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Johansen MD, Spaink HP, Oehlers SH, Kremer L. Modeling nontuberculous mycobacterial infections in zebrafish. Trends Microbiol 2024; 32:663-677. [PMID: 38135617 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of infections due to nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) has increased rapidly in recent years, surpassing tuberculosis in developed countries. Due to inherent antimicrobial resistance, NTM infections are particularly difficult to treat with low cure rates. There is an urgent need to understand NTM pathogenesis and to develop novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of NTM diseases. Zebrafish have emerged as an excellent animal model due to genetic amenability and optical transparency during embryonic development, allowing spatiotemporal visualization of host-pathogen interactions. Furthermore, adult zebrafish possess fully functional innate and adaptive immunity and recapitulate important pathophysiological hallmarks of mycobacterial infection. Here, we report recent breakthroughs in understanding the hallmarks of NTM infections using the zebrafish model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt D Johansen
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Science, School of Life Sciences, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan H Oehlers
- A*STAR Infectious Diseases Labs (A*STAR ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Laurent Kremer
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 9004, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Université de Montpellier, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier, France; INSERM, IRIM, 34293 Montpellier, France.
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2
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Habjan E, Lepioshkin A, Charitou V, Egorova A, Kazakova E, Ho VQT, Bitter W, Makarov V, Speer A. Modulating mycobacterial envelope integrity for antibiotic synergy with benzothiazoles. Life Sci Alliance 2024; 7:e202302509. [PMID: 38744470 PMCID: PMC11094368 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202302509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Developing effective tuberculosis drugs is hindered by mycobacteria's intrinsic antibiotic resistance because of their impermeable cell envelope. Using benzothiazole compounds, we aimed to increase mycobacterial cell envelope permeability and weaken the defenses of Mycobacterium marinum, serving as a model for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Initial hit, BT-08, significantly boosted ethidium bromide uptake, indicating enhanced membrane permeability. It also demonstrated efficacy in the M. marinum-zebrafish embryo infection model and M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages. Notably, BT-08 synergized with established antibiotics, including vancomycin and rifampicin. Subsequent medicinal chemistry optimization led to BT-37, a non-toxic and more potent derivative, also enhancing ethidium bromide uptake and maintaining synergy with rifampicin in infected zebrafish embryos. Mutants of M. marinum resistant to BT-37 revealed that MMAR_0407 (Rv0164) is the molecular target and that this target plays a role in the observed synergy and permeability. This study introduces novel compounds targeting a new mycobacterial vulnerability and highlights their cooperative and synergistic interactions with existing antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Habjan
- https://ror.org/00q6h8f30 Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Alexander Lepioshkin
- Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Research Centre of Biotechnology RAS), Moscow, Russia
| | - Vicky Charitou
- https://ror.org/00q6h8f30 Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Anna Egorova
- Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Research Centre of Biotechnology RAS), Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena Kazakova
- Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Research Centre of Biotechnology RAS), Moscow, Russia
| | - Vien QT Ho
- https://ror.org/00q6h8f30 Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- https://ror.org/00q6h8f30 Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Vadim Makarov
- Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Research Centre of Biotechnology RAS), Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Speer
- https://ror.org/00q6h8f30 Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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3
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Hammond FR, Lewis A, Pollara G, Tomlinson GS, Noursadeghi M, Kiss-Toth E, Elks PM. Tribbles1 is host protective during in vivo mycobacterial infection. eLife 2024; 13:e95980. [PMID: 38896446 PMCID: PMC11186633 DOI: 10.7554/elife.95980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis is a major global health problem and is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide. There is a pressing need for new treatments that circumvent emerging antibiotic resistance. Mycobacterium tuberculosis parasitises macrophages, reprogramming them to establish a niche in which to proliferate, therefore macrophage manipulation is a potential host-directed therapy if druggable molecular targets could be identified. The pseudokinase Tribbles1 (Trib1) regulates multiple innate immune processes and inflammatory profiles making it a potential drug target in infections. Trib1 controls macrophage function, cytokine production, and macrophage polarisation. Despite wide-ranging effects on leukocyte biology, data exploring the roles of Tribbles in infection in vivo are limited. Here, we identify that human Tribbles1 is expressed in monocytes and is upregulated at the transcript level after stimulation with mycobacterial antigen. To investigate the mechanistic roles of Tribbles in the host response to mycobacteria in vivo, we used a zebrafish Mycobacterium marinum (Mm) infection tuberculosis model. Zebrafish Tribbles family members were characterised and shown to have substantial mRNA and protein sequence homology to their human orthologues. trib1 overexpression was host-protective against Mm infection, reducing burden by approximately 50%. Conversely, trib1 knockdown/knockout exhibited increased infection. Mechanistically, trib1 overexpression significantly increased the levels of proinflammatory factors il-1β and nitric oxide. The host-protective effect of trib1 was found to be dependent on the E3 ubiquitin kinase Cop1. These findings highlight the importance of Trib1 and Cop1 as immune regulators during infection in vivo and suggest that enhancing macrophage TRIB1 levels may provide a tractable therapeutic intervention to improve bacterial infection outcomes in tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ffion R Hammond
- The Bateson Centre, School of Medicine and Population Health, Faculty of Health, University of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom
| | - Amy Lewis
- The Bateson Centre, School of Medicine and Population Health, Faculty of Health, University of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom
| | - Gabriele Pollara
- Division of Infection & Immunity, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Gillian S Tomlinson
- Division of Infection & Immunity, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Mahdad Noursadeghi
- Division of Infection & Immunity, University College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Endre Kiss-Toth
- The Bateson Centre, School of Medicine and Population Health, Faculty of Health, University of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom
| | - Philip M Elks
- The Bateson Centre, School of Medicine and Population Health, Faculty of Health, University of SheffieldSheffieldUnited Kingdom
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4
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Habjan E, Schouten GK, Speer A, van Ulsen P, Bitter W. Diving into drug-screening: zebrafish embryos as an in vivo platform for antimicrobial drug discovery and assessment. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2024; 48:fuae011. [PMID: 38684467 PMCID: PMC11078164 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuae011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The rise of multidrug-resistant bacteria underlines the need for innovative treatments, yet the introduction of new drugs has stagnated despite numerous antimicrobial discoveries. A major hurdle is a poor correlation between promising in vitro data and in vivo efficacy in animal models, which is essential for clinical development. Early in vivo testing is hindered by the expense and complexity of existing animal models. Therefore, there is a pressing need for cost-effective, rapid preclinical models with high translational value. To overcome these challenges, zebrafish embryos have emerged as an attractive model for infectious disease studies, offering advantages such as ethical alignment, rapid development, ease of maintenance, and genetic manipulability. The zebrafish embryo infection model, involving microinjection or immersion of pathogens and potential antibiotic hit compounds, provides a promising solution for early-stage drug screening. It offers a cost-effective and rapid means of assessing the efficacy, toxicity and mechanism of action of compounds in a whole-organism context. This review discusses the experimental design of this model, but also its benefits and challenges. Additionally, it highlights recently identified compounds in the zebrafish embryo infection model and discusses the relevance of the model in predicting the compound's clinical potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Habjan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center,De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gina K Schouten
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center,De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Speer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center,De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter van Ulsen
- Section Molecular Microbiology of A-LIFE, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center,De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Section Molecular Microbiology of A-LIFE, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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5
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Hunter L, Ruedas-Torres I, Agulló-Ros I, Rayner E, Salguero FJ. Comparative pathology of experimental pulmonary tuberculosis in animal models. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1264833. [PMID: 37901102 PMCID: PMC10602689 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1264833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Research in human tuberculosis (TB) is limited by the availability of human tissues from patients, which is often altered by therapy and treatment. Thus, the use of animal models is a key tool in increasing our understanding of the pathogenesis, disease progression and preclinical evaluation of new therapies and vaccines. The granuloma is the hallmark lesion of pulmonary tuberculosis, regardless of the species or animal model used. Although animal models may not fully replicate all the histopathological characteristics observed in natural, human TB disease, each one brings its own attributes which enable researchers to answer specific questions regarding TB immunopathogenesis. This review delves into the pulmonary pathology induced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) bacteria in different animal models (non-human primates, rodents, guinea pigs, rabbits, cattle, goats, and others) and compares how they relate to the pulmonary disease described in humans. Although the described models have demonstrated some histopathological features in common with human pulmonary TB, these data should be considered carefully in the context of this disease. Further research is necessary to establish the most appropriate model for the study of TB, and to carry out a standard characterisation and score of pulmonary lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hunter
- Pathology Department, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Inés Ruedas-Torres
- Pathology Department, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Irene Agulló-Ros
- Pathology Department, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Emma Rayner
- Pathology Department, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Francisco J. Salguero
- Pathology Department, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), Porton Down, Salisbury, United Kingdom
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6
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Abstract
The global burden of tuberculosis (TB) is aggravated by the continuously increasing emergence of drug resistance, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic options. The concept of host-directed therapy (HDT) as adjunctive to classical antibacterial therapy with antibiotics represents a novel and promising approach for treating TB. Here, we have focused on repurposing the clinically used anticancer drug tamoxifen, which was identified as a molecule with strong host-directed activity against intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Using a primary human macrophage Mtb infection model, we demonstrate the potential of tamoxifen against drug-sensitive as well as drug-resistant Mtb bacteria. The therapeutic effect of tamoxifen was confirmed in an in vivo TB model based on Mycobacterium marinum infection of zebrafish larvae. Tamoxifen had no direct antimicrobial effects at the concentrations used, confirming that tamoxifen acted as an HDT drug. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen is independent of its well-known target the estrogen receptor (ER) pathway, but instead acts by modulating autophagy, in particular the lysosomal pathway. Through RNA sequencing and microscopic colocalization studies, we show that tamoxifen stimulates lysosomal activation and increases the localization of mycobacteria in lysosomes both in vitro and in vivo, while inhibition of lysosomal activity during tamoxifen treatment partly restores mycobacterial survival. Thus, our work highlights the HDT potential of tamoxifen and proposes it as a repurposed molecule for the treatment of TB. IMPORTANCE Tuberculosis (TB) is the world's most lethal infectious disease caused by a bacterial pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This pathogen evades the immune defenses of its host and grows intracellularly in immune cells, particularly inside macrophages. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies because treatment of TB patients is increasingly complicated by rising antibiotic resistance. In this study, we explored a breast cancer drug, tamoxifen, as a potential anti-TB drug. We show that tamoxifen acts as a so-called host-directed therapeutic, which means that it does not act directly on the bacteria but helps the host macrophages combat the infection more effectively. We confirmed the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen in a zebrafish model for TB and showed that it functions by promoting the delivery of mycobacteria to digestive organelles, the lysosomes. These results support the high potential of tamoxifen to be repurposed to fight antibiotic-resistant TB infections by host-directed therapy.
