Trajectories of adolescent emotional and cognitive development: effects of sex and risk for drug use

Interpersonal Support, Emotional Intelligence and Family Function in Adolescence

BACKGROUND

During adolescence, although the peer group exerts a strong influence on how the individual thinks and feels and on personal social values, the family still exerts a sustaining and supporting role. This study analyzed the relationships established between family function, emotional intelligence and perceived interpersonal support in adolescence.

METHOD

The sample was made up of 1287 high school students aged 14 to 18 (M = 15.11; SD = 0.91) in the province of Almeria (Spain).

RESULTS

The results showed moderate correlations between the intrapersonal emotional intelligence dimension and perceived availability of support (advice or orientation), and between the mood dimension of emotional intelligence and the three interpersonal support dimensions (appraisal, belonging and tangible). In addition, significant positive correlations were found between family function and the intrapersonal and mood dimensions of emotional intelligence, with medium and large effect sizes, respectively. Apart from that, the data revealed that students who could count on a more functional family referred to high empathy and acceptance by others and greater support in material or financial matters, followed by those with moderate family function. In addition, students from homes with severely dysfunctional families perceived less available support. Finally, students who said they could count on strong family function also scored higher on the intrapersonal factor of emotional intelligence.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of these findings for the development of emotional intelligence in early adolescence are discussed from the family context, considering the relationship between emotional intelligence and social support.

Bio-psychosocial factors of children and adolescents with internet gaming disorder: a systematic review

Previous large-scale studies suggest that internet gaming disorder (IGD) among children and adolescents has become an important public concern. Minors are known to be particularly susceptible to problematic internet gaming use owing to age-related underdevelopment of cognitive control. It has been shown that precursors of addictions appear during adolescence; therefore, prevention efforts must be established targeting minors who have their first experience with addictive substances and behaviors during pubescence. Since the DSM-5 classification of IGD in 2013, studies on IGD have drastically increased in number. Thus, we performed an updated review of studies of IGD in children and adolescents to assess the clinical implications of IGD. The search included all publication years, using PubMed, MEDLINE, and PsycINFO. Across studies, the presence of IGD had a negative effect on sleep and schoolwork in minors. Additionally, family factors, including the quality of parent-child relationships, were important social factors in minors with IGD. Brain imaging studies indicate that impaired cognitive control in minors with IGD is associated with abnormal function in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. Persistent pathological online game use from childhood may aggravate abnormal brain function; therefore, preventive care and early intervention are increasingly important. Although extant research supports the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for minors with IGD, effective psychological intervention for minors with IGD is an urgent issue that requires further research. This review, which presents updated findings of IGD in minors, is expected to contribute to the development of future research and be useful in clinical practice in the field of child and adolescent psychiatry.

Alterations of Resting-State Static and Dynamic Functional Connectivity of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Subjects with Internet Gaming Disorder

Internet gaming disorder (IGD), a major behavior disorder, has gained increasing attention. Recent studies indicate altered resting-state static functional connectivity (FC) of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in subjects with IGD. Whereas static FC often provides information on functional changes in subjects with IGD, investigations of temporal changes in FC between the DLPFC and the other brain regions may shed light on the dynamic characteristics of brain function associated with IGD. Thirty subjects with IGD and 30 healthy controls (HCs) matched for age, gender and education status were recruited. Using the bilateral DLPFC as seeds, static FC and dynamic FC maps were calculated and compared between groups. Correlations between alterations in static FC and dynamic FC and clinical variables were also investigated within the IGD group. The IGD group showed significantly lower static FC between the right DLPFC and the left rolandic operculum while higher static FC between the right DLPFC and the left pars triangularis when compared to HCs. The IGD group also had significantly decreased dynamic FC between the right DLPFC and the left insula, right putamen and left precentral gyrus, and increased dynamic FC in the left precuneus. Moreover, the dynamic FC between the right DLPFC and the left insula was negatively correlated with the severity of IGD. Dynamic FC can be used as a powerful supplement to static FC, helping us obtain a more comprehensive understanding of large-scale brain network activity in IGD and put forward new ideas for behavioral intervention therapy for it.

Intra-regional and inter-regional abnormalities and cognitive control deficits in young adult smokers

Tobacco use during later adolescence and young adulthood may cause serious neurophysiological changes; rationally, it is extremely important to study the relationship between brain dysfunction and behavioral performances in young adult smokers. Previous resting state studies investigated the neural mechanisms in smokers. Unfortunately, few studies focused on spontaneous activity differences between young adult smokers and nonsmokers from both intra-regional and inter-regional levels, less is known about the association between resting state abnormalities and behavioral deficits. Therefore, we used fractional amplitude of low frequency fluctuation (fALFF) and resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) to investigate the resting state spontaneous activity differences between young adult smokers and nonsmokers. A correlation analysis was carried out to assess the relationship between neuroimaging findings and clinical information (pack-years, cigarette dependence, age of onset and craving score) as well as cognitive control deficits measured by the Stroop task. Consistent with previous addiction findings, our results revealed the resting state abnormalities within frontostriatal circuits, i.e., enhanced spontaneous activity of the caudate and reduced functional strength between the caudate and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in young adult smokers. Moreover, the fALFF values of the caudate were correlated with craving and RSFC strength between the caudate and ACC was associated with the cognitive control impairments in young adult smokers. Our findings could lead to a better understanding of intrinsic functional architecture of baseline brain activity in young smokers by providing regional and brain circuit spontaneous neuronal activity properties as well as their association with cognitive control impairments.

