical status (improved physical activity and intestinal structure, fewer bone marrow bacteria), relative to pigs fed infant formula. A few days later, clinical responses to SE bacteremia (hematology, neutrophil phagocytic capacity, T cell subsets) were less severe, and less affected by different milk diets, with or without added immunoglobulins.

Conclusion: Prematurity increases the sensitivity of newborn pigs to SE bacteremia, potentially causing sepsis. Sensitivity to systemic SE infection decreases rapidly in the days after preterm birth. Both age and diet (parenteral nutrition, colostrum, milk, formula) may influence gut inflammation, bacterial translocation and systemic immune development in the days after birth in preterm newborns.

The effect of dietary supplementation with globin and spray-dried porcine plasma on performance, digestibility and histomorphological traits in broiler chickens

This study evaluated the effects of globin and spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) on growth performance, digestibility, nitrogen retention, energy retention efficiency (ERE) and intestinal morphology of broiler chickens. A total of 336-day-old male broiler chickens were reared from 1 to 40 days of age and fed 3 diets (8 replicates/diet, 14 birds/replicate) during 3 feeding phases: starter (1-12 days), grower (12-25 days) and finisher (25-40 days). Isonitrogenous diets were formulated by replacing gluten protein isolate contained in the control diet (C diet) with 2% (starter) or 1% (grower and finisher) spray-dried porcine plasma in the plasma diet (SDPP diet). The globin diet (G diet) was obtained by adding globin on the top of C diet at a dose of 0.08% for the whole rearing period. Total tract apparent digestibility (aD), nitrogen retention and ERE were assessed during the three growing phases. At 12  and 40 days of age, one bird per pen was slaughtered to sample gut, liver, spleen and bursa of Fabricius for histomorphological investigations. The SDPP diet increased body weights of chickens at 12 (+60 g; p < .001), 25 (+101 g; p < .001) and 40 days (+130 g; p = .018) of age compared to C and G diets. Also SDPP improved crude protein aD (+9.7%) and ERE (+12.3%) during the starter phase (p < .001). Dietary globin and SDPP inclusion did not affect either the gut morphology or the histopathological findings in birds at 12 and 40 days of age, despite a numerical (+6.90% and +7.40% respectively) villus height improvement in the SDPP group. Overall, these results confirm that dietary supplementation with SDPP and, to a lesser extent, with globin can improve growth performance and dietary protein and energy utilization in broiler chickens without effect on gut functionality.

The Canadian 2014 porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus outbreak: Important risk factors that were not considered in the epidemiological investigation could change the conclusions

The introduction and spread of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) in North America resulted in significant death loss in the swine industry. As the industry learned how to manage this disease, many new risks were identified, including the potential for feed and feed ingredients to become contaminated and spread PEDV. In addition, biosecurity practices were reevaluated and strengthened throughout the industry. At the time of the outbreak epidemiologists did not understand, as well as they are understood today, all the risk factors that contribute to the spread of PEDV. As a result, the epidemiological investigations into the 2014 PEDV outbreak in eastern Canada may not have investigated all risk factors as thoroughly as they would be investigated today. In retrospect, many of the Bradford Hill criteria used to determine causation were not fulfilled. This review identifies risk factors that were not included in the 2014 epidemiology. If these risk factors were included in the epidemiology, the conclusions and determination of causation may have been different.

Dietary supplementation with spray-dried porcine plasma has prebiotic effects on gut microbiota in mice

In animal models of inflammation and in farm animals, dietary inclusion of spray-dried porcine plasma (SDP) reduces mucosal inflammation. Here, we study whether these effects could be mediated by changes in the intestinal microbiota and if these changes are similar to those induced by oral antibiotics. Weaned 21-day-old C57BL/6 mice were divided into 3 groups: the CTL group, fed the control diet; the COL group, administered low doses of neomycin and colistin; and the SDP group, supplemented with 8% SDP. After 14 days, analysis of the fecal microbiome showed that the microbiota profiles induced by SDP and the antibiotics were very different, thus, SDP has prebiotic rather than antibiotic effects. At the phylum level, SDP stimulated the presence of Firmicutes, considerably increasing the lactobacilli population. It also enhanced the growth of species involved in regulatory T-lymphocyte homeostasis and restoration of the mucosal barrier, as well as species negatively correlated with expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. At the mucosal level, expression of toll-like receptors Tlr2, Tlr4 and Tlr9, and mucous-related genes Muc2 and Tff3 with regulatory and barrier stability functions, were increased. SDP also increased expression of Il-10 and Tgf-β, as well as markers of macrophages and dendritic cells eventually promoting an immune-tolerant environment.