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Ho VQT, Rong MK, Habjan E, Bommer SD, Pham TV, Piersma SR, Bitter W, Ruijter E, Speer A. Dysregulation of Mycobacterium marinum ESX-5 Secretion by Novel 1,2,4-oxadiazoles. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020211. [PMID: 36830581 PMCID: PMC9953084 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The ESX-5 secretion system is essential for the viability and virulence of slow-growing pathogenic mycobacterial species. In this study, we identified a 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivative as a putative effector of the ESX-5 secretion system. We confirmed that this 1,2,4-oxadiazole and several newly synthesized derivatives inhibited the ESX-5-dependent secretion of active lipase LipY by Mycobacterium marinum (M. marinum). Despite reduced lipase activity, we did not observe a defect in LipY secretion itself. Moreover, we found that several other ESX-5 substrates, especially the high molecular-weight PE_PGRS MMAR_5294, were even more abundantly secreted by M. marinum treated with several 1,2,4-oxadiazoles. Analysis of M. marinum grown in the presence of different oxadiazole derivatives revealed that the secretion of LipY and the induction of PE_PGRS secretion were, in fact, two independent phenotypes, as we were able to identify structural features in the compounds that specifically induced only one of these phenotypes. Whereas the three most potent 1,2,4-oxadiazoles displayed only a mild effect on the growth of M. marinum or M. tuberculosis in culture, these compounds significantly reduced bacterial burden in M. marinum-infected zebrafish models. In conclusion, we report a 1,2,4-oxadiazole scaffold that dysregulates ESX-5 protein secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vien Q. T. Ho
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mark K. Rong
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eva Habjan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Samantha D. Bommer
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thang V. Pham
- Department of Medical Oncology, OncoProteomics Laboratory, AmsterdamUMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sander R. Piersma
- Department of Medical Oncology, OncoProteomics Laboratory, AmsterdamUMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eelco Ruijter
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Speer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
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8
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Habjan E, Ho VQT, Gallant J, Van Stempvoort G, Jim KK, Kuijl C, Geerke DP, Bitter W, Speer A. Anti-tuberculosis Compound Screen using a Zebrafish Infection Model identifies an Aspartyl-tRNA Synthetase Inhibitor. Dis Model Mech 2021; 14:273850. [PMID: 34643222 PMCID: PMC8713996 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Finding new anti-tuberculosis compounds with convincing in vivo activity is an ongoing global challenge to fight the emergence of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. In this study, we exploited the medium-throughput capabilities of the zebrafish embryo infection model with Mycobacterium marinum as a surrogate for M. tuberculosis. Using a representative set of clinically established drugs, we demonstrate that this model could be predictive and selective for antibiotics that can be administered orally. We further used the zebrafish infection model to screen 240 compounds from an anti-tuberculosis hit library for their in vivo activity and identified 14 highly active compounds. One of the most active compounds was the tetracyclic compound TBA161, which was studied in more detail. Analysis of resistant mutants revealed point mutations in aspS (rv2572c), encoding an aspartyl-tRNA synthetase. The target was genetically confirmed, and molecular docking studies propose the possible binding of TBA161 in a pocket adjacent to the catalytic site. This study shows that the zebrafish infection model is suitable for rapidly identifying promising scaffolds with in vivo activity. Summary: Exploitation of the medium-throughput capabilities of a zebrafish embryo infection model of tuberculosis to screen compounds for their in vivo activity, one of which was characterized as an aspartyl-tRNA synthetase inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Habjan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vien Q T Ho
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - James Gallant
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gunny Van Stempvoort
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kin Ki Jim
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Coen Kuijl
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daan P Geerke
- Department of Molecular Toxicology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Speer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam UMC, Location VU Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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9
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Rivera-Calzada A, Famelis N, Llorca O, Geibel S. Type VII secretion systems: structure, functions and transport models. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19:567-584. [PMID: 34040228 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-021-00560-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Type VII secretion systems (T7SSs) have a key role in the secretion of effector proteins in non-pathogenic mycobacteria and pathogenic mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the main causative agent of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis-causing mycobacteria, still accounting for 1.4 million deaths annually, rely on paralogous T7SSs to survive in the host and efficiently evade its immune response. Although it is still unknown how effector proteins of T7SSs cross the outer membrane of the diderm mycobacterial cell envelope, recent advances in the structural characterization of these secretion systems have revealed the intricate network of interactions of conserved components in the plasma membrane. This structural information, added to recent advances in the molecular biology and regulation of mycobacterial T7SSs as well as progress in our understanding of their secreted effector proteins, is shedding light on the inner working of the T7SS machinery. In this Review, we highlight the implications of these studies and the derived transport models, which provide new scenarios for targeting the deathly human pathogen M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Rivera-Calzada
- Structural Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Nikolaos Famelis
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, Julius-Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Rudolf Virchow Center for Integrative and Translational Biomedicine, Julius-Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Oscar Llorca
- Structural Biology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Sebastian Geibel
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, Julius-Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. .,Rudolf Virchow Center for Integrative and Translational Biomedicine, Julius-Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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10
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Nowik N, Prajsnar TK, Przyborowska A, Rakus K, Sienkiewicz W, Spaink HP, Podlasz P. The Role of Galanin during Bacterial Infection in Larval Zebrafish. Cells 2021; 10:cells10082011. [PMID: 34440783 PMCID: PMC8391356 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Galanin is a peptide that is conserved among different species and plays various roles in an organism, although its entire role is not completely understood. For many years, galanin has been linked mainly with the neurotransmission in the nervous system; however, recent reports underline its role in immunity. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an intensively developing animal model to study infectious diseases. In this study, we used larval zebrafish to determine the role of galanin in bacterial infection. We showed that knockout of galanin in zebrafish leads to a higher bacterial burden and mortality during Mycobacterium marinum and Staphylococcus aureus infection, whereas administration of a galanin analogue, NAX 5055, improves the ability of fish to control the infection caused by both pathogens. Moreover, the transcriptomics data revealed that a lower number of genes were regulated in response to mycobacterial infection in gal−/− mutants compared with their gal+/+ wild-type counterparts. We also found that galanin deficiency led to significant changes in immune-related pathways, mostly connected with cytokine and chemokine functions. The results show that galanin acts not only as a neurotransmitter but is also involved in immune response to bacterial infections, demonstrating the complexity of the neuroendocrine system and its possible connection with immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Nowik
- Department of Animal Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland; (N.N.); (A.P.); (W.S.)
- Department of Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology (IBL), Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (T.K.P.); (H.P.S.)
| | - Tomasz K. Prajsnar
- Department of Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology (IBL), Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (T.K.P.); (H.P.S.)
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Anna Przyborowska
- Department of Animal Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland; (N.N.); (A.P.); (W.S.)
- Department of Pathophysiology, Forensic Veterinary and Administration, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Rakus
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Waldemar Sienkiewicz
- Department of Animal Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland; (N.N.); (A.P.); (W.S.)
| | - Herman P. Spaink
- Department of Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology (IBL), Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (T.K.P.); (H.P.S.)
| | - Piotr Podlasz
- Department of Pathophysiology, Forensic Veterinary and Administration, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-89-5245291
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11
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Luo T, Xu P, Zhang Y, Porter JL, Ghanem M, Liu Q, Jiang Y, Li J, Miao Q, Hu B, Howden BP, Fyfe JAM, Globan M, He W, He P, Wang Y, Liu H, Takiff HE, Zhao Y, Chen X, Pan Q, Behr MA, Stinear TP, Gao Q. Population genomics provides insights into the evolution and adaptation to humans of the waterborne pathogen Mycobacterium kansasii. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2491. [PMID: 33941780 PMCID: PMC8093194 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22760-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium kansasii can cause serious pulmonary disease. It belongs to a group of closely-related species of non-tuberculous mycobacteria known as the M. kansasii complex (MKC). Here, we report a population genomics analysis of 358 MKC isolates from worldwide water and clinical sources. We find that recombination, likely mediated by distributive conjugative transfer, has contributed to speciation and on-going diversification of the MKC. Our analyses support municipal water as a main source of MKC infections. Furthermore, nearly 80% of the MKC infections are due to closely-related M. kansasii strains, forming a main cluster that apparently originated in the 1900s and subsequently expanded globally. Bioinformatic analyses indicate that several genes involved in metabolism (e.g., maintenance of the methylcitrate cycle), ESX-I secretion, metal ion homeostasis and cell surface remodelling may have contributed to M. kansasii's success and its ongoing adaptation to the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Luo
- grid.13291.380000 0001 0807 1581Department of Pathogen Biology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China ,grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Medical College and School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peng Xu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Medical College and School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China ,grid.417409.f0000 0001 0240 6969Key Laboratory of Characteristic Infectious Disease & Bio-safety Development of Guizhou Province Education Department, Institute of Life Sciences, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yangyi Zhang
- Department of Tuberculosis Control, Shanghai Municipal Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Jessica L. Porter
- grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDepartment of Microbiology and Immunology, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia ,grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDoherty Applied Microbial Genomics, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia
| | - Marwan Ghanem
- grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University and McGill International TB Centre, Montreal, Quebec Canada
| | - Qingyun Liu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Medical College and School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Jiang
- Department of Tuberculosis Control, Shanghai Municipal Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Tuberculosis Control, Shanghai Municipal Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing Miao
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Department of Infectious Diseases, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bijie Hu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Department of Infectious Diseases, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Benjamin P. Howden
- grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDepartment of Microbiology and Immunology, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia ,grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDoherty Applied Microbial Genomics, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia ,grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XMicrobiological Diagnostic Unit Public Health Laboratory, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3000 Australia
| | - Janet A. M. Fyfe
- grid.429299.d0000 0004 0452 651XVictorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Vic Australia
| | - Maria Globan
- grid.429299.d0000 0004 0452 651XVictorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Vic Australia
| | - Wencong He
- grid.198530.60000 0000 8803 2373Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention and Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Ping He
- grid.198530.60000 0000 8803 2373Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention and Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Yiting Wang
- grid.198530.60000 0000 8803 2373Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention and Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Houming Liu
- grid.263817.9Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Third People’s Hospital of Shenzhen, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Howard E. Takiff
- grid.428999.70000 0001 2353 6535Unité de Pathogenetique Integrée Mycobacterienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France ,grid.418243.80000 0001 2181 3287Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, CMBC, IVIC, Caracas, Venezuela ,Shenzhen Nanshan Center for Chronic Disease Control, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yanlin Zhao
- grid.198530.60000 0000 8803 2373Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention and Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Xinchun Chen
- grid.263488.30000 0001 0472 9649Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pathogen Biology, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qichao Pan
- Department of Tuberculosis Control, Shanghai Municipal Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Marcel A. Behr
- grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University and McGill International TB Centre, Montreal, Quebec Canada
| | - Timothy P. Stinear
- grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDepartment of Microbiology and Immunology, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia ,grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XDoherty Applied Microbial Genomics, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic Australia
| | - Qian Gao
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Medical College and School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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12
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Sommer F, Torraca V, Xie Y, In 't Veld AE, Willemse J, Meijer AH. Disruption of Cxcr3 chemotactic signaling alters lysosomal function and renders macrophages more microbicidal. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109000. [PMID: 33852860 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemotaxis and lysosomal function are closely intertwined processes essential for the inflammatory response and clearance of intracellular bacteria. We used the zebrafish model to examine the link between chemotactic signaling and lysosome physiology in macrophages during mycobacterial infection and wound-induced inflammation in vivo. Macrophages from zebrafish larvae carrying a mutation in a chemokine receptor of the Cxcr3 family display upregulated expression of vesicle trafficking and lysosomal genes and possess enlarged lysosomes that enhance intracellular bacterial clearance. This increased microbicidal capacity is phenocopied by inhibiting the lysosomal transcription factor EC, while its overexpression counteracts the protective effect of chemokine receptor mutation. Tracking macrophage migration in zebrafish revealed that lysosomes of chemokine receptor mutants accumulate in the front half of cells, preventing macrophage polarization during chemotaxis and reaching sites of inflammation. Our work shows that chemotactic signaling affects the bactericidal properties and localization during chemotaxis, key aspects of the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frida Sommer
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Torraca
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Yufei Xie
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Joost Willemse
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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13
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Protective Role of Galanin during Chemically Induced Inflammation in Zebrafish Larvae. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10020099. [PMID: 33573348 PMCID: PMC7911020 DOI: 10.3390/biology10020099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During a pathological condition, many different systems are involved in the response of an affected organism. Galanin is considered to be a neuropeptide that plays an important role in the central nervous system; however, it is involved in many other biological processes, including the immune response. During our studies, we showed that galanin became upregulated in zebrafish larvae when exposed to copper sulfate. Moreover, the presence of normal levels of galanin, administration of a galanin analog NAX 5055 or galanin overexpression led to lowered lateral line damage and enhanced expression of inflammatory markers compared to the knockout larvae. The results showed that the neuroendocrine system acts multifunctionally and should be considered as a part of the complex neuro-immune-endocrine axis.