Neurocognitive Characteristics of Early Marijuana Use Initiation in Adolescents: A Signature Mapping Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Prior studies of the association between neurocognitive functions and marijuana use among adolescents are mostly cross-sectional and conducted in adolescents who have already initiated marijuana use. The current study used a longitudinal design on a preadolescent, substance-naive sample. We sought to identify demographic factors associated with neurocognitive functions and the complement of neurocognitive function characteristics that predict marijuana initiation in adolescents.

METHOD

Substance-naive adolescents (n = 465) ages 10-12 years (51% male) were recruited from a community with high levels of adolescent marijuana use and prospectively followed to ages 12-15. Tasks measuring neurocognitive functions were administered and audio-assisted interviews were conducted. Two types of models were estimated for each outcome: forced-entry models and another using stepwise selection via bidirectional elimination with varying tolerance levels to account for selection misspecification.

RESULTS

About 10% (n = 49) initiated marijuana use over the study period. Child's age, academic achievement, and parental education were associated with baseline neurocognitive functions; namely, positive emotion attributions and lower impulsivity. Facial recognition-particularly misattribution of sad faces-was the strongest predictor of marijuana initiation, including in the stepwise model (partial OR = 1.3, 95% CI [1.03, 1.63], p < .05) that resulted in the best-fitting model.

CONCLUSIONS

Prediction of marijuana initiation was improved in stepwise models compared with forced-entry models. Emotion perception appears to be an early developmental risk factor that is prospectively associated with marijuana initiation; as expected, other neurocognitive functions did not play an interactive role. Future studies of the interrelationships between emotion perception and the myriad other factors implicated in marijuana initiation, including neurocognitive functions not measured here, will provide a more comprehensive understanding of risk for marijuana initiation.

Low Family Support and Risk of Obesity among Black Youth: Role of Gender and Ethnicity

Most studies on the role of family environment in developing risk of obesity among youth have focused on parenting behaviors that are directly involved in energy balance in regional, non-representative White samples. Using a national sample of ethnically diverse Black youth, the current study tested the association between low family support and risk of obesity. We also tested the heterogeneity of this association based on gender, ethnicity, and their intersection. We used data from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A), a national survey of Black adolescents in the United States. The study enrolled 1170 African American and Caribbean Black 13-17 year old youth. Obesity was defined based on the cutoff points of body mass index (BMI) appropriate for age and gender of youth. Family support was measured using a five-item measure that captured emotional and tangible social support. Age, gender, and ethnicity were also measured. Logistic regressions were utilized in the pooled sample, and also based on gender, ethnicity, and their intersection, to test the link between low family support and risk for obesity.

RESULTS

In the pooled sample, low family support was not associated with an increased risk of obesity (OR = 1.35, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.96-1.89). The association between low family support and risk of obesity was, however, significant among African American females (OR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.01-2.55). There was no association for African American males (OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 0.82-1.92), Caribbean Black males (OR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.01-54.85), and Caribbean Black females (OR = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.42-1.44). In conclusion, policies and programs that enable African American families to provide additional family support may prevent obesity among African American female youth. Future research should test the efficacy of promoting family support as a tool for preventing obesity among African American female youth.

School-Based Positive Youth Development: A Systematic Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND

The values, perspectives, and behavior patterns that begin in adolescence can continue throughout one's life. Because of these lifetime effects, much research has focused on adolescent risk and prevention, but a new body of knowledge investigates protective factors and strengths. Positive youth development (PYD) increases internal and external assets during adolescence and is often based within communities. This review, however, focuses on school-based PYD interventions because these institutions are the largest youth-serving institutions in the country.

METHODS

This review considered 711 PYD school-based programs found using 4 databases. We included articles published after 2000, and did not review those reporting on regular school curriculum or activities.

RESULTS

The 24 remaining articles describe PYD programs that fall under 3 general categories: curriculum-based, leadership development, and student-based mentorship programs.

CONCLUSIONS

Evaluations indicate that programs increase intrapsychic measures of well-being in youth as well as social confidence and healthy behaviors. However, it is important to not only include "at-risk" persons in programming, because a mixed group of young people encourages a more positive peer-to-peer climate. In addition, peer mentorship activities should be actively facilitated by an adult supervisor to ensure positive communication and trust between the mentor and mentee.

Neurobiological signatures associated with alcohol and drug use in the human adolescent brain

Magnetic resonance (MR) techniques provide opportunities to non-invasively characterize neurobiological milestones of adolescent brain development. Juxtaposed to the critical finalization of brain development is initiation of alcohol and substance use, and increased frequency and quantity of use, patterns that can lead to abuse and addiction. This review provides a comprehensive overview of existing MR studies of adolescent alcohol and drug users. The most common alterations reported across substance used and MR modalities are in the frontal lobe (63% of published studies). This is not surprising, given that this is the last region to reach neurobiological adulthood. Comparatively, evidence is less consistent regarding alterations in regions that mature earlier (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus), however newer techniques now permit investigations beyond regional approaches that are uncovering network-level vulnerabilities. Regardless of whether neurobiological signatures exist prior to the initiation of use, this body of work provides important direction for ongoing prospective investigations of adolescent brain development, and the significant impact of alcohol and substance use on the brain during the second decade of life.