The effect of a feed additive supplemented with porcine plasma protein on growth performance and selected biochemical indices of nursing piglets

The aim of this study was to evaluate the health state, performance, and selected serum biochemical indices in nursing piglets after supplementation of a feed additive containing porcine plasma protein in comparison to the control group fed a standard pre-starter feed mixture. The study was carried out in the conditions of industrial farming. Four sows of the Large White swine breed with their litters were included in the study. Piglets were homogenously distributed into control (22) and experimental (24) groups according to weight and sex. Piglets in both groups suckled their mothers' milk. In addition, piglets in the experimental group were also fed a feed supplemented by porcine plasma protein (5%), starting on the third day post partum, whereas piglets in the control group were offered a standard pre-starter feed mixture. We recorded average daily weight gains calculated per the 27-day trial, and body weight at weaning. Clinical findings, mortality, and selected biochemical indices of protein (total immunoglobulins, total protein, albumin, creatinine, urea), and energy (glucose, total cholesterol, total lipids) metabolism were assessed as well. Results of the study showed a significant difference (P < 0.01) in average daily weight gains in the experimental group compared to the control group (0.245 kg and 0.177 kg, respectively). Addition of plasma protein in the experimental group also resulted in a significantly higher serum concentration of total immunoglobulins, total protein and creatinine, and a significantly lower concentration of urea and albumin in this group compared to the control group at weaning.

Impact of Spray-Dried Plasma on Intestinal Health and Broiler Performance

Spray-dried plasma (SDP) is a functional ingredient commonly utilized in swine production and calf milk replacers to improve performance, feed efficiency, and health. The improvements noted with SDP in animal production are more pronounced under commercial production conditions compared to cleaner research settings. Multiple modes of action of SDP have been proposed, including either directly influencing the immune inflammatory response locally or systemically, and/or through the indirect modification of beneficial microbial populations. Spray-dried plasma included at various dietary levels and duration of feeding in broilers has been evaluated in different production and challenging conditions with beneficial effects on broiler performance, as noted in other animals. The purpose of this review is to discuss research related to the modes of action of SDP on immunomodulation and improved intestinal health and specifically discuss research conducted utilizing SDP in feed for poultry. Collectively, the data available indicates that SDP improves early intestinal health and supports an efficient immune system response both locally at the intestine and systemically, thereby benefiting growth, feed efficiency, and survival of broilers in conventional commercial production and under challenging conditions such as disease or environmental stressors.

Impact of formaldehyde addition to spray-dried plasma on functional parameters and animal performance1

Experimental objectives of this study were to determine effects of formaldehyde treatment on the chemical composition of spray-dried plasma (SDP) and to test the hypothesis that growth performance of pigs fed formaldehyde-treated diets containing SDP or diets containing formaldehyde-treated SDP is not reduced compared with pigs fed untreated control diets. Sal CURB ASF liquid antimicrobial and CURB RM Extra liquid mold inhibitor (Kemin Industries, Des Moines, IA) were applied on SDP at 0.1% or 0.3% to determine effects of the products on chemical and functional properties of SDP. Regardless of product, there were no changes in SDP for analyzed protein, ash, pH, or moisture concentration, but IgG concentration in SDP was decreased 8% and 24%, respectively, for 0.1% and 0.3% inclusion of Sal CURB or CURB RM. Two feeding studies using weaned pigs were conducted to determine effects of formaldehyde applied at 0.3% to SDP (experiment 1) or 0.3% to a complete diet containing 5% SDP (experiment 2). Experiment 1 pigs (n = 265) were weaned at 20 ± 2 d of age and allotted to five treatment groups. Experiment 2 pigs (n = 135) were weaned in two groups at 20 ± 2 d of age and allotted to three treatments groups. In experiment 1, the untreated control diet contained soy protein concentrate (SPC) and test diets contained 2.5% or 5.0% SDP without or with formaldehyde treatment. In experiment 2, formaldehyde was applied to a diet containing 5% SDP and an untreated SPC control diet and an untreated diet containing 5% SDP were also included in the experiment. In experiment 1, linear increases (P < 0.05) in average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) were observed as SDP was included in the diets and the relative bioavailability of formaldehyde-treated SDP was 62% (P = 0.018) if calculations were based on ADG and 15% (P = 0.031) if calculations were based on ADFI. In experiment 2, pigs fed the SDP diet untreated or treated with formaldehyde had increased (P < 0.05) final body weight, ADG, ADFI, and G:F compared with pigs fed the control diet. However, formaldehyde treatment of the plasma-containing diet did not affect pig growth performance compared with pigs fed the untreated SDP diet. In conclusion, formaldehyde treatment applied directly on SDP affects analyzed concentrations of IgG and reduces growth rate of pigs. Treating a complete diet containing 5% SDP with formaldehyde did not affect pig growth performance, and pigs fed diets containing SDP had improved growth performance than those fed the control diet without SDP.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the SurePure Turbulator ultraviolet-C irradiation equipment on inactivation of different enveloped and non-enveloped viruses inoculated in commercially collected liquid animal plasma