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14
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Modeling Tubercular ESX-1 Secretion Using Mycobacterium marinum. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2020; 84:84/4/e00082-19. [DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00082-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic mycobacteria cause chronic and acute diseases ranging from human tuberculosis (TB) to nontubercular infections.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
causes both acute and chronic human tuberculosis. Environmentally acquired nontubercular mycobacteria (NTM) cause chronic disease in humans and animals. Not surprisingly, NTM and
M. tuberculosis
often use shared molecular mechanisms to survive within the host. The ESX-1 system is a specialized secretion system that is essential for virulence and is functionally conserved between
M. tuberculosis
and
Mycobacterium marinum
.
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15
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van Wijk RC, Hu W, Dijkema SM, van den Berg DJ, Liu J, Bahi R, Verbeek FJ, Simonsson USH, Spaink HP, van der Graaf PH, Krekels EHJ. Anti-tuberculosis effect of isoniazid scales accurately from zebrafish to humans. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:5518-5533. [PMID: 32860631 PMCID: PMC7707096 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose There is a clear need for innovation in anti‐tuberculosis drug development. The zebrafish larva is an attractive disease model in tuberculosis research. To translate pharmacological findings to higher vertebrates, including humans, the internal exposure of drugs needs to be quantified and linked to observed response. Experimental Approach In zebrafish studies, drugs are usually dissolved in the external water, posing a challenge to quantify internal exposure. We developed experimental methods to quantify internal exposure, including nanoscale blood sampling, and to quantify the bacterial burden, using automated fluorescence imaging analysis, with isoniazid as the test compound. We used pharmacokinetic–pharmacodynamic modelling to quantify the exposure–response relationship responsible for the antibiotic response. To translate isoniazid response to humans, quantitative exposure–response relationships in zebrafish were linked to simulated concentration–time profiles in humans, and two quantitative translational factors on sensitivity to isoniazid and stage of infection were included. Key Results Blood concentration was only 20% of the external drug concentration. The bacterial burden increased exponentially, and an isoniazid dose corresponding to 15 mg·L−1 internal concentration (minimum inhibitory concentration) leads to bacteriostasis of the mycobacterial infection in the zebrafish. The concentration–effect relationship was quantified, and based on that relationship and the translational factors, the isoniazid response was translated to humans, which correlated well with observed data. Conclusions and Implications This proof of concept study confirmed the potential of zebrafish larvae as tuberculosis disease models in translational pharmacology and contributes to innovative anti‐tuberculosis drug development, which is very clearly needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob C van Wijk
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Wanbin Hu
- Division of Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sharka M Dijkema
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk-Jan van den Berg
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jeremy Liu
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rida Bahi
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Fons J Verbeek
- Imaging and Bioinformatics Group, Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Herman P Spaink
- Division of Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Piet H van der Graaf
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.,QSP, Certara, Canterbury, UK
| | - Elke H J Krekels
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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16
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Zebrafish Embryo Model for Assessment of Drug Efficacy on Mycobacterial Persisters. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.00801-20. [PMID: 32778551 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00801-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis continues to kill millions of people each year. The main difficulty in eradication of the disease is the prolonged duration of treatment, which takes at least 6 months. Persister cells have long been associated with failed treatment and disease relapse because of their phenotypical, though transient, tolerance to drugs. By targeting these persisters, the duration of treatment could be shortened, leading to improved tuberculosis treatment and a reduction in transmission. The unique in vivo environment drives the generation of persisters; however, appropriate in vivo mycobacterial persister models enabling optimized drug screening are lacking. To set up a persister infection model that is suitable for this, we infected zebrafish embryos with in vitro-starved Mycobacterium marinum In vitro starvation resulted in a persister-like phenotype with the accumulation of stored neutral lipids and concomitant increased tolerance to ethambutol. However, these starved wild-type M. marinum organisms rapidly lost their persister phenotype in vivo To prolong the persister phenotype in vivo, we subsequently generated and analyzed mutants lacking functional resuscitation-promoting factors (Rpfs). Interestingly, the ΔrpfAB mutant, lacking two Rpfs, established an infection in vivo, whereas a nutrient-starved ΔrpfAB mutant did maintain its persister phenotype in vivo This mutant was, after nutrient starvation, also tolerant to ethambutol treatment in vivo, as would be expected for persisters. We propose that this zebrafish embryo model with ΔrpfAB mutant bacteria is a valuable addition for drug screening purposes and specifically screens to target mycobacterial persisters.
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17
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Linnerz T, Hall CJ. The Diverse Roles of Phagocytes During Bacterial and Fungal Infections and Sterile Inflammation: Lessons From Zebrafish. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1094. [PMID: 32582182 PMCID: PMC7289964 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The immediate and natural reaction to both infectious challenges and sterile insults (wounds, tissue trauma or crystal deposition) is an acute inflammatory response. This inflammatory response is mediated by activation of the innate immune system largely comprising professional phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages). Zebrafish (danio rerio) larvae possess many advantages as a model organism, including their genetic tractability and highly conserved innate immune system. Exploiting these attributes and the live imaging potential of optically transparent zebrafish larvae has greatly contributed to our understanding of how neutrophils and macrophages orchestrate the initiation and resolution phases of inflammatory responses. Numerous bacterial and fungal infection models have been successfully established using zebrafish as an animal model and studies investigating neutrophil and macrophage behavior to sterile insults have also provided unique insights. In this review we highlight how examining the larval zebrafish response to specific bacterial and fungal pathogens has uncovered cellular and molecular mechanisms behind a variety of phagocyte responses, from those that protect the host to those that are detrimental. We also describe how modeling sterile inflammation in larval zebrafish has provided an opportunity to dissect signaling pathways that control the recruitment, and fate, of phagocytes at inflammatory sites. Finally, we briefly discuss some current limitations, and opportunities to improve, the zebrafish model system for studying phagocyte biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Linnerz
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Christopher J Hall
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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18
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Zhang R, Varela M, Forn-Cuní G, Torraca V, van der Vaart M, Meijer AH. Deficiency in the autophagy modulator Dram1 exacerbates pyroptotic cell death of Mycobacteria-infected macrophages. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:277. [PMID: 32332700 PMCID: PMC7181687 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2477-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
DNA damage regulated autophagy modulator 1 (DRAM1) is a stress-inducible regulator of autophagy and cell death. DRAM1 has been implicated in cancer, myocardial infarction, and infectious diseases, but the molecular and cellular functions of this transmembrane protein remain poorly understood. Previously, we have proposed DRAM1 as a host resistance factor for tuberculosis (TB) and a potential target for host-directed anti-infective therapies. In this study, we generated a zebrafish dram1 mutant and investigated its loss-of-function effects during Mycobacterium marinum (Mm) infection, a widely used model in TB research. In agreement with previous knockdown analysis, dram1 mutation increased the susceptibility of zebrafish larvae to Mm infection. RNA sequencing revealed major effects of Dram1 deficiency on metabolic, immune response, and cell death pathways during Mm infection, and only minor effects on proteinase and metabolic pathways were found under uninfected conditions. Furthermore, unchallenged dram1 mutants did not display overt autophagic defects, but autophagic targeting of Mm was reduced in the absence of Dram1. The phagocytic ability of macrophages in dram1 mutants was unaffected, but acidification of Mm-containing vesicles was strongly reduced, indicating that Dram1 is required for phagosome maturation. By in vivo imaging, we observed that Dram1-deficient macrophages fail to restrict Mm during early stages of infection. The resulting increase in bacterial burden could be reverted by knockdown of inflammatory caspase a (caspa) and gasdermin Eb (gsdmeb), demonstrating pyroptosis as the mechanism underlying premature cell death of Mm-infected macrophages in dram1 mutants. Collectively, these data demonstrate that dissemination of mycobacterial infection in zebrafish larvae is promoted in the absence of Dram1 due to reduced maturation of mycobacteria-containing vesicles, failed intracellular containment, and consequent pyroptotic death of infected macrophages. These results provide new evidence that Dram1 plays a central role in host resistance to intracellular infection, acting at the crossroad of autophagy and cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhang
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Monica Varela
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gabriel Forn-Cuní
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Torraca
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel van der Vaart
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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19
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Analysis tools to quantify dissemination of pathology in zebrafish larvae. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3149. [PMID: 32081863 PMCID: PMC7035342 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59932-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe new open source software called QuantiFish for rapid quantitation of fluorescent foci in zebrafish larvae, to support infection research in this animal model. QuantiFish extends the conventional measurements of bacterial load and number of bacterial foci to include measures for dissemination of infection. These are represented by the proportions of bacteria between foci and their spatial distribution. We showcase these measures by comparison of intravenous and hindbrain routes of Mycobacterium marinum infection, which are indistinguishable by measurement of bacterial load and not consistently differentiated by the number of bacterial foci. The intravenous route showed dose dependent dissemination of infection, reflected by increased spatial dispersion of bacteria and lower proportions of bacteria distributed across many foci. In contrast, hindbrain infection resulted in localised disease, limited to a smaller area and higher proportions of bacteria distributed across fewer foci. The application of QuantiFish may extend beyond models of infection, to study other pathologies such as metastatic cancer.