Drug Use among Street Children in Tehran, Iran: A Qualitative Study

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

Globally, children who work and live on the streets are at higher risk of undesired behavioral health outcomes, including increased drug use and abuse. Considering the rapid growth of this population in Iran and the lack of program planning that is partly due to a scarcity of research-based information, this study was conducted in 2013 to investigate drug use among street children in Tehran.

1METHOD

With a qualitative design, we conducted a Rapid Assessment and Response Survey of street children in Tehran, 2012-2013. Data were also obtained from 10 focus group discussions with street children using semi-structured questionnaires and 27 in-depth interviews with key informants in governmental, non-governmental, and international organizations.

RESULTS

The variation in age at first use, type of drugs, and pattern of drug use were found based on ethnicity. Consuming of Alcohol was reported to be more among an ethnic group. Drug use problems were commonly described among families of street children. Children whose parents had drug-use problems described using drugs earlier than other children. Informants reported that families with drug-related problems used children for procurement of drugs. Children themselves described using drugs to cope with stress, and to reduce physical and psychological stressors and problems, such as fatigue, sadness, and pressure, resulting from frequent failures in life.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that intervention and prevention programs dealing with drug use of street children in Iran should include family and peers when addressing drug use by street children.

Reduced frontal cortical thickness and increased caudate volume within fronto-striatal circuits in young adult smokers

BACKGROUND

Smoking during early adulthood results in neurophysiological and brain structural changes that may promote nicotine dependence later in life. Previous studies have revealed the important roles of fronto-striatal circuits in the pathology of nicotine dependence; however, few studies have focused on both cortical thickness and subcortical striatal volume differences between young adult smokers and nonsmokers.

METHODS

Twenty-seven young male adult smokers and 22 age-, education- and gender-matched nonsmokers were recruited in the present study. The cortical thickness and striatal volume differences of young adult smokers and age-matched nonsmokers were investigated in the present study and then correlated with pack-years and Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND).

RESULTS

The following results were obtained: (1) young adult smokers showed significant cortical thinning in the frontal cortex (left caudal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), right lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)), left insula, left middle temporal gyrus, right inferior parietal lobule, and right parahippocampus; (2) in regards to subcortical striatal volume, the volume of the right caudate was larger in young adult smokers than nonsmokers; and (3) the cortical thickness of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and OFC were associated with nicotine dependence severity (FTND) and cumulative amount of nicotine intake (pack-years) in smokers, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed reduced frontal cortical thickness and increased caudate volume in the fronto-striatal circuits in young adult smokers compared to nonsmokers. These deficits suggest an imbalance between cognitive control (reduced protection factors) and reward drive behaviours (increased risk factors) associated with nicotine addiction and relapse.

Disrupted brain functional network in internet addiction disorder: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is increasingly recognized as a mental health disorder, particularly among adolescents. The pathogenesis associated with IAD, however, remains unclear. In this study, we aim to explore the encephalic functional characteristics of IAD adolescents at rest using functional magnetic resonance imaging data. We adopted a graph-theoretic approach to investigate possible disruptions of functional connectivity in terms of network properties including small-worldness, efficiency, and nodal centrality on 17 adolescents with IAD and 16 socio-demographically matched healthy controls. False discovery rate-corrected parametric tests were performed to evaluate the statistical significance of group-level network topological differences. In addition, a correlation analysis was performed to assess the relationships between functional connectivity and clinical measures in the IAD group. Our results demonstrate that there is significant disruption in the functional connectome of IAD patients, particularly between regions located in the frontal, occipital, and parietal lobes. The affected connections are long-range and inter-hemispheric connections. Although significant alterations are observed for regional nodal metrics, there is no difference in global network topology between IAD and healthy groups. In addition, correlation analysis demonstrates that the observed regional abnormalities are correlated with the IAD severity and behavioral clinical assessments. Our findings, which are relatively consistent between anatomically and functionally defined atlases, suggest that IAD causes disruptions of functional connectivity and, importantly, that such disruptions might link to behavioral impairments.

GABAergic contributions to alcohol responsivity during adolescence: insights from preclinical and clinical studies

There is a considerable body of literature demonstrating that adolescence is a unique age period, which includes rapid and dramatic maturation of behavioral, cognitive, hormonal and neurobiological systems. Most notably, adolescence is also a period of unique responsiveness to alcohol effects, with both hyposensitivity and hypersensitivity observed to the various effects of alcohol. Multiple neurotransmitter systems are undergoing fine-tuning during this critical period of brain development, including those that contribute to the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse. The role of developmental maturation of the γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA) system, however, has received less attention in contributing to age-specific alcohol sensitivities. This review integrates GABA findings from human magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies as they may translate to understanding adolescent-specific responsiveness to alcohol effects. Better understanding of the vulnerability of the GABA system both during adolescent development, and in psychiatric conditions that include alcohol dependence, could point to a putative mechanism, boosting brain GABA, that may have increased effectiveness for treating alcohol use disorders.