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the SurePure Turbulator ultraviolet-C (UV-C, 254 nm wavelength) irradiation equipment on inactivation of different enveloped and non-enveloped viruses in commercially collected liquid animal plasma. Specifically, Pseudorabies virus (PRV), Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), Swine influenza virus (SIV) as enveloped viruses and Porcine parvovirus (PPV), Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) and Senecavirus A (SVA) as non-enveloped viruses, were inoculated in bovine or porcine plasma and subjected to different UV-C irradiation doses (0, 750, 1500, 3000, 6000 and 9000 J/L) using an UV-C device developed for opaque liquid working under turbulent flow. The enveloped viruses tested were inactivated at < 3000 J/L of UV-C, being the dose needed to inactivate 4 log TCID50 (4D) of 1612 J/L for PRV,1004 J/L for PRRSV, 1953 J/L for PEDV, 1639 J/L for SIV, 1641 J/L for CSFV and 1943 J/L for BVDV. The non-enveloped viruses tended to have higher 4D values: 2161 J/L for PPV, 3223 J/L for SVA and 3708 J/L for SVDV. Because the initial viral concentration was <4.0 Log for PCV-2, it was not possible to calculate the 4D value for this virus. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that the SurePure Turbulator UV-C treatment system is capable of inactivating significant levels of swine viruses inoculated in commercially collected porcine or bovine plasma. It was concluded that irradiation with UV-C can provide an additional redundant biosafety feature in the manufacturing process of spray-dried animal plasma.

Growth Performance, Diarrhoea Incidence, and Nutrient Digestibility in Weaned Piglets Fed an Antibiotic-Free Diet with Dehydrated Porcine Plasma or Potato Protein Concentrate

Two experiments were conducted to test if dehydrated porcine plasma (DPP) and potato protein concentrate (PPC) could be used as an alternative to antibiotics in starter diets for piglets. Experiment one was conducted to test if DPP and PPC in an antibiotic-free diet affected pig performance, and faecal consistency. Eighty-four piglets weaned at 22 days and weighing 6.9 kg were used. Piglets were fed for two weeks with one of four diets: a positive control diet with antibiotics (C+); and three other diets without antibiotics added with DPP, PPC, or DPP and PPC (DPP+PPC) to measure the average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), feed efficiency (FE), and incidence and severity of diarrhoea (ID and ISD respectively). In experiment two, twenty-four piglets weaned at 17 days and weighing 5.7 kg, were implanted at 21 days of age with a T-cannula at the terminal ileum to measure the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients. Piglets were fed one of four diets: a positive control diet with antibiotics (C+); a negative control diet without antibiotics (C–), and two diets without antibiotics added with DPP, or PPC. The results of experiment one showed that the DPP diet was the most consumed diet during the first week, and the ADG and FE were similar among treatments. During the second week and the total experimental period the ADFI, ADG, and FE were similar among diets. The ID was lower in the C+ diet than other diets. The ISD was lower in the C+ diet than DPP and DPP+PPC diets; piglets fed PPC diet were similar to piglets fed C+ and DPP and DPP+PPC diets. The results of digestibility showed that crude protein AID was higher in piglets fed C+ and PPC diets than C– and DPP diets. Dry matter ATTD and energy ATTD were higher for piglets fed PPC than other diets. Further, crude protein ATTD of DPP and PPC diets tended to have a similar digestibility to that of C+ diet. The results suggest that PPC is a potential controller of post-weaning diarrhoea.

Evaluation of ultraviolet-C and spray-drying processes as two independent inactivation steps on enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88 and K99 strains inoculated in fresh unconcentrated porcine plasma