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20
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Moreira JD, Koch BEV, van Veen S, Walburg KV, Vrieling F, Mara Pinto Dabés Guimarães T, Meijer AH, Spaink HP, Ottenhoff THM, Haks MC, Heemskerk MT. Functional Inhibition of Host Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) Enhances in vitro and in vivo Anti-mycobacterial Activity in Human Macrophages and in Zebrafish. Front Immunol 2020; 11:36. [PMID: 32117228 PMCID: PMC7008710 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The rapid and persistent increase of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections poses increasing global problems in combatting tuberculosis (TB), prompting for the development of alternative strategies including host-directed therapy (HDT). Since Mtb is an intracellular pathogen with a remarkable ability to manipulate host intracellular signaling pathways to escape from host defense, pharmacological reprogramming of the immune system represents a novel, potentially powerful therapeutic strategy that should be effective also against drug-resistant Mtb. Here, we found that host-pathogen interactions in Mtb-infected primary human macrophages affected host epigenetic features by modifying histone deacetylase (HDAC) transcriptomic levels. In addition, broad spectrum inhibition of HDACs enhanced the antimicrobial response of both pro-inflammatory macrophages (Mϕ1) and anti-inflammatory macrophages (Mϕ2), while selective inhibition of class IIa HDACs mainly decreased bacterial outgrowth in Mϕ2. Moreover, chemical inhibition of HDAC activity during differentiation polarized macrophages into a more bactericidal phenotype with a concomitant decrease in the secretion levels of inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, in vivo chemical inhibition of HDAC activity in Mycobacterium marinum-infected zebrafish embryos, a well-characterized animal model for tuberculosis, significantly reduced mycobacterial burden, validating our in vitro findings in primary human macrophages. Collectively, these data identify HDACs as druggable host targets for HDT against intracellular Mtb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jôsimar D Moreira
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands.,Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bjørn E V Koch
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Suzanne van Veen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Kimberley V Walburg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Frank Vrieling
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Tânia Mara Pinto Dabés Guimarães
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Tom H M Ottenhoff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Mariëlle C Haks
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Matthias T Heemskerk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
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21
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Wang S, Zhou K, Yang X, Zhang B, Zhao Y, Xiao Y, Yang X, Yang H, Guddat LW, Li J, Rao Z. Structural insights into substrate recognition by the type VII secretion system. Protein Cell 2020; 11:124-137. [PMID: 31758528 PMCID: PMC6954902 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-019-00671-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type VII secretion systems (T7SSs) are found in many disease related bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). ESX-1 [early secreted antigen 6 kilodaltons (ESAT-6) system 1] is one of the five subtypes (ESX-1~5) of T7SSs in Mtb, where it delivers virulence factors into host macrophages during infection. However, little is known about the molecular details as to how this occurs. Here, we provide high-resolution crystal structures of the C-terminal ATPase3 domains of EccC subunits from four different Mtb T7SS subtypes. These structures adopt a classic RecA-like ɑ/β fold with a conserved Mg-ATP binding site. The structure of EccCb1 in complex with the C-terminal peptide of EsxB identifies the location of substrate recognition site and shows how the specific signaling module "LxxxMxF" for Mtb ESX-1 binds to this site resulting in a translation of the bulge loop. A comparison of all the ATPase3 structures shows there are significant differences in the shape and composition of the signal recognition pockets across the family, suggesting that distinct signaling sequences of substrates are required to be specifically recognized by different T7SSs. A hexameric model of the EccC-ATPase3 is proposed and shows the recognition pocket is located near the central substrate translocation channel. The diameter of the channel is ~25-Å, with a size that would allow helix-bundle shaped substrate proteins to bind and pass through. Thus, our work provides new molecular insights into substrate recognition for Mtb T7SS subtypes and also a possible transportation mechanism for substrate and/or virulence factor secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhui Wang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031 China ,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Kaixuan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, College of Life Sciences and College of Pharmacy, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300353 China
| | - Xiaolin Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031 China ,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Bing Zhang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031 China ,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Yao Zhao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031 China ,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Yu Xiao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031 China ,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Xiuna Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China
| | - Haitao Yang
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China
| | - Luke W. Guddat
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Jun Li
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China
| | - Zihe Rao
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies and School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210 China ,State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, College of Life Sciences and College of Pharmacy, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300353 China ,Laboratory of Structural Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084 China ,National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
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22
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Hu W, Yang S, Shimada Y, Münch M, Marín-Juez R, Meijer AH, Spaink HP. Infection and RNA-seq analysis of a zebrafish tlr2 mutant shows a broad function of this toll-like receptor in transcriptional and metabolic control and defense to Mycobacterium marinum infection. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:878. [PMID: 31747871 PMCID: PMC6869251 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6265-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The function of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in host defense against pathogens, especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is poorly understood. To investigate the role of TLR2 during mycobacterial infection, we analyzed the response of tlr2 zebrafish mutant larvae to infection with Mycobacterium marinum (Mm), a close relative to Mtb, as a model for tuberculosis. We measured infection phenotypes and transcriptome responses using RNA deep sequencing in mutant and control larvae. Results tlr2 mutant embryos at 2 dpf do not show differences in numbers of macrophages and neutrophils compared to control embryos. However, we found substantial changes in gene expression in these mutants, particularly in metabolic pathways, when compared with the heterozygote tlr2+/− control. At 4 days after Mm infection, the total bacterial burden and the presence of extracellular bacteria were higher in tlr2−/− larvae than in tlr2+/−, or tlr2+/+ larvae, whereas granuloma numbers were reduced, showing a function of Tlr2 in zebrafish host defense. RNAseq analysis of infected tlr2−/− versus tlr2+/− shows that the number of up-regulated and down-regulated genes in response to infection was greatly diminished in tlr2 mutants by at least 2 fold and 10 fold, respectively. Analysis of the transcriptome data and qPCR validation shows that Mm infection of tlr2 mutants leads to decreased mRNA levels of genes involved in inflammation and immune responses, including il1b, tnfb, cxcl11aa/ac, fosl1a, and cebpb. Furthermore, RNAseq analyses revealed that the expression of genes for Maf family transcription factors, vitamin D receptors, and Dicps proteins is altered in tlr2 mutants with or without infection. In addition, the data indicate a function of Tlr2 in the control of induction of cytokines and chemokines, such as the CXCR3-CXCL11 signaling axis. Conclusion The transcriptome and infection burden analyses show a function of Tlr2 as a protective factor against mycobacteria. Transcriptome analysis revealed tlr2-specific pathways involved in Mm infection, which are related to responses to Mtb infection in human macrophages. Considering its dominant function in control of transcriptional processes that govern defense responses and metabolism, the TLR2 protein can be expected to be also of importance for other infectious diseases and interactions with the microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanbin Hu
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Shuxin Yang
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands.,Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yasuhito Shimada
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Pharmacology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Magnus Münch
- Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rubén Marín-Juez
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands.,Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstrasse 43, 61231, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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23
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Lewis A, Elks PM. Hypoxia Induces Macrophage tnfa Expression via Cyclooxygenase and Prostaglandin E2 in vivo. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2321. [PMID: 31611882 PMCID: PMC6776637 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophage phenotypes are poorly characterized in disease systems in vivo. Appropriate macrophage activation requires complex coordination of local microenvironmental cues and cytokine signaling. If the molecular mechanisms underpinning macrophage activation were better understood, macrophages could be pharmacologically tuned during disease situations. Here, using zebrafish tnfa:GFP transgenic lines as in vivo readouts, we show that physiological hypoxia and stabilization of Hif-1α promotes macrophage tnfa expression. We demonstrate a new mechanism of Hif-1α-induced macrophage tnfa expression via a cyclooxygenase/prostaglandin E2 axis. These findings uncover a macrophage HIF/COX/TNF axis that links microenvironmental cues to macrophage phenotype, with important implications during inflammation, infection, and cancer, where hypoxia is a common microenvironmental feature and where cyclooxygenase and TNF are major mechanistic players.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Philip M. Elks
- The Bateson Centre and Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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24
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Sommer F, Torraca V, Kamel SM, Lombardi A, Meijer AH. Frontline Science: Antagonism between regular and atypical Cxcr3 receptors regulates macrophage migration during infection and injury in zebrafish. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 107:185-203. [PMID: 31529512 PMCID: PMC7028096 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2hi0119-006r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The CXCR3‐CXCL11 chemokine‐signaling axis plays an essential role in infection and inflammation by orchestrating leukocyte trafficking in human and animal models, including zebrafish. Atypical chemokine receptors (ACKRs) play a fundamental regulatory function in signaling networks by shaping chemokine gradients through their ligand scavenging function, while being unable to signal in the classic G‐protein‐dependent manner. Two copies of the CXCR3 gene in zebrafish, cxcr3.2 and cxcr3.3, are expressed on macrophages and share a highly conserved ligand‐binding site. However, Cxcr3.3 has structural characteristics of ACKRs indicative of a ligand‐scavenging role. In contrast, we previously showed that Cxcr3.2 is an active CXCR3 receptor because it is required for macrophage motility and recruitment to sites of mycobacterial infection. In this study, we generated a cxcr3.3 CRISPR‐mutant to functionally dissect the antagonistic interplay among the cxcr3 paralogs in the immune response. We observed that cxcr3.3 mutants are more susceptible to mycobacterial infection, whereas cxcr3.2 mutants are more resistant. Furthermore, macrophages in the cxcr3.3 mutant are more motile, show higher activation status, and are recruited more efficiently to sites of infection or injury. Our results suggest that Cxcr3.3 is an ACKR that regulates the activity of Cxcr3.2 by scavenging common ligands and that silencing the scavenging function of Cxcr3.3 results in an exacerbated Cxcr3.2 signaling. In human, splice variants of CXCR3 have antagonistic functions and CXCR3 ligands also interact with ACKRs. Therefore, in zebrafish, an analogous regulatory mechanism appears to have evolved after the cxcr3 gene duplication event, through diversification of conventional and atypical receptor variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frida Sommer
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Torraca
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sarah M Kamel
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Amber Lombardi
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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25
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Monitoring Tuberculosis Drug Activity in Live Animals by Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019:AAC.01280-19. [PMID: 31527027 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01280-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of death due to infection with a single pathogenic agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis In the absence of an effective vaccine, new, more powerful antibiotics are required to halt the growing spread of multidrug-resistant strains and to shorten the duration of TB treatment. However, assessing drug efficacy at the preclinical stage remains a long and fastidious procedure that delays progression of drugs down the pipeline and towards the clinic. In this investigation, we report the construction, optimization and characterization of genetically engineered near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent reporter strains of the pathogens Mycobacterium marinum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis that enable direct visualization of bacteria in infected zebrafish and mice, respectively. Fluorescence could be measured precisely in infected immunodeficient mice, while its intensity appeared to be below the limit of detection in immunocompetent mice, probably because of the lower bacterial load obtained in these animals. Furthermore, we show that the fluorescence level accurately reflects the bacterial load, as determined by colony forming unit (CFU) enumeration, thus enabling the efficacy of antibiotic treatment to be assessed in live animals in real time. The NIR fluorescent imaging system disclosed here is a valuable resource for TB research and can serve to accelerate drug development.
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26
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Biofilms: Novel Strategies Based on Antimicrobial Peptides. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11070322. [PMID: 31295834 PMCID: PMC6680976 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11070322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The problem of drug resistance is very worrying and ever increasing. Resistance is due not only to the reckless use of antibiotics but also to the fact that pathogens are able to adapt to different conditions and develop self-defense mechanisms such as living in biofilms; altogether these issues make the search for alternative drugs a real challenge. Antimicrobial peptides appear as promising alternatives but they have disadvantages that do not make them easily applicable in the medical field; thus many researches look for solutions to overcome the disadvantages and ensure that the advantages can be exploited. This review describes the biofilm characteristics and identifies the key features that antimicrobial peptides should have. Recalcitrant bacterial infections caused by the most obstinate bacterial species should be treated with a strategy to combine conventional peptides functionalized with nano-tools. This approach could effectively disrupt high density infections caused by biofilms. Moreover, the importance of using in vivo non mammalian models for biofilm studies is described. In particular, here we analyze the use of amphibians as a model to substitute the rodent model.