A triadic neurocognitive approach to addiction for clinical interventions

According to the triadic neurocognitive model of addiction to drugs (e.g., cocaine) and non-drugs (e.g., gambling), weakened "willpower" associated with these behaviors is the product of an abnormal functioning in one or more of three key neural and cognitive systems: (1) an amygdala-striatum dependent system mediating automatic, habitual, and salient behaviors; (2) a prefrontal cortex dependent system important for self-regulation and forecasting the future consequences of a behavior; and (3) an insula dependent system for the reception of interoceptive signals and their translation into feeling states (such as urge and craving), which in turn plays a strong influential role in decision-making and impulse control processes related to uncertainty, risk, and reward. The described three-systems account for poor decision-making (i.e., prioritizing short-term consequences of a decisional option) and stimulus-driven actions, thus leading to a more elevated risk for relapse. Finally, this article elaborates on the need for "personalized" clinical model-based interventions targeting interactions between implicit processes, interoceptive signaling, and supervisory function aimed at helping individuals become less governed by immediate situations and automatic pre-potent responses, and more influenced by systems involved in the pursuit of future valued goals.

Why adolescents are at risk of misusing alcohol and gambling

AIMS

The aim of the study was to explore the reasons for alcohol misuse and other risk-taking behaviours in adolescence.

METHODS

Narrative review.

RESULTS

Vulnerable adolescents make suboptimal addictive-related choices in the period of initiation of alcohol use and gambling, which is also a period of cognitive and brain development, and in health behaviours. Hyperactive response to rewards as well as possibly hypoactive responses to punishments combined with weaknesses in the abilities to regulate strong impulses results in greater risk of alcohol and gambling misuse.

CONCLUSION

Abnormal patterns of alcohol consumption (e.g. binge drinking) could dramatically reinforce this disequilibrium by enhancing salience for alcohol and associated information and compromising self-regulatory processes. There are some preventive and therapeutic cognitive training strategies that can strengthen willpower in adolescents.

Binge drinking trajectory and neuropsychological functioning among university students: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a time of considerable neurodevelopment. Binge drinking (BD) during this period increases the vulnerability to its neurotoxic effects. This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the relationship between BD trajectory over university years and neuropsychological functioning.

METHODS

Cohort-study. Two-year follow-up. A total of 89 university students were assessed: 40 Non-BD (at Initial and Follow-up), 16 Ex-BD (BD at Initial but not at Follow-up) and 33 BD (at both times). Neuropsychological assessment of working memory, episodic memory and executive abilities was carried out during their first (Initial) and third (Follow-up) academic year at the University of Santiago de Compostela.

RESULTS

BD subjects performed less well on the Wechsler Memory Scale-III (WMS-III) Logical Memory Subtest (immediate theme recall, P=.034; delayed theme recall, P=.037; and percent retention, P=.035) and committed more perseverative errors on the Self-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT) (P=.021) than Non-BD. There were no differences between Ex-BD and Non-BD.

CONCLUSIONS

Binge drinking trajectory during adolescence is associated with neuropsychological performance. Persistent BD, but not Ex-BD, is associated with verbal memory and monitoring difficulties. This is compatible with the hypothesis that heavy alcohol use during adolescence may affect cognitive functions that rely on the temporomesial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Coding task performance in early adolescence: a large-scale controlled study into boy-girl differences

This study examined differences between boys and girls regarding efficiency of information processing in early adolescence. Three hundred and six healthy adolescents (50.3% boys) in grade 7 and 9 (aged 13 and 15, respectively) performed a coding task based on over-learned symbols. An age effect was revealed as subjects in grade 9 performed better than subjects in grade 7. Main effects for sex were found in the advantage of girls. The 25% best-performing students comprised twice as many girls as boys. The opposite pattern was found for the worst performing 25%. In addition, a main effect was found for educational track in favor of the highest track. No interaction effects were found. School grades did not explain additional variance in LDST performance. This indicates that cognitive performance is relatively independent from school performance. Student characteristics like age, sex, and education level were more important for efficiency of information processing than school performance. The findings imply that after age 13, efficiency of information processing is still developing and that girls outperform boys in this respect. The findings provide new information on the mechanisms underlying boy-girl differences in scholastic performance.

Cortical thickness abnormalities in late adolescence with online gaming addiction

Online gaming addiction, as the most popular subtype of Internet addiction, had gained more and more attention from the whole world. However, the structural differences in cortical thickness of the brain between adolescents with online gaming addiction and healthy controls are not well unknown; neither was its association with the impaired cognitive control ability. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging scans from late adolescence with online gaming addiction (n = 18) and age-, education- and gender-matched controls (n = 18) were acquired. The cortical thickness measurement method was employed to investigate alterations of cortical thickness in individuals with online gaming addiction. The color-word Stroop task was employed to investigate the functional implications of the cortical thickness abnormalities. Imaging data revealed increased cortical thickness in the left precentral cortex, precuneus, middle frontal cortex, inferior temporal and middle temporal cortices in late adolescence with online gaming addiction; meanwhile, the cortical thicknesses of the left lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), insula, lingual gyrus, the right postcentral gyrus, entorhinal cortex and inferior parietal cortex were decreased. Correlation analysis demonstrated that the cortical thicknesses of the left precentral cortex, precuneus and lingual gyrus correlated with duration of online gaming addiction and the cortical thickness of the OFC correlated with the impaired task performance during the color-word Stroop task in adolescents with online gaming addiction. The findings in the current study suggested that the cortical thickness abnormalities of these regions may be implicated in the underlying pathophysiology of online gaming addiction.