The objectives of this study were to assess the effectiveness of an ultraviolet (UV‐C, 254 nm) irradiation system and the spray‐drying method as two independent safety steps on inactivation of Escherichia coli K88 and K99 spiked in porcine plasma at 6·46 ± 0·04 log₁₀ ml⁻¹ and 6·78 ± 0·67 log₁₀ ml⁻¹ respectively for UV‐C method, and at 7·31 ± 0·39 log₁₀ ml⁻¹ and 7·66 ± 0·11 log₁₀ ml⁻¹, respectively for the spray‐drying method. The UV‐C method was performed at different UV light doses (from 750 to 9000 J l⁻¹) using a pilot plant UV‐C device working under turbulent flow. Spray‐drying treatment was done at inlet temperature 220 ± 1°C and two different outlet temperatures, 80 ± 1°C or 70 ± 1°C. Results indicated that UV‐C treatment induced a 4 log₁₀ viability reduction for both E. coli at 3000 J l⁻¹. Full inactivation of both E. coli strains was achieved in all spray‐dried samples dehydrated at both outlet temperatures. The special UV‐C system design for turbid liquid porcine plasma is a novel treatment that can provide an additional redundant biosafety feature that can be incorporated into the manufacturing process for spray‐dried animal plasma.

Significance and Impact of the Study

The safety of raw materials from animal origin such as spray‐dried porcine plasma (SDPP) may be a concern for the swine industry. Ultraviolet treatment at 254 nm (UV‐C) of liquid plasma has been proposed as an additional biosafety feature in the manufacturing process of SDPP. We found that UV‐C exposure in the liquid plasma at 3000 J l⁻¹ reduces about 4 log10 ml⁻¹ for E. coli K88 and K99. Full inactivation of both E. coli strains was achieved in all spray‐dried samples. The incorporation of UV‐C treatment to liquid plasma improves the robustness of the SDPP manufacturing process.

Impact of dietary spray-dried bovine plasma addition on pigs infected with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus

Experimental data suggest that the addition of spray-dried plasma (SDP) to pig feed may enhance antibody responses against certain pathogens and negatively impact virus survival. The benefit of SDP on Escherichia coli infection is well documented. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of bovine SDP (BovSDP) in the pig diet on acute porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infection. A total of 16 3-wk-old conventional crossbred pigs were used and divided into three groups. Treatments included 1) a negative control group fed a commercial diet and sham inoculated with commercial liquid porcine plasma (n = 3), 2) a positive control group fed a commercial diet and inoculated with PEDV-spiked porcine plasma (PEDV; n = 8), and 3) a third group of pigs fed the commercial diet with inclusion of 5% spray-dried bovine plasma and inoculated with PEDV-spiked porcine plasma (BovSDP; n = 5). Although clinical signs associated with PEDV infection were mild in the BovSDP group, two of eight pigs in the PEDV group developed moderate clinical disease and had to be euthanized. The PEDV IgG and IgA antibody levels and prevalence rates were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the PEDV–BovSDP group compared with the PEDV group at 7 d postinoculation. The average fecal PEDV RNA shedding time was 7.2 ± 1.0 d for the PEDV–BovSDP group and 9.3 ± 1.1 d for the PEDV group with an overall time to clearance of PEDV shedding of 11 d for PEDV–BovSDP pigs and at least 14 d for PEDV pigs, which was not different (P = 0.215). The results indicate that addition of BovSDP induced an earlier anti-PEDV antibody response in pigs experimentally infected with PEDV thereby reducing clinical disease and the amount and duration of viral shedding during acute PEDV infection.

Combined effects of spray-drying conditions and postdrying storage time and temperature on Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium survival when inoculated in liquid porcine plasma

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the spray-drying process on the inactivation of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium spiked in liquid porcine plasma and to test the additive effect of immediate postdrying storage. Commercial spray-dried porcine plasma was sterilized by irradiation and then reconstituted (1:9) with sterile water. Aliquots of reconstituted plasma were inoculated with either S. choleraesuis or S. typhimurium, subjected to spray-drying at an inlet temperature of 200°C and an outlet temperature of either 71 or 80°C, and each spray-drying temperature combinations were subjected to either 0, 30 or 60 s of residence time (RT) as a simulation of residence time typical of commercial dryers. Spray-dried samples were stored at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days. Bacterial counts of each Salmonella spp., were completed for all samples. For both Salmonella spp., spray-drying at both outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 logs at RT 0 s, while there was about a 5·5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4·0 ± 3·0°C or 23·0 ± 0·3°C for 15 days eliminate all detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Safety of raw materials from animal origin like spray-dried porcine plasma (SDPP) may be a concern for the swine industry. Spray-drying process and postdrying storage are good inactivation steps to reduce the bacterial load of Salmonella choleraesuis and Salmonella typhimurium. For both Salmonella spp., spray-drying at 71°C or 80°C outlet temperatures reduced bacterial counts about 3 log at residence time (RT) 0 s, while there was about a 5.5 log reduction at RT 60 s. Storage of all dried samples at either 4.0 ± 3.0°C or 23.0 ± 0.3°C for 15 days was effective for eliminating detectable bacterial counts of both Salmonella spp.