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27
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Masud S, Prajsnar TK, Torraca V, Lamers GE, Benning M, Van Der Vaart M, Meijer AH. Macrophages target Salmonella by Lc3-associated phagocytosis in a systemic infection model. Autophagy 2019; 15:796-812. [PMID: 30676840 PMCID: PMC6526873 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1569297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune defense against intracellular pathogens, like Salmonella, relies heavily on the autophagy machinery of the host. This response is studied intensively in epithelial cells, the target of Salmonella during gastrointestinal infections. However, little is known of the role that autophagy plays in macrophages, the predominant carriers of this pathogen during systemic disease. Here we utilize a zebrafish embryo model to study the interaction of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium with the macroautophagy/autophagy machinery of macrophages in vivo. We show that phagocytosis of live but not heat-killed Salmonella triggers recruitment of the autophagy marker GFP-Lc3 in a variety of patterns labeling tight or spacious bacteria-containing compartments, also revealed by electron microscopy. Neutrophils display similar GFP-Lc3 associations, but genetic modulation of the neutrophil/macrophage balance and ablation experiments show that macrophages are critical for the defense response. Deficiency of atg5 reduces GFP-Lc3 recruitment and impairs host resistance, in contrast to atg13 deficiency, indicating that Lc3-Salmonella association at this stage is independent of the autophagy preinitiation complex and that macrophages target Salmonella by Lc3-associated phagocytosis (LAP). In agreement, GFP-Lc3 recruitment and host resistance are impaired by deficiency of Rubcn/Rubicon, known as a negative regulator of canonical autophagy and an inducer of LAP. We also found strict dependency on NADPH oxidase, another essential factor for LAP. Both Rubcn and NADPH oxidase are required to activate a Salmonella biosensor for reactive oxygen species inside infected macrophages. These results identify LAP as the major host protective autophagy-related pathway responsible for macrophage defense against Salmonella during systemic infection. Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy related gene; BECN1: Beclin 1; CFU: colony forming units; CYBA/P22PHOX: cytochrome b-245, alpha chain; CYBB/NOX2: cytochrome b-245 beta chain; dpf: days post fertilization; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; GFP: green fluorescent protein; hfp: hours post fertilization; hpi: hours post infection; IRF8: interferon regulatory factor 8; Lcp1/L-plastin: lymphocyte cytosolic protein 1; LAP: LC3-associated phagocytosis; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3; mCherry: red fluorescent protein; mpeg1: macrophage expressed gene 1; mpx: myeloid specific peroxidase; NADPH oxidase: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase; NCF4/P40PHOX: neutrophil cytosolic factor 4; NTR-mCherry: nitroreductase-mCherry fusion; PTU: phenylthiourea; PtdIns3K: class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB-1 inducible coiled coin 1; ROS: reactive oxygen species; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; RUBCN/RUBICON: RUN and cysteine rich domain containing BECN1-interacting protein; SCV: Salmonella-containing vacuole; S. Typhimurium/S.T: Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; Tg: transgenic; TSA: tyramide signal amplification; ULK1/2: unc-51-like autophagy activating kinase 1/2; UVRAG: UVRAG: UV radiation resistance associated; wt: wild type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samrah Masud
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Vincenzo Torraca
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gerda E.M. Lamers
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marianne Benning
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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28
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Rougeot J, Torraca V, Zakrzewska A, Kanwal Z, Jansen HJ, Sommer F, Spaink HP, Meijer AH. RNAseq Profiling of Leukocyte Populations in Zebrafish Larvae Reveals a cxcl11 Chemokine Gene as a Marker of Macrophage Polarization During Mycobacterial Infection. Front Immunol 2019; 10:832. [PMID: 31110502 PMCID: PMC6499218 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are phagocytic cells from the innate immune system, which forms the first line of host defense against invading pathogens. These highly dynamic immune cells can adopt specific functional phenotypes, with the pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 polarization states as the two extremes. Recently, the process of macrophage polarization during inflammation has been visualized by real time imaging in larvae of the zebrafish. This model organism has also become widely used to study macrophage responses to microbial pathogens. To support the increasing use of zebrafish in macrophage biology, we set out to determine the complete transcriptome of zebrafish larval macrophages. We studied the specificity of the macrophage signature compared with other larval immune cells and the macrophage-specific expression changes upon infection. We made use of the well-established mpeg1, mpx, and lck fluorescent reporter lines to sort and sequence the transcriptome of larval macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphoid progenitor cells, respectively. Our results provide a complete dataset of genes expressed in these different immune cell types and highlight their similarities and differences. Major differences between the macrophage and neutrophil signatures were found within the families of proteinases. Furthermore, expression of genes involved in antigen presentation and processing was specifically detected in macrophages, while lymphoid progenitors showed expression of genes involved in macrophage activation. Comparison with datasets of in vitro polarized human macrophages revealed that zebrafish macrophages express a strongly homologous gene set, comprising both M1 and M2 markers. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis of low numbers of macrophages infected by the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium marinum revealed that infected macrophages change their transcriptomic response by downregulation of M2-associated genes and overexpression of specific M1-associated genes. Among the infection-induced genes, a homolog of the human CXCL11 chemokine gene, cxcl11aa, stood out as the most strongly overexpressed M1 marker. Upregulation of cxcl11aa in Mycobacterium-infected macrophages was found to require the function of Myd88, a critical adaptor molecule in the Toll-like and interleukin 1 receptor pathways that are central to pathogen recognition and activation of the innate immune response. Altogether, our data provide a valuable data mining resource to support infection and inflammation research in the zebrafish model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Rougeot
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Torraca
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ania Zakrzewska
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Zakia Kanwal
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | | | - Frida Sommer
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
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29
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Zhang R, Varela M, Vallentgoed W, Forn-Cuni G, van der Vaart M, Meijer AH. The selective autophagy receptors Optineurin and p62 are both required for zebrafish host resistance to mycobacterial infection. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007329. [PMID: 30818338 PMCID: PMC6413957 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterial pathogens are the causative agents of chronic infectious diseases like tuberculosis and leprosy. Autophagy has recently emerged as an innate mechanism for defense against these intracellular pathogens. In vitro studies have shown that mycobacteria escaping from phagosomes into the cytosol are ubiquitinated and targeted by selective autophagy receptors. However, there is currently no in vivo evidence for the role of selective autophagy receptors in defense against mycobacteria, and the importance of autophagy in control of mycobacterial diseases remains controversial. Here we have used Mycobacterium marinum (Mm), which causes a tuberculosis-like disease in zebrafish, to investigate the function of two selective autophagy receptors, Optineurin (Optn) and SQSTM1 (p62), in host defense against a mycobacterial pathogen. To visualize the autophagy response to Mm in vivo, optn and p62 zebrafish mutant lines were generated in the background of a GFP-Lc3 autophagy reporter line. We found that loss-of-function mutation of optn or p62 reduces autophagic targeting of Mm, and increases susceptibility of the zebrafish host to Mm infection. Transient knockdown studies confirmed the requirement of both selective autophagy receptors for host resistance against Mm infection. For gain-of-function analysis, we overexpressed optn or p62 by mRNA injection and found this to increase the levels of GFP-Lc3 puncta in association with Mm and to reduce the Mm infection burden. Taken together, our results demonstrate that both Optn and p62 are required for autophagic host defense against mycobacterial infection and support that protection against tuberculosis disease may be achieved by therapeutic strategies that enhance selective autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhang
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Monica Varela
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wies Vallentgoed
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gabriel Forn-Cuni
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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30
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Abdallah AM, Weerdenburg EM, Guan Q, Ummels R, Borggreve S, Adroub SA, Malas TB, Naeem R, Zhang H, Otto TD, Bitter W, Pain A. Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of pathogenic mycobacteria and their esx-1 mutants reveal secretion-dependent regulation of ESX-1 substrates and WhiB6 as a transcriptional regulator. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211003. [PMID: 30673778 PMCID: PMC6343904 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycobacterial type VII secretion system ESX-1 is responsible for the secretion of a number of proteins that play important roles during host infection. The regulation of the expression of secreted proteins is often essential to establish successful infection. Using transcriptome sequencing, we found that the abrogation of ESX-1 function in Mycobacterium marinum leads to a pronounced increase in gene expression levels of the espA operon during the infection of macrophages. In addition, the disruption of ESX-1-mediated protein secretion also leads to a specific down-regulation of the ESX-1 substrates, but not of the structural components of this system, during growth in culture medium. This effect is observed in both M. marinum and M. tuberculosis. We established that down-regulation of ESX-1 substrates is the result of a regulatory process that is influenced by the putative transcriptional regulator whib6, which is located adjacent to the esx-1 locus. In addition, the overexpression of the ESX-1-associated PE35/PPE68 protein pair resulted in a significantly increased secretion of the ESX-1 substrate EsxA, demonstrating a functional link between these proteins. Taken together, these data show that WhiB6 is required for the secretion-dependent regulation of ESX-1 substrates and that ESX-1 substrates are regulated independently from the structural components, both during infection and as a result of active secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah M. Abdallah
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- * E-mail: (AMA); (WB); (AP)
| | - Eveline M. Weerdenburg
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Qingtian Guan
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Roy Ummels
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie Borggreve
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sabir A. Adroub
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Tareq B. Malas
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Raeece Naeem
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Huoming Zhang
- Bioscience Core Laboratory, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Thomas D. Otto
- Pathogen Genomics, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (AMA); (WB); (AP)
| | - Arnab Pain
- Pathogen Genomics Laboratory, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal-Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- * E-mail: (AMA); (WB); (AP)
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31
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Sala C, Odermatt NT, Soler-Arnedo P, Gülen MF, von Schultz S, Benjak A, Cole ST. EspL is essential for virulence and stabilizes EspE, EspF and EspH levels in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007491. [PMID: 30571761 PMCID: PMC6319747 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The ESX-1, type VII, secretion system represents the major virulence determinant of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, one of the most successful intracellular pathogens. Here, by combining genetic and high-throughput approaches, we show that EspL, a protein of 115 amino acids, is essential for mediating ESX-1-dependent virulence and for stabilization of EspE, EspF and EspH protein levels. Indeed, an espL knock-out mutant was unable to replicate intracellularly, secrete ESX-1 substrates or stimulate innate cytokine production. Moreover, proteomic studies detected greatly reduced amounts of EspE, EspF and EspH in the espL mutant as compared to the wild type strain, suggesting a role for EspL as a chaperone. The latter conclusion was further supported by discovering that EspL interacts with EspD, which was previously demonstrated to stabilize the ESX-1 substrates and effector proteins, EspA and EspC. Loss of EspL also leads to downregulation in M. tuberculosis of WhiB6, a redox-sensitive transcriptional activator of ESX-1 genes. Overall, our data highlight the importance of a so-far overlooked, though conserved, component of the ESX-1 secretion system and begin to delineate the role played by EspE, EspF and EspH in virulence and host-pathogen interaction. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the etiological agent of human tuberculosis, a life-threatening disease which has seen a recrudescence in the last decades due to the spread of drug-resistant bacterial strains and to co-morbidities such as HIV and diabetes. To develop effective treatment and limit bacterial dissemination within and outside the host, it is pivotal to improve our understanding of the strategies used by the pathogen to colonize the host and subvert the immune defenses. The ESX-1 secretion system represents a key player in these processes. Here we show that the EspL protein, encoded by the ESX-1 gene cluster, is essential for bacterial virulence and for stabilizing the abundance of the EspE, EspF and EspH components of the ESX-1 system. Tubercle bacilli lacking EspL cannot multiply inside macrophages, do not secrete the major virulence factor EsxA and fail to trigger the ESX-1 dependent innate immune response. EspL is thus an important but so-far neglected contributor to ESX-1 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sala
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (CS); (STC)
| | - Nina T. Odermatt
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Paloma Soler-Arnedo