Adolescent brain development and underage drinking in the United States: identifying risks of alcohol use in college populations

Alcohol use typically is initiated during adolescence, a period that coincides with critical structural and functional maturation of the brain. Brain maturation and associated improvements in decision making continue into the third decade of life, reaching a plateau within the period referred to as emerging adulthood (18-24 years). This particular period covers that of traditionally aged college students, and includes the age (21 years) when alcohol consumption becomes legal in the United States. This review highlights neurobiological evidence indicating the vulnerabilities of the emerging-adult brain to the effects of alcohol. Factors increasing the risks associated with underage alcohol use include the age group's reduced sensitivity to alcohol sedation and increased sensitivity to alcohol-related disruptions in memory. On the individual level, factors increasing those risks are a positive family history of alcoholism, which has a demonstrated effect on brain structure and function, and emerging comorbid psychiatric conditions. These vulnerabilities-of the age group, in general, as well as of particular individuals-likely contribute to excessive and unsupervised drinking in college students. Discouraging alcohol consumption until neurobiological adulthood is reached is important for minimizing alcohol-related disruptions in brain development and decision-making capacity, and for reducing the negative behavioral consequences associated with underage alcohol use.

Microstructure abnormalities in adolescents with internet addiction disorder

Background

Recent studies suggest that internet addiction disorder (IAD) is associated with structural abnormalities in brain gray matter. However, few studies have investigated the effects of internet addiction on the microstructural integrity of major neuronal fiber pathways, and almost no studies have assessed the microstructural changes with the duration of internet addiction.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We investigated the morphology of the brain in adolescents with IAD (N = 18) using an optimized voxel-based morphometry (VBM) technique, and studied the white matter fractional anisotropy (FA) changes using the diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) method, linking these brain structural measures to the duration of IAD. We provided evidences demonstrating the multiple structural changes of the brain in IAD subjects. VBM results indicated the decreased gray matter volume in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the supplementary motor area (SMA), the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the cerebellum and the left rostral ACC (rACC). DTI analysis revealed the enhanced FA value of the left posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC) and reduced FA value in the white matter within the right parahippocampal gyrus (PHG). Gray matter volumes of the DLPFC, rACC, SMA, and white matter FA changes of the PLIC were significantly correlated with the duration of internet addiction in the adolescents with IAD.

Conclusions

Our results suggested that long-term internet addiction would result in brain structural alterations, which probably contributed to chronic dysfunction in subjects with IAD. The current study may shed further light on the potential brain effects of IAD.

Developmental effects of reward on sustained attention networks

Adolescence is typified by significant maturation in higher-level attention functions coupled with less developed control over motivation, and enhanced sensitivity to novelty and reward. This study used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in seventy male and female participants aged between 10 and 43 years to identify age-related linear changes in cognitive sustained attention systems and the impact of reward on these systems, using a sustained attention task with and without a rewarded condition. For the non-rewarded sustained attention contrast, increasing age was associated with activation increases in typical regions of sustained attention including right inferior frontal, superior temporo-parietal and cerebellar cortices. Age-related activation decreases were observed within more posterior regions including posterior cingulate, insula and posterior cerebellar cortices, presumably mediating visual-spatial saliency detection. The effect of reward on sustained attention networks was associated with increased activation with age in regions associated with both executive attention control and reward processing, including dorsolateral, inferior and ventromedial prefrontal cortices (PFC), striatum, and temporo-parietal regions, suggestive of greater integration and executive control of motivation and cognition with maturity. Activation in paralimbic posterior cingulate and inferior temporal brain regions of visual-spatial saliency processing was progressively reduced in activation with increasing development. Thus, with increasing development between adolescence and adulthood, reward appears to enhance maturing cognitive sustained attention and executive reward-processing networks, whilst reducing paralimbic regions of saliency detection. These findings may be the neural underpinnings for the progressive maturation of motivational control over risk taking behaviours between adolescence and adulthood.

Adolescents at risk for alcohol abuse demonstrate altered frontal lobe activation during Stroop performance

BACKGROUND

Children and adolescents, family history positive (FH+) for alcoholism, exhibit differences in brain structure and functional activation when compared to family history negative (FH-) counterparts. Given that frontal brain regions, and associated reciprocal connections with limbic structures, undergo the most dramatic maturational changes during adolescence, the objective of this study was to compare functional brain activation during a frontally mediated test of response inhibition in 32 adolescents separated into low-risk (FH-) and high-risk (FH+) groups.

METHODS

Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) blood oxygen level-dependent data were acquired at 1.5 Tesla during performance of Stroop Color Naming, Word Reading, and Interference. Preprocessing and statistical analyses, covaried for age, were conducted in SPM99 using a search territory that included superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri (trigone region), anterior cingulate gyrus (CG), and left and right amygdala.

RESULTS

Significantly greater activation in the fronto-limbic search territory was observed in FH+ relative to FH- subjects during Stroop Interference. In addition, a significant regression between brain activation and family history density was observed, with a greater density being associated with increased activation in regions including middle frontal gyrus (BA9) and CG (BA24).

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate a significant influence of FH status on brain activation during the performance of a response inhibition task, perhaps reflecting a neurobiological vulnerability associated with FH status that may include reduced neuronal efficiency and/or recruitment of additional neuronal resources. These findings are important given that the adolescent developmental period is already associated with reduced inhibitory capacity, even prior to the onset of alcohol use.