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Muhammet F. Gülen
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sofia von Schultz
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andrej Benjak
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stewart T. Cole
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (CS); (STC)
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Ogryzko NV, Lewis A, Wilson HL, Meijer AH, Renshaw SA, Elks PM. Hif-1α-Induced Expression of Il-1β Protects against Mycobacterial Infection in Zebrafish. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 202:494-502. [PMID: 30552162 PMCID: PMC6321843 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Drug-resistant mycobacteria are a rising problem worldwide. There is an urgent need to understand the immune response to tuberculosis to identify host targets that, if targeted therapeutically, could be used to tackle these currently untreatable infections. In this study we use an Il-1β fluorescent transgenic line to show that there is an early innate immune proinflammatory response to well-established zebrafish models of inflammation and Mycobacterium marinum infection. We demonstrate that host-derived hypoxia signaling, mediated by the Hif-1α transcription factor, can prime macrophages with increased levels of Il-1β in the absence of infection, upregulating neutrophil antimicrobial NO production, leading to greater protection against infection. Our data link Hif-1α to proinflammatory macrophage Il-1β transcription in vivo during early mycobacterial infection and importantly highlight a host protective mechanism, via antimicrobial NO, that decreases disease outcomes and that could be targeted therapeutically to stimulate the innate immune response to better deal with infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay V Ogryzko
- The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom.,Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Lewis
- The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom.,Department of Infection and Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom; and
| | - Heather L Wilson
- Department of Infection and Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom; and
| | - Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Stephen A Renshaw
- The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom.,Department of Infection and Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom; and
| | - Philip M Elks
- The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom; .,Department of Infection and Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2RX, United Kingdom; and
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Hashish E, Merwad A, Elgaml S, Amer A, Kamal H, Elsadek A, Marei A, Sitohy M. Mycobacterium marinum infection in fish and man: epidemiology, pathophysiology and management; a review. Vet Q 2018; 38:35-46. [PMID: 29493404 PMCID: PMC6831007 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2018.1447171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium marinum is an opportunistic pathogen inducing infection in fresh and marine water fish. This pathogen causes necrotizing granuloma like tuberculosis, morbidity and mortality in fish. The cell wall-associated lipid phthiocerol dimycocerosates, phenolic glycolipids and ESAT-6 secretion system 1 (ESX-1) are the conserved virulence determinant of the organism. Human infections with Mycobacterium marinum hypothetically are classified into four clinical categories (type I-type IV) and have been associated with the exposure of damaged skin to polluted water from fish pools or contacting objects contaminated with infected fish. Fish mycobacteriosis is clinically manifested and characterized in man by purple painless nodules, liable to develop into superficial crusting ulceration with scar formation. Early laboratory diagnosis of M. marinum including histopathology, culture and PCR is essential and critical as the clinical response to antibiotics requires months to be attained. The pathogenicity and virulence determinants of M. marinum need to be thoroughly and comprehensively investigated and understood. In spite of accumulating information on this pathogen, the different relevant data should be compared, connected and globally compiled. This article is reviewing the epidemiology, virulence factors, diagnosis and disease management in fish while casting light on the potential associated public health hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emad Hashish
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Abdallah Merwad
- Department of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Shimaa Elgaml
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Ali Amer
- Tuberculosis Unit, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Giza, Egypt
| | - Huda Kamal
- Department of Meat Hygiene, National Research Center (NRC), Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Elsadek
- Immunology Research Lab, Immunology Division, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Ayman Marei
- Immunology Research Lab, Immunology Division, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud Sitohy
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Egypt
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van Leeuwen LM, Boot M, Kuijl C, Picavet DI, van Stempvoort G, van der Pol SM, de Vries HE, van der Wel NN, van der Kuip M, van Furth AM, van der Sar AM, Bitter W. Mycobacteria employ two different mechanisms to cross the blood-brain barrier. Cell Microbiol 2018; 20:e12858. [PMID: 29749044 PMCID: PMC6175424 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis is one of the most devastating complications of tuberculosis, in particular in early childhood. In order to induce CNS infection, M. tuberculosis needs to cross specialised barriers protecting the brain. How M. tuberculosis crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and enters the CNS is not well understood. Here, we use transparent zebrafish larvae and the closely related pathogen Mycobacterium marinum to answer this question. We show that in the early stages of development, mycobacteria rapidly infect brain tissue, either as free mycobacteria or within circulating macrophages. After the formation of a functionally intact BBB, the infiltration of brain tissue by infected macrophages is delayed, but not blocked, suggesting that crossing the BBB via phagocytic cells is one of the mechanisms used by mycobacteria to invade the CNS. Interestingly, depletion of phagocytic cells did not prevent M. marinum from infecting the brain tissue, indicating that free mycobacteria can independently cause brain infection. Detailed analysis showed that mycobacteria are able to cause vasculitis by extracellular outgrowth in the smaller blood vessels and by infecting endothelial cells. Importantly, we could show that this second mechanism is an active process that depends on an intact ESX-1 secretion system, which extends the role of ESX-1 secretion beyond the macrophage infection cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne M. van Leeuwen
- Medical Microbiology and Infection ControlVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases and ImmunologyVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Maikel Boot
- Medical Microbiology and Infection ControlVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Coen Kuijl
- Medical Microbiology and Infection ControlVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Daisy I. Picavet
- Cell Biology and Histology, Electron Microscopy Centre AmsterdamAcademic Medical CentreAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Gunny van Stempvoort
- Medical Microbiology and Infection ControlVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Susanne M.A. van der Pol
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam NeuroscienceVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Helga E. de Vries
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam NeuroscienceVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Nicole N. van der Wel
- Cell Biology and Histology, Electron Microscopy Centre AmsterdamAcademic Medical CentreAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Martijn van der Kuip
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases and ImmunologyVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | | | | | - Wilbert Bitter
- Medical Microbiology and Infection ControlVU Medical CenterAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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35
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Phan TH, van Leeuwen LM, Kuijl C, Ummels R, van Stempvoort G, Rubio-Canalejas A, Piersma SR, Jiménez CR, van der Sar AM, Houben ENG, Bitter W. EspH is a hypervirulence factor for Mycobacterium marinum and essential for the secretion of the ESX-1 substrates EspE and EspF. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007247. [PMID: 30102741 PMCID: PMC6107294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis employs a range of ESX-1 substrates to manipulate the host and build a successful infection. Although the importance of ESX-1 secretion in virulence is well established, the characterization of its individual components and the role of individual substrates is far from complete. Here, we describe the functional characterization of the Mycobacterium marinum accessory ESX-1 proteins EccA1, EspG1 and EspH, i.e. proteins that are neither substrates nor structural components. Proteomic analysis revealed that EspG1 is crucial for ESX-1 secretion, since all detectable ESX-1 substrates were absent from the cell surface and culture supernatant in an espG1 mutant. Deletion of eccA1 resulted in minor secretion defects, but interestingly, the severity of these secretion defects was dependent on the culture conditions. Finally, espH deletion showed a partial secretion defect; whereas several ESX-1 substrates were secreted in normal amounts, secretion of EsxA and EsxB was diminished and secretion of EspE and EspF was fully blocked. Interaction studies showed that EspH binds EspE and therefore could function as a specific chaperone for this substrate. Despite the observed differences in secretion, hemolytic activity was lost in all M. marinum mutants, implying that hemolytic activity is not strictly correlated with EsxA secretion. Surprisingly, while EspH is essential for successful infection of phagocytic host cells, deletion of espH resulted in a significantly increased virulence phenotype in zebrafish larvae, linked to poor granuloma formation and extracellular outgrowth. Together, these data show that different sets of ESX-1 substrates play different roles at various steps of the infection cycle of M. marinum. M. tuberculosis is a facultative intracellular pathogen that has an intimate relationship with host macrophages. Proteins secreted by the ESX-1 secretion system play an important role in this interaction, for instance by orchestrating the escape from the phagosome into the cytosol of the macrophage. However, the exact role of the ESX-1 substrates is unknown, due to their complicated interdependency for secretion. Here, we study the function of ESX-1 accessory proteins EccA1, EspG1 and EspH in ESX-1 secretion in Mycobacterium marium, the causative agent of fish tuberculosis. We found that these proteins affect the secretion of different substrate classes, which offers an approach to study the roles of these substrate groups. An espG1 deletion broadly aborts ESX-1 secretion and thus resulted in severe attenuation in a zebrafish model for tuberculosis, whereas EccA1 is only crucial under specific growth conditions. The most surprising results were obtained for EspH. This protein seems to function as a molecular chaperone for EspE and is as such involved in the secretion of a small subset of ESX-1 substrates. Disruption of espH showed a dual character: whereas this gene is essential for the successful infection of macrophages, deletion of espH resulted in significantly increased virulence in zebrafish larvae. These data convincingly show that different subsets of ESX-1 substrates play different roles at various steps in the mycobacterial infection cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trang H. Phan
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines & Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lisanne M. van Leeuwen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Coen Kuijl
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Roy Ummels
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Gunny van Stempvoort
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alba Rubio-Canalejas
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines & Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sander R. Piersma
- Department of Medical Oncology, OncoProteomics Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Connie R. Jiménez
- Department of Medical Oncology, OncoProteomics Laboratory, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Astrid M. van der Sar
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Edith N. G. Houben
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines & Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Section Molecular Microbiology, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines & Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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36
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Novel Models to Study Stromal Cell-Leukocyte Interactions in Health and Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1060:131-146. [PMID: 30155626 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78127-3_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
To study human immunology in general and stromal immunology in particular, it is highly motivated to move from monolayers to 3D cultures, such as organotypic models, that better mimic the function of living tissue. These models can potentially contain most if not all cell types present in tissues, in combination with different extracellular matrix components that can critically affect cell phenotype. Besides their well-established use in studies of tissue-specific cells, such as epithelial cells, endothelial cells and stromal fibroblasts in combination with extracellular components, these models have also been shown to be valuable to study how tissue participates in the regulation of leukocyte differentiation and function. Organotypic models with leukocytes represent novel powerful tools to study human stromal immunology and mechanisms involved in the regulation of leukocyte functions and inflammatory processes in human health and disease. In particular, these models are robust, long-lived and reproducible and allow monitoring of disease progression in real time, as well as the mixing of cellular constituents from healthy and pathological tissues. These models are also easy to manipulate, either genetically or by adding external stimulants, such as cytokines and pathogens, to mimic pathological conditions. It is thus not surprising that these models are proposed to be useful in toxicology screening assays, evaluating therapeutic efficacy of drugs and antibiotics, as well as in personalized medicine. Within this chapter, the most recent developments in creating organotypic models for the purpose of study of human leukocyte and stromal cell interactions, in health and disease, will be discussed, in particular focusing on live imaging. Special emphasis will be given on an organotypic model resembling human lung and its usefulness in studying the fine control of physiological and pathological processes in human health and disease. Using these models in studies on human stromal cell and leukocyte interactions will likely help identifying novel disease traits and may point out new potential targets to monitor and treat human diseases.
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37
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Boot M, Jim KK, Liu T, Commandeur S, Lu P, Verboom T, Lill H, Bitter W, Bald D. A fluorescence-based reporter for monitoring expression of mycobacterial cytochrome bd in response to antibacterials and during infection. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10665. [PMID: 28878275 PMCID: PMC5587683 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10944-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome bd is a component of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway in many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Next to its role as a terminal oxidase in the respiratory chain this enzyme plays an important role as a survival factor in the bacterial stress response. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis and related mycobacterial strains, cytochrome bd is an important component of the defense system against antibacterial drugs. In this report we describe and evaluate an mCherry-based fluorescent reporter for detection of cytochrome bd expression in Mycobacterium marinum. Cytochrome bd was induced by mycolic acid biosynthesis inhibitors such as isoniazid and most prominently by drugs targeting oxidative phosphorylation. We observed no induction by inhibitors of protein-, DNA- or RNA-synthesis. The constructed expression reporter was suitable for monitoring mycobacterial cytochrome bd expression during mouse macrophage infection and in a zebrafish embryo infection model when using Mycobacterium marinum. Interestingly, in both these infection models cytochrome bd levels were considerably higher than during in vitro culturing of M. marinum. The expression reporter described here can be a valuable tool for elucidating the role of cytochrome bd as a survival factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel Boot
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kin Ki Jim
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ting Liu
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susanna Commandeur
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ping Lu
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo Verboom
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Holger Lill
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk Bald
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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38
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Chen L, Groenewoud A, Tulotta C, Zoni E, Kruithof-de Julio M, van der Horst G, van der Pluijm G, Ewa Snaar-Jagalska B. A zebrafish xenograft model for studying human cancer stem cells in distant metastasis and therapy response. Methods Cell Biol 2016; 138:471-496. [PMID: 28129855 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lethal and incurable bone metastasis is one of the main causes of death in multiple types of cancer. A small subpopulation of cancer stem/progenitor-like cells (CSCs), also known as tumor-initiating cells from heterogenetic cancer is considered to mediate bone metastasis. Although over the past decades numerous studies have been performed in different types of cancer, it is still difficult to track small numbers of CSCs during the onset of metastasis. With use of noninvasive high-resolution imaging, transparent zebrafish embryos can be employed to dynamically visualize cancer progression and reciprocal interaction with stroma in a living organism. Recently we established a zebrafish CSC-xenograft model to visually and functionally analyze the role of CSCs and their interactions with the microenvironment at the onset of metastasis. Given the highly conserved human and zebrafish genome, transplanted human cancer cells are able to respond to zebrafish cytokines, modulate the zebrafish microenvironment, and take advantage of the zebrafish stroma during cancer progression. This chapter delineates the zebrafish CSC-xenograft model as a useful tool for both CSC biological study and anticancer drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Chen
- Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - C Tulotta
- Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - E Zoni
- University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - M Kruithof-de Julio
- University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Bernut A, Nguyen-Chi M, Halloum I, Herrmann JL, Lutfalla G, Kremer L. Mycobacterium abscessus-Induced Granuloma Formation Is Strictly Dependent on TNF Signaling and Neutrophil Trafficking. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005986. [PMID: 27806130 PMCID: PMC5091842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium abscessus is considered the most common respiratory pathogen among the rapidly growing non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Infections with M. abscessus are increasingly found in patients with chronic lung diseases, especially cystic fibrosis, and are often refractory to antibiotic therapy. M. abscessus has two morphotypes with distinct effects on host cells and biological responses. The smooth (S) variant is recognized as the initial airway colonizer while the rough (R) is known to be a potent inflammatory inducer associated with invasive disease, but the underlying immunopathological mechanisms of the infection remain unsolved. We conducted a comparative stepwise dissection of the inflammatory response in S and R pathogenesis by monitoring infected transparent zebrafish embryos. Loss of TNFR1 function resulted in increased mortality with both variants, and was associated with unrestricted intramacrophage bacterial growth and decreased bactericidal activity. The use of transgenic zebrafish lines harboring fluorescent macrophages and neutrophils revealed that neutrophils, like macrophages, interact with M. abscessus at the initial infection sites. Impaired TNF signaling disrupted the IL8-dependent neutrophil mobilization, and the defect in neutrophil trafficking led to the formation of aberrant granulomas, extensive mycobacterial cording, unrestricted bacterial growth and subsequent larval death. Our findings emphasize the central role of neutrophils for the establishment and maintenance of the protective M. abscessus granulomas. These results also suggest that the TNF/IL8 inflammatory axis is necessary for protective immunity against M. abscessus and may be of clinical relevance to explain why immunosuppressive TNF therapy leads to the exacerbation of M. abscessus infections. The incidence of non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections has recently increased and has even surpassed tuberculosis as a public health concern in many developed countries. These infections require long treatment regimens that are often unsuccessful. Among these, Mycobacterium abscessus has emerged as perhaps the most difficult-to-manage pathogen, especially in cystic fibrosis patients. Unfortunately, very little is known regarding the contributions of the pro-inflammatory and innate immune responses during M. abscessus infection. Here, we exploited the transparency of zebrafish embryos to study, at high resolution, the interactions of M. abscessus with macrophages and neutrophils, and found that both cell types are required to control the infection. We also describe the dramatic consequences of impaired TNF/IL8 immunity on the outcome of the infection. Most importantly, by tracking the dynamics of neutrophil mobilization, we demonstrated the crucial role of these cells in the formation and integrity of protective granulomas. Together, our data provide a significant advance in deciphering the immunopathology of M. abscessus infection, which is particularly relevant for understanding the exquisite vulnerability of cystic fibrosis patients to this bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Bernut
- Centre d’études d’agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, FR3689, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Iman Halloum
- Centre d’études d’agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, FR3689, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- UMR1173, INSERM, Université de Versailles St Quentin, Montigny le Bretonneux, France
| | | | - Laurent Kremer
- Centre d’études d’agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, FR3689, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- INSERM, CPBS, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail:
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40
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Mycosins Are Required for the Stabilization of the ESX-1 and ESX-5 Type VII Secretion Membrane Complexes. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.01471-16. [PMID: 27795391 PMCID: PMC5082899 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01471-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic mycobacteria contain up to five type VII secretion (T7S) systems, ESX-1 to ESX-5. One of the conserved T7S components is the serine protease mycosin (MycP). Strikingly, whereas MycP is essential for secretion, the protease activity of MycP1 in Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been shown to be dispensable for secretion. The essential role of MycP therefore remains unclear. Here we show that MycP1 and MycP5 of M. marinum have similar phenotypes, confirming that MycP has a second unknown function that is essential for its T7S system. To investigate whether this role is related to proper functioning of the T7S membrane complex, we first analyzed the composition of the ESX-1 membrane complex and showed that this complex consists of EccBCDE1, similarly to what was previously shown for ESX-5. Surprisingly, while mycosins are not an integral part of these purified core complexes, we noticed that the stability of both the ESX-1 complex and the ESX-5 complex is compromised in the absence of their MycP subunit. Additional interaction studies showed that, although mycosins are not part of the central ESX membrane complex, they loosely associate with this complex. We hypothesize that this MycP association with the core membrane complex is crucial for the integrity and functioning of the T7S machinery. Among the major virulence factors of pathogenic mycobacteria are the type VII secretion (T7S) systems. Three of these systems, ESX-1, ESX-3, and ESX-5, have been shown to be crucial for virulence or viability. Here we describe the function of mycosin proteases, which are conserved components within these systems. We show that MycP1 and MycP5 have a second, proteolytic-independent function which is essential for the T7S system. We additionally found that this second essential role is related to the stabilization and proper functioning of their respective ESX membrane core complexes. Finally, we found that this is mediated by a loose association of MycP with the complex. Understanding the essential role of mycosins in type VII secretion systems, which play central roles in the virulence and viability of pathogenic mycobacteria, may provide new intervention strategies to treat tuberculosis.
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41
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Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis uses sophisticated secretion systems, named 6 kDa early secretory antigenic target (ESAT6) protein family secretion (ESX) systems (also known as type VII secretion systems), to export a set of effector proteins that helps the pathogen to resist or evade the host immune response. Since the discovery of the esx loci during the M. tuberculosis H37Rv genome project, structural biology, cell biology and evolutionary analyses have advanced our knowledge of the function of these systems. In this Review, we highlight the intriguing roles that these studies have revealed for ESX systems in bacterial survival and pathogenicity during infection with M. tuberculosis. Furthermore, we discuss the diversity of ESX systems that has been described among mycobacteria and selected non-mycobacterial species. Finally, we consider how our knowledge of ESX systems might be applied to the development of novel strategies for the treatment and prevention of disease.
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42
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Boot M, Sparrius M, Jim KK, Commandeur S, Speer A, van de Weerd R, Bitter W. iniBAC induction Is Vitamin B12- and MutAB-dependent in Mycobacterium marinum. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:19800-19812. [PMID: 27474746 PMCID: PMC5025670 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.724088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis can be treated with a 6-month regimen of antibiotics. Although the targets of most of the first-line antibiotics have been identified, less research has focused on the intrabacterial stress responses that follow upon treatment with antibiotics. Studying the roles of these stress genes may lead to the identification of crucial stress-coping mechanisms that can provide additional drug targets to increase treatment efficacy. A three-gene operon with unknown function that is strongly up-regulated upon treatment with isoniazid and ethambutol is the iniBAC operon. We have reproduced these findings and show that iniBAC genes are also induced in infected host cells, although with higher variability. Next, we set out to elucidate the genetic network that results in iniBAC induction in Mycobacterium marinum By transposon mutagenesis, we identified that the operon is highly induced by mutations in genes encoding enzymes of the vitamin B12 biosynthesis pathway and the vitamin B12-dependent methylmalonyl-CoA-mutase MutAB. Lipid analysis showed that a mutA::tn mutant has decreased phthiocerol dimycocerosates levels, suggesting a link between iniBAC induction and the production of methyl-branched lipids. Moreover, a similar screen in Mycobacterium bovis BCG identified that phthiocerol dimycocerosate biosynthesis mutants cause the up-regulation of iniBAC genes. Based on these data, we propose that iniBAC is induced in response to mutations that cause defects in the biosynthesis of methyl-branched lipids. The resulting metabolic stress caused by these mutations or caused by ethambutol or isoniazid treatment may be relieved by iniBAC to increase the chance of bacterial survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel Boot
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marion Sparrius
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kin Ki Jim
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susanna Commandeur
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Speer
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert van de Weerd
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Elks PM, Renshaw SA, Meijer AH, Walmsley SR, van Eeden FJ. Exploring the HIFs, buts and maybes of hypoxia signalling in disease: lessons from zebrafish models. Dis Model Mech 2016; 8:1349-60. [PMID: 26512123 PMCID: PMC4631790 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.021865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A low level of tissue oxygen (hypoxia) is a physiological feature of a wide range of diseases, from cancer to infection. Cellular hypoxia is sensed by oxygen-sensitive hydroxylase enzymes, which regulate the protein stability of hypoxia-inducible factor α (HIF-α) transcription factors. When stabilised, HIF-α binds with its cofactors to HIF-responsive elements (HREs) in the promoters of target genes to coordinate a wide-ranging transcriptional programme in response to the hypoxic environment. This year marks the 20th anniversary of the discovery of the HIF-1α transcription factor, and in recent years the HIF-mediated hypoxia response is being increasingly recognised as an important process in determining the outcome of diseases such as cancer, inflammatory disease and bacterial infections. Animal models have shed light on the roles of HIF in disease and have uncovered intricate control mechanisms that involve multiple cell types, observations that might have been missed in simpler in vitro systems. These findings highlight the need for new whole-organism models of disease to elucidate these complex regulatory mechanisms. In this Review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of hypoxia and HIFs in disease that have emerged from studies of zebrafish disease models. Findings from such models identify HIF as an integral player in the disease processes. They also highlight HIF pathway components and their targets as potential therapeutic targets against conditions that range from cancers to infectious disease. Summary: Hypoxia signalling, mediated by HIF, is a crucial pathway in many disease processes. Here, we review current knowledge of HIF signalling and disease, focusing on recent findings from zebrafish models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Elks
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Medical School, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK The Bateson Centre, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Stephen A Renshaw
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Medical School, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK The Bateson Centre, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Annemarie H Meijer
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sarah R Walmsley
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
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Jim KK, Engelen-Lee J, van der Sar AM, Bitter W, Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, Veening JW, van de Beek D, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE. Infection of zebrafish embryos with live fluorescent Streptococcus pneumoniae as a real-time pneumococcal meningitis model. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:188. [PMID: 27542968 PMCID: PMC4992281 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0655-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus pneumoniae is one of the most important causes of bacterial meningitis, an infection where unfavourable outcome is driven by bacterial and host-derived toxins. In this study, we developed and characterized a pneumococcal meningitis model in zebrafish embryos that allows for real-time investigation of early host-microbe interaction. METHODS Zebrafish embryos were infected in the caudal vein or hindbrain ventricle with green fluorescent wild-type S. pneumoniae D39 or a pneumolysin-deficient mutant. The kdrl:mCherry transgenic zebrafish line was used to visualize the blood vessels, whereas phagocytic cells were visualized by staining with far red anti-L-plastin or in mpx:GFP/mpeg1:mCherry zebrafish, that have green fluorescent neutrophils and red fluorescent macrophages. Imaging was performed by fluorescence confocal and time-lapse microscopy. RESULTS After infection by caudal vein, we saw focal clogging of the pneumococci in the blood vessels and migration of bacteria through the blood-brain barrier into the subarachnoid space and brain tissue. Infection with pneumolysin-deficient S. pneumoniae in the hindbrain ventricle showed attenuated growth and migration through the brain as compared to the wild-type strain. Time-lapse and confocal imaging revealed that the initial innate immune response to S. pneumoniae in the subarachnoid space mainly consisted of neutrophils and that pneumolysin-mediated cytolytic activity caused a marked reduction of phagocytes. CONCLUSIONS This new meningitis model permits detailed analysis and visualization of host-microbe interaction in pneumococcal meningitis in real time and is a very promising tool to further our insights in the pathogenesis of pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Ki Jim
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - JooYeon Engelen-Lee
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Astrid M van der Sar
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthijs C Brouwer
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arie van der Ende
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- The Netherlands Reference Laboratory for Bacterial Meningitis, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Molecular Genetics Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, Centre for Synthetic Biology, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Diederik van de Beek
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christina M J E Vandenbroucke-Grauls
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, P.O. Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Tian S, Chen H, Sun T, Wang H, Zhang X, Liu Y, Xia J, Guo C, Lin D. Expression, purification and characterization of Esx-1 secretion-associated protein EspL from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Protein Expr Purif 2016; 128:42-51. [PMID: 27496726 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The Esx-1 cluster encodes a special secretion system that is important for granuloma formation and virulence when Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects the host. As one of the 'core' genes in the cluster, Rv3880c gene codes an Esx-1 secretion-associated protein EspL from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MtEspL). It has been reported that EspL had a strong influence on the secretion of other two virulence factors, EsxA and EspE. However, so far little is known about the tertiary structure and specific function of MtEspL due to the difficulty in preparing the high-quality protein. In this study, we tried several fusion tags and various expression conditions to recombinantly express MtEspL. Through a four-step purification procedure, ultimately, we successfully prepared the full-length MtEspL in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) with a purity of 98%. The yields of the purified MtEspL protein were 14 mg/L in Luria Bertani medium and 5.6 mg/L in M9 minimal medium, respectively. Biophysical experiments showed that MtEspL existed in a dimeric form. Moreover, the (1)H-(15)N HSQC spectrum recorded on MtEspL illustrates a favorable dispersion of the resonance peaks, indicating that the symmetric dimeric MtEspL adopted a well-folded structure and might be feasible to determine its solution structure by NMR spectroscopy. Moreover, we identified a strong DNA-binding ability of MtEspL with fluorescence quenching experiments. Our work lays the basis for further structural determination and functional exploration of MtEspL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangliang Tian
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Hanyu Chen
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Tao Sun
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Huilin Wang
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Xuelian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Jinmei Xia
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biogenetic Resources, Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Chenyun Guo
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China.