Adolescent brain development, risk-taking and vulnerability to addiction

Adolescents (12-18 years old) and young adults (18-25 years old), are more likely than older adults to drive-or agree to be driven-recklessly or while intoxicated, to use illicit or dangerous substances and to engage in both minor and more serious antisocial behaviour. Numerous factors during adolescence may lead to or favour initiation of drug use, such as sensation-seeking, gregariousness and social conformity. These aspects, however, cannot be dissociated from the increased sex drive and quest for an integrated self. In the separation-individuation process, relationships with peers play many different roles: a field for experimentation, emotional support, a place for "projection" and "identification", and the possibility of finding a partner. Unsurprisingly, therefore, drug use generally takes place in a group setting. Despite evidence of heightened real-world risk-taking, laboratory studies have yet to yield consistent evidence that adolescents, when on their own, are more inclined towards risky behaviour than their elders. Moreover, their comprehension and reasoning abilities in risky decision-making situations are roughly equivalent to those of adults. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies have shown that neural circuitry undergoes major reorganization during adolescence, particularly in those regions of the brain relating to executive functions, the self and social cognition, and that the "emotional brain" may play a role in that reorganization. Age-related decreases in gray matter volume mainly reflect a reduction in the number of synapses and the complexity of axonal ramifications. By 18-20 years old, most of the subcortical white matter and association pathways have reached a plateau. Risk-taking behavior and novelty-seeking may provide, with an appropriate feed back, a mechanism to optimize brain development in adolescence.

Is there a gender difference in associates of adolescents' lifetime illicit drug use in Tehran, Iran?

INTRODUCTION

Information regarding gender differences in drug use of adolescents is essential for designing gender-specific drug prevention policies. This study was conducted in high school students in Tehran, Iran, in 2007. Here, we report the gender differences in lifetime prevalence as well as psychosocial associates of drug use.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was a gender analysis of the data collected in a drug use survey conducted in a random sample of high school adolescents (573 boys and 551 girls) in Tehran, Iran, 2007. Demographic characteristics, parental and peers' substance use, school performance, religious beliefs, attachment, self-esteem and emotional intelligence (EI) were entered in logistic regression analyses to predict the lifetime illicit drug use in boy and girls, separately.

RESULTS

Boys were more likely to report lifetime illicit drug use than girls (10.1% vs. 6.4%, p = 0.023). Differences in the risk profile associated with lifetime illicit drug use by gender included history of substance use in the family, higher score of attachment, and having an employed mother as predictors of substance use in boys, but not girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding this gender difference in predictors of lifetime use of illicit drugs in high school adolescents facilitates the design of gender-sensitive drug use preventive programmes. It seems that family variables may have more value in prevention of illicit drug use in male adolescents.

Emotional intelligence and addictions: a systematic review

Since the millennium, an expanding number of research articles have examined the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and physical and mental health. The relationship between EI and addictive disorders has, however, remained relatively well-hidden. We therefore systematically reviewed and critically evaluated the literature on this relationship. We identified 51 articles on the topic of which 36 fulfilled our inclusion criteria. Results indicate that a lower level of EI is associated with more intensive smoking, alcohol use, and illicit drug use and two components of EI play a key role in addictions: "decoding and differentiation of emotions" and "regulation of emotions."

P300 and the stroop effect in overweight minority adolescents

AIM

The goal was to examine the relationship between a risk factor for poor cognitive control and a health outcome of growing public significance--an excess body mass--among adolescents.

METHODS

To this end, 109 adolescents aged 14-20 years were recruited and assigned to 1 of 4 groups defined by the crossing of the absence versus presence of a parental history (PH) of externalizing disorders with a body mass index (BMI) percentile (BMIP) < 85 versus > or = 85. The principal measure estimating cognitive control was the P300 event-related electroencephalographic response recorded during the Stroop task.

RESULTS

The analyses revealed a synergistic interaction between BMIP rank, PH and trial type: the increase in P300 latency and the decrease in response accuracy, elicited by the presence of interfering information, were markedly greater in high-BMIP subjects with a PH of externalizing disorders than in the other subject groups. Analyses of a later component, the N450, previously associated with the Stroop interference effect, revealed no effect of BMI or PH.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that subjects with both a PH of externalizing disorders and an excess BMI constitute a unique group that is less able to resolve cognitive conflict than others. The excessive delay in P300 evoked by conflicting response demands in these subjects may be a marker of a heritable factor that increases risk for both excess body mass and substance use disorders.

The storm and stress of adolescence: insights from human imaging and mouse genetics

The characterization of adolescence as a time of "storm and stress" remains an open debate. Intense and frequent negative affect during this period has been hypothesized to explain the increased rates of affective disorders, suicide, and accidental death during this time of life. Yet some teens emerge from adolescence with minimal turmoil. We provide a neurobiological model of adolescence that proposes an imbalance in the development of subcortical limbic (e.g., amygdala) relative to prefrontal cortical regions as a potential mechanism for heightened emotionality during this period. Empirical support for this model is provided from recent behavioral and human imaging studies on the development of emotion regulation. We then provide examples of environmental factors that may exacerbate imbalances in amygdala-ventrofrontal function increasing risk for anxiety related behaviors. Finally we present data from human and mouse studies to illustrate how genetic factors may enhance or diminish this risk. Together, these studies provide a converging methods approach for understanding the highly variable stress and turmoil experienced in adolescence.

The maturation of incentive processing and cognitive control

Understanding how immaturities in the reward system affect decision-making can inform us on adolescent vulnerabilities to risk-taking, which is a primary contributor to mortality and substance abuse in this age group. In this paper, we review the literature characterizing the neurodevelopment of reward and cognitive control and propose a model for adolescent reward processing. While the functional neuroanatomy of the mature reward system has been well-delineated, adolescent reward processing is just beginning to be understood. Results indicate that adolescents relative to adults demonstrate decreased anticipatory processing and assessment of risk, but an increased consummatory response. Such differences could result in suboptimal representations of reward valence and value and bias adolescent decision-making. These functional differences in reward processing occur in parallel with on-going structural and pharmacological maturation in the adolescent brain. In addition to limitations in incentive processing, basic cognitive control abilities, including working memory and inhibitory control, continue to mature during adolescence. Consequently, adolescents may be limited, relative to adults, in their abilities to inhibit impulsive behaviors and reliably hold 'on-line' comparisons of potential rewards/punishments during decision-making.

Loss of dendrite stabilization by the Abl-related gene (Arg) kinase regulates behavioral flexibility and sensitivity to cocaine

Adolescence is characterized by increased vulnerability to developing neuropsychiatric disorders and involves a period of prefrontal cortical dendritic refinement and synaptic pruning that culminates in cytoskeletal stabilization in adulthood. The Abl-related gene (Arg) acts through p190RhoGAP to inhibit the RhoA GTPase and stabilize cortical dendritic arbors beginning in adolescence. Cortical axons, dendrites, and synapses develop normally in Arg-deficient (arg(-/-)) mice, but adult dendrites destabilize and regress; thus, arg(-/-) mice present a model of adolescent-onset dendritic simplification. We show that arg(-/-) mice are impaired in a reversal task and that deficits are grossly exacerbated by low-dose cocaine administration. Although ventral prefrontal dopamine D2 receptor levels predict "perseverative" error counts in wild-type mice, no such relationship is found in arg(-/-) mice. Moreover, arg(-/-) mice are insensitive to the disruptive effects of the D2/D3 antagonist haloperidol in reversal but show normal sensitivity to its locomotor-depressant actions. Arg deficiency and orbitofrontal cortical Arg inhibition via STI-571 infusion also enhance the psychomotor stimulant actions of cocaine. These findings provide evidence that stabilization of dendritic structure beginning in adolescence is critical for the development of adaptive and flexible behavior after cocaine exposure.

A time of change: behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues

Adolescence is a developmental period that entails substantial changes in affective and incentive-seeking behavior relative to both childhood and adulthood, including a heightened propensity to engage in risky behaviors and experience persistent negative and labile mood states. This review discusses the emotional and incentive-driven behavioral changes in adolescents and their associated neural mechanisms, focusing on the dynamic interactions between the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Common behavioral changes during adolescence may be associated with a heightened responsiveness to incentives and emotional cues while the capacity to effectively engage in cognitive and emotion regulation is still relatively immature. We highlight empirical work in humans and animals that addresses the interactions between these neural systems in adolescents relative to children and adults, and propose a neurobiological model that may account for the nonlinear changes in adolescent behavior. Finally, we discuss other influences that may contribute to exaggerated reward and emotion processing associated with adolescence, including hormonal fluctuations and the role of the social environment.

Risk-taking and the feedback negativity response to loss among at-risk adolescents

Event-related brain potentials were examined in 32 adolescents (50% female) from a high-risk sample, who were exposed to cocaine and other drugs prenatally. Adolescents were selected for extreme high- or low-risk behavior on the Balloon Analog Risk Task, a measure of real-world risk-taking propensity. The feedback error-related negativity (fERN), an event-related potential (ERP) that occurs when an expected reward does not occur, was examined in a game in which choices lead to monetary gains and losses with feedback delayed 1 or 2 s. The fERN was clearly visible in the fronto-central scalp region in this adolescent sample. Feedback type, feedback delay, risk status, and sex were all associated with fERN variability. Monetary feedback also elicited a P300-like component, moderated by delay and sex. Delaying reward feedback may provide a means for studying complementary functioning of dopamine and norepinephrine systems.

Relationship between white matter volume and cognitive performance during adolescence: effects of age, sex and risk for drug use

AIM

Familial drug abuse history has been shown to have an impact on cognitive development during adolescence. The present study examined the relationship between white matter volume and cognitive processing speed in adolescents with and without a familial substance abuse history.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample comprised 33 female and male adolescents stratified by risk (family history positive, FH+) and low-risk (FH-) groups.

MEASUREMENTS

Gray and white matter volumes were measured by segmenting magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. The neurocognitive test battery included tests that assessed processing speed, verbal ability and mental flexibility.

FINDINGS

Age-related differences in neuropsychological functioning were seen but did not differ by risk group status, although there was some evidence for an age x gender effect. Information processing speed (digit symbol and Stroop word color naming) was correlated significantly with white matter volume; however, this pattern was observed only in FH- females. Cognitive performance and tissue volumes did not differ significantly between risk groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Age-related differences in neuropsychological functioning were seen that might, in larger samples, prove to be related to risk for substance abuse in adolescents who have not yet initiated drug use.