| | - Donghai Lin
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China.
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Deletion of a dehydratase important for intracellular growth and cording renders rough Mycobacterium abscessus avirulent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E4228-37. [PMID: 27385830 PMCID: PMC4961194 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1605477113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium abscessus (Mabs) is a rapidly growing Mycobacterium and an emerging pathogen in humans. Transitioning from a smooth (S) high-glycopeptidolipid (GPL) producer to a rough (R) low-GPL producer is associated with increased virulence in zebrafish, which involves the formation of massive serpentine cords, abscesses, and rapid larval death. Generating a cord-deficient Mabs mutant would allow us to address the contribution of cording in the physiopathological signs of the R variant. Herein, a deletion mutant of MAB_4780, encoding a dehydratase, distinct from the β-hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydratase HadABC complex, was constructed in the R morphotype. This mutant exhibited an alteration of the mycolic acid composition and a pronounced defect in cording. This correlated with an extremely attenuated phenotype not only in wild-type but also in immunocompromised zebrafish embryos lacking either macrophages or neutrophils. The abolition of granuloma formation in embryos infected with the dehydratase mutant was associated with a failure to replicate in macrophages, presumably due to limited inhibition of the phagolysosomal fusion. Overall, these results indicate that MAB_4780 is required for Mabs to successfully establish acute and lethal infections. Therefore, targeting MAB_4780 may represent an attractive antivirulence strategy to control Mabs infections, refractory to most standard chemotherapeutic interventions. The combination of a dehydratase assay with a high-resolution crystal structure of MAB_4780 opens the way to identify such specific inhibitors.
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47
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Ates LS, van der Woude AD, Bestebroer J, van Stempvoort G, Musters RJP, Garcia-Vallejo JJ, Picavet DI, Weerd RVD, Maletta M, Kuijl CP, van der Wel NN, Bitter W. The ESX-5 System of Pathogenic Mycobacteria Is Involved In Capsule Integrity and Virulence through Its Substrate PPE10. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005696. [PMID: 27280885 PMCID: PMC4900558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria produce a capsule layer, which consists of glycan-like polysaccharides and a number of specific proteins. In this study, we show that, in slow-growing mycobacteria, the type VII secretion system ESX-5 plays a major role in the integrity and stability of the capsule. We have identified PPE10 as the ESX-5 substrate responsible for this effect. Mutants in esx-5 and ppe10 both have impaired capsule integrity as well as reduced surface hydrophobicity. Electron microscopy, immunoblot and flow cytometry analyses demonstrated reduced amounts of surface localized proteins and glycolipids, and morphological differences in the capsular layer. Since capsular proteins secreted by the ESX-1 system are important virulence factors, we tested the effect of the mutations that cause capsular defects on virulence mechanisms. Both esx-5 and ppe10 mutants of Mycobacterium marinum were shown to be impaired in ESX-1-dependent hemolysis. In agreement with this, the ppe10 and esx5 mutants showed reduced recruitment of ubiquitin in early macrophage infection and intermediate attenuation in zebrafish embryos. These results provide a pivotal role for the ESX-5 secretion system and its substrate PPE10, in the capsular integrity of pathogenic mycobacteria. These findings open up new roads for research on the mycobacterial capsule and its role in virulence and immune modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis S Ates
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Aniek D van der Woude
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jovanka Bestebroer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - René J P Musters
- Department of Physiology and Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Juan J Garcia-Vallejo
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Daisy I Picavet
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam the Netherlands
| | - Robert van de Weerd
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Coenraad P Kuijl
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nicole N van der Wel
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam the Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Microbiology, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Myllymäki H, Bäuerlein CA, Rämet M. The Zebrafish Breathes New Life into the Study of Tuberculosis. Front Immunol 2016; 7:196. [PMID: 27242801 PMCID: PMC4871865 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a global health emergency. Up to one-third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the pathogen continues to kill 1.5 million people annually. Currently, the means for preventing, diagnosing, and treating TB are unsatisfactory. One of the main reasons for the poor progress in TB research has been a lack of good animal models to study the latency, dormancy, and reactivation of the disease. Although sophisticated in vitro and in silico methods suitable for TB research are constantly being developed, they cannot reproduce the complete vertebrate immune system and its interplay with pathogens and vaccines. However, the zebrafish has recently emerged as a useful alternative to more traditional models, such as mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, and non-human primates, for studying the complex pathophysiology of a mycobacterial infection. The model is based on the similarity between Mycobacterium marinum – a natural fish pathogen – and M. tuberculosis. In both zebrafish larvae and adult fish, an infection with M. marinum leads to the formation of macrophage aggregates and granulomas, which resemble the M. tuberculosis infections in humans. In this review, we will summarize the current status of the zebrafish model in TB research and highlight the advantages of using zebrafish to dissect mycobacterial virulence strategies as well as the host immune responses elicited against them. In addition, we will discuss the possibilities of using the adult zebrafish model for studying latency, dormancy, and reactivation in a mycobacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mika Rämet
- BioMediTech, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland; Department of Pediatrics, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland; Department of Children and Adolescents, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland; PEDEGO Research Unit, Medical Research Center Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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49
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van de Weerd R, Boot M, Maaskant J, Sparrius M, Verboom T, van Leeuwen LM, Burggraaf MJ, Paauw NJ, Dainese E, Manganelli R, Bitter W, Appelmelk BJ, Geurtsen J. Inorganic Phosphate Limitation Modulates Capsular Polysaccharide Composition in Mycobacteria. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:11787-99. [PMID: 27044743 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.722454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is protected by an unusual and highly impermeable cell envelope that is critically important for the successful colonization of the host. The outermost surface of this cell envelope is formed by capsular polysaccharides that play an important role in modulating the initial interactions once the bacillus enters the body. Although the bioenzymatic steps involved in the production of the capsular polysaccharides are emerging, information regarding the ability of the bacterium to modulate the composition of the capsule is still unknown. Here, we study the mechanisms involved in regulation of mycobacterial capsule biosynthesis using a high throughput screen for gene products involved in capsular α-glucan production. Utilizing this approach we identified a group of mutants that all carried mutations in the ATP-binding cassette phosphate transport locus pst These mutants collectively exhibited a strong overproduction of capsular polysaccharides, including α-glucan and arabinomannan, suggestive of a role for inorganic phosphate (Pi) metabolism in modulating capsular polysaccharide production. These findings were corroborated by the observation that growth under low Pi conditions as well as chemical activation of the stringent response induces capsule production in a number of mycobacterial species. This induction is, in part, dependent on σ factor E. Finally, we show that Mycobacterium marinum, a model organism for M. tuberculosis, encounters Pi stress during infection, which shows the relevance of our findings in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert van de Weerd
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
| | - Maikel Boot
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Janneke Maaskant
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marion Sparrius
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo Verboom
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lisanne M van Leeuwen
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maroeska J Burggraaf
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nanne J Paauw
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, P. O. Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisa Dainese
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Via Gabelli 63, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Riccardo Manganelli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Via Gabelli 63, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Department of Molecular Microbiology, VU University Amsterdam, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and
| | - Ben J Appelmelk
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
| | - Jeroen Geurtsen
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De boelelaan 1108, 1081HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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50
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Bernut A, Dupont C, Sahuquet A, Herrmann JL, Lutfalla G, Kremer L. Deciphering and Imaging Pathogenesis and Cording of Mycobacterium abscessus in Zebrafish Embryos. J Vis Exp 2015. [PMID: 26382225 DOI: 10.3791/53130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos are increasingly used as an infection model to study the function of the vertebrate innate immune system in host-pathogen interactions. The ease of obtaining large numbers of embryos, their accessibility due to external development, their optical transparency as well as the availability of a wide panoply of genetic/immunological tools and transgenic reporter line collections, contribute to the versatility of this model. In this respect, the present manuscript describes the use of zebrafish as an in vivo model system to investigate the chronology of Mycobacterium abscessus infection. This human pathogen can exist either as smooth (S) or rough (R) variants, depending on cell wall composition, and their respective virulence can be imaged and compared in zebrafish embryos and larvae. Micro-injection of either S or R fluorescent variants directly in the blood circulation via the caudal vein, leads to chronic or acute/lethal infections, respectively. This biological system allows high resolution visualization and analysis of the role of mycobacterial cording in promoting abscess formation. In addition, the use of fluorescent bacteria along with transgenic zebrafish lines harbouring fluorescent macrophages produces a unique opportunity for multi-color imaging of the host-pathogen interactions. This article describes detailed protocols for the preparation of homogenous M. abscessus inoculum and for intravenous injection of zebrafish embryos for subsequent fluorescence imaging of the interaction with macrophages. These techniques open the avenue to future investigations involving mutants defective in cord formation and are dedicated to understand how this impacts on M. abscessus pathogenicity in a whole vertebrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Bernut
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS, UMR 535, Université Montpellier; Centre d'études d'agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, CNRS, FRE 3689, Université Montpellier
| | - Christian Dupont
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS, UMR 535, Université Montpellier; Centre d'études d'agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, CNRS, FRE 3689, Université Montpellier
| | - Alain Sahuquet
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS, UMR 535, Université Montpellier
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche des Sciences de la Santé, EA3647-EPIM, Université Versailles St Quentin
| | - Georges Lutfalla
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS, UMR 535, Université Montpellier;
| | - Laurent Kremer
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS, UMR 535, Université Montpellier; Centre d'études d'agents Pathogènes et Biotechnologies pour la Santé, CNRS, FRE 3689, Université Montpellier;
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