A psychobiological framework of the substrates that mediate nicotine use during adolescence

Adolescents are especially likely to initiate tobacco use and are more vulnerable to long-term nicotine dependence. A unifying hypothesis is proposed based largely on animals studies that adolescents, as compared to adults, experience enhanced short-term positive and reduced aversive effects of nicotine, as well as less negative effects during nicotine withdrawal. Thus, during adolescence the strong positive effects of nicotine are inadequately balanced by negative effects that contribute to nicotine dependence in adults. This review provides a neural framework to explain developmental differences within the mesolimbic pathway based on the established role of dopamine in addiction. This pathway originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and terminates in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) where dopamine is increased by nicotine but decreased during withdrawal. During adolescence, excitatory glutamatergic systems that facilitate dopamine are overdeveloped, whereas inhibitory GABAergic systems are underdeveloped. Thus, it is hypothesized that adolescents display enhanced nicotine reward and reduced withdrawal via enhanced excitation and reduced inhibition of VTA cell bodies that release dopamine in the NAcc. Although this framework focuses on adolescents and adults, it may also apply to the understanding of enhanced vulnerability to nicotine in adults that were previously exposed to nicotine during adolescence. The hypothesis presented in this review suggests that the clinical diagnostic criteria developed for nicotine dependence in adults, based primarily on withdrawal, may be inappropriate during adolescence when nicotine withdrawal does not appear to play a major role in nicotine use. Furthermore, treatment strategies involving nicotine replacement may be harmful for adolescents because it may cause enhanced vulnerability to nicotine dependence later in adulthood.

The adolescent brain

Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by suboptimal decisions and actions that are associated with an increased incidence of unintentional injuries, violence, substance abuse, unintended pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases. Traditional neurobiological and cognitive explanations for adolescent behavior have failed to account for the nonlinear changes in behavior observed during adolescence, relative to both childhood and adulthood. This review provides a biologically plausible model of the neural mechanisms underlying these nonlinear changes in behavior. We provide evidence from recent human brain imaging and animal studies that there is a heightened responsiveness to incentives and socioemotional contexts during this time, when impulse control is still relatively immature. These findings suggest differential development of bottom-up limbic systems, implicated in incentive and emotional processing, to top-down control systems during adolescence as compared to childhood and adulthood. This developmental pattern may be exacerbated in those adolescents prone to emotional reactivity, increasing the likelihood of poor outcomes.

Working memory and decision-making biases in young adults with a family history of alcoholism: studies from the Oklahoma family health patterns project

BACKGROUND

Alcohol misuse is more common in persons with a family history of alcoholism (FH+) than in those with no such history (FH-). Among FH+, behavioral disinhibition and male sex seem to signal the presence of an increased risk.

METHODS

This study examined cognitive and behavioral characteristics of 175 nonabusing 18- to 30-year-olds, 87 FH+ and 88 FH-, who were further characterized by their degree of behavioral disinhibition using the Sociability scale of the California Personality Inventory. Working memory and decision making were tested using the Stroop Color-Word Test and the Iowa Gambling Task, a simulated card game.

RESULTS

Persons with a family history of alcoholism who were behaviorally disinhibited displayed significantly greater interference on the Stroop task than the other subgroups. On the Iowa Gambling Task, FH+ males, but not the females, were significantly more attentive to financial gains than other subgroups, and they had greater consistency in their choice behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Persons with a family history of alcoholism, in combination with behavioral disinhibition, appears to signal working memory deficits and in combination with male sex indicates an attraction to the rewarding aspects of a risk-taking challenge. These findings are not secondary to heavy exposure to alcohol or other drugs, but instead reflect intrinsic risk-related familial and personal characteristics of the subjects.

Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents

Adolescence has been characterized by risk-taking behaviors that can lead to fatal outcomes. This study examined the neurobiological development of neural systems implicated in reward-seeking behaviors. Thirty-seven participants (7-29 years of age) were scanned using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging and a paradigm that parametrically manipulated reward values. The results show exaggerated accumbens activity, relative to prefrontal activity in adolescents, compared with children and adults, which appeared to be driven by different time courses of development for these regions. Accumbens activity in adolescents looked like that of adults in both extent of activity and sensitivity to reward values, although the magnitude of activity was exaggerated. In contrast, the extent of orbital frontal cortex activity in adolescents looked more like that of children than adults, with less focal patterns of activity. These findings suggest that maturing subcortical systems become disproportionately activated relative to later maturing top-down control systems, biasing the adolescent's action toward immediate over long-term gains.

Sex differences in the relationship between white matter microstructure and impulsivity in adolescents

Rapid maturational brain changes occur during adolescence--a time associated with risk-taking behaviors and improvements in cognition. The present study examined the relationship between white matter (WM) microstructure, impulsive behavior and response inhibition in female and male adolescents. Twenty-one healthy adolescents underwent diffusion tensor imaging using a 3.0-T magnetic resonance imaging system. Impulse control was assessed using the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, Youth Version. Response inhibition was assessed using the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test. Fractional anisotropy (FA), a measure of WM coherence, and trace, a measure of overall diffusivity, were determined from voxels manually placed in the midline and in the left and right forward-projecting arms of the genu and the splenium of the corpus callosum. Sex-specific differences were observed for the relationship between FA and impulsive behavior in the right anterior callosum for males and in the splenium for females. Males, compared to females, displayed significantly higher FA in the left WM region. Although trace was not associated with impulse control, trace in the genu (for females) and splenium (males and females) was associated with Stroop performance. Regional differences in trace also were evident, with lower values in the splenium observed than in all other regions. Although the latter significantly improved with age, no sex differences in impulse control or in Stroop performance were detected. The present findings provide supporting evidence for sex-related differences in the development of WM microstructure during adolescence. These data further suggest a neurobiological mechanism underlying some of the emotional and cognitive changes commonly observed in males versus females during the adolescent period.