Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year-old children

Endocrine Disruptors in Pregnancy: Effects on Mothers and Fetuses-A Review

Background/Objectives: Endocrine disruptors are ubiquitous agents in the environment and are present in everyday consumer products. These agents can interfere with the endocrine system, and subsequently the reproductive system, especially in pregnancy. An increasing number of studies have been conducted to discover and describe the health effects of these agents on humans, including pregnant women, their fetuses, and the placenta. This review discusses prenatal exposure to various endocrine disruptors, focusing on bisphenols, phthalates, organophosphates, and perfluoroalkyl substances, and their effects on pregnancy and fetal development. Methods: We reviewed the literature via the PubMed and EBSCO databases and included the most relevant studies. Results: Our findings revealed that several negative health outcomes were linked to endocrine disruptors. However, despite the seriousness of this topic and the abundance of research on these agents, it remains challenging to draw strong conclusions about their effects from the available studies. This does not allow for strong, universal guidelines and might result in poor patient counseling and heterogeneous approaches to regulating endocrine disruptors. Conclusions: The seriousness of this matter calls for urgent efforts, and more studies are needed in this realm, to protect pregnant patients, and ultimately, in the long term, society.

Childhood exposure to organophosphate pesticides: Functional connectivity and working memory in adolescents

BACKGROUND

Early life exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides is linked with adverse neurodevelopment and brain function in children. However, we have limited knowledge of how these exposures affect functional connectivity, a measure of interaction between brain regions. To address this gap, we examined the association between early life OP pesticide exposure and functional connectivity in adolescents.

METHODS

We administered functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to 291 young adults with measured prenatal or childhood dialkylphosphates (DAPs) in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a longitudinal study of women recruited during pregnancy and their offspring. We measured DAPs in urinary samples collected from mothers during pregnancy (13 and 26 weeks) and children in early life (ages 6 months, 1, 2, 3, and 5 years). Youth underwent fNIRS while they performed executive function and semantic language tasks during their 18-year-old visit. We used covariate-adjusted regression models to estimate the associations of prenatal and childhood DAPs with functional connectivity between the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions, and a mediation model to examine the role of functional connectivity in the relationship between DAPs and task performance.

RESULTS

We observed null associations of prenatal and childhood DAP concentrations and functional connectivity for the entire sample. However, when we looked for sex differences, we observed an association between childhood DAPs and functional connectivity for the right interior frontal and premotor cortex after correcting for the false discovery rate, among males, but not females. In addition, functional connectivity appeared to mediate an inverse association between DAPs and working memory accuracy among males.

CONCLUSION

In CHAMACOS, a secondary analysis showed that adolescent males with elevated childhood OP pesticide exposure may have altered brain regional connectivity. This altered neurofunctional pattern in males may partially mediate working memory impairment associated with childhood DAP exposure.

Chronic exposures to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides adversely affects the health of agricultural workers in India

Biomonitoring of pesticide exposure has become a public concern because of its potential health effects. The present study investigated the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory levels and their associated health effects in agricultural areas in Telangana, India. This cross-sectional included 341 exposed participants and 152 control participants from agricultural areas. A structured questionnaire was completed and blood and urine samples were collected to measure pesticides, dialkyle phosphate (DAP) metabolites, and AChE activity using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. twenty-eight pesticides were detected in blood samples at concentrations ranging 0.42-45.77 ng/mL. Six DAP metabolites were also measured in urine, and all DAP metabolites were significantly higher in the exposed group. AChE activity is significantly reduced in individuals exposed for >10 years, raising concerns regarding possible neurological disorders. These results emphasise the urgent need to investigate the health effects of pesticides exposure, especially in agriculture.

Oxime-functionalized anti-insecticide fabric reduces insecticide exposure through dermal and nasal routes, and prevents insecticide-induced neuromuscular-dysfunction and mortality

Farmers from South Asian countries spray insecticides without protective gear, which leads to insecticide exposure through dermal and nasal routes. Acetylcholinesterase plays a crucial role in controlling neuromuscular function. Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides inhibit acetylcholinesterase, which leads to severe neuronal/cognitive dysfunction, breathing disorders, loss of endurance, and death. To address this issue, an Oxime-fabric is developed by covalently attaching silyl-pralidoxime to the cellulose of the fabric. The Oxime-fabric, when stitched as a bodysuit and facemask, efficiently deactivates insecticides (organophosphates and carbamates) upon contact, preventing exposure. The Oxime-fabric prevents insecticide-induced neuronal damage, neuro-muscular dysfunction, and loss of endurance. Furthermore, we observe a 100% survival rate in rats when repeatedly exposed to organophosphate-insecticide through the Oxime-fabric, while no survival is seen when organophosphate-insecticide applied directly or through normal fabric. The Oxime-fabric is washable and reusable for at least 50 cycles, providing an affordable solution to prevent insecticide-induced toxicity and lethality among farmers.

Action against inequalities: a synthesis of social justice & equity, diversity, inclusion frameworks

Inequalities in health have long been recognized as interconnected with social, economic, and various other inequalities. The application of social justice and equity, diversity, inclusion (EDI) frameworks may help expand interdisciplinary perspectives in addressing inequalities. This review study conducted an environmental scan for existing syntheses of theories, models, and frameworks (TMFs) relevant to the social justice and EDI. Results from Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, CINAHL, PsychINFO, and MEDLINE retrieved an existing implementation science framework intently centered upon health inequalities, and draws from a synthesis of postcolonial theory, reflexivity, intersectionality, structural violence, and governance theory. Given this high degree of relevance to the objective of this review, the framework was selected as a basis for expanded synthesis. Subsequent processes sought to identify social justice TMFs which could be integrated into the base framework selected, as well as to refine scope of the study. Based upon considerations of level of evidence and non-tokenistic integration, the following social justice and EDI TMFs were identified: John Rawls' theory of justice; Amartya Sen's Capabilities Approach; Iris Marion Young's theories of justice; Paulo Freire's critical consciousness; and critical race theory (CRT). The focus of the synthesis performed was scoped towards minimizing potential harms arising from actions intending to reduce inequalities. EDI considerations were not collated into a singular construct, but rather extended as a separate component assessing inequitable distribution of risks and benefits given population heterogeneity. Reflexive analysis amended the framework with two key decisions: first, the integration of environmental justice into a single construct, which helps to inform Rawls' and Sen's TMFs; second, a temporal element of sequential-analysis was employed over a unified output. The result of synthesis consists of a three-component framework which: (1) presents sixteen constructs drawn from selected TMFs, to consider various harms or potential reinforcement of existing inequalities; (2) aims to de-invisibilize marginalized groups who are noted to experience inequitable outcomes, and acknowledges the presence of individuals belonging to multiple groups; and (3) synthesizes seven considerations related to equitable dissemination and evaluation as drawn from TMFs, separated for sequential analysis after assessment of harms.

Prenatal current-use pesticide exposure and children's neurodevelopment at one year of age in the Infants' Environmental Health (ISA) birth cohort, Costa Rica

BACKGROUND

Pesticide exposure may affect young children's neurodevelopment, but only few cohort studies have addressed possible effects of non-organophosphate pesticides.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated associations between prenatal current-use pesticide exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes among 1-year-old children from the Infants' Environmental Health (ISA) birth cohort.

METHODS

To determine prenatal pesticide exposure, we measured biomarkers of pyrimethanil, chlorpyrifos, synthetic pyrethroids, and 2,4-D in urine samples among 355 women, 1-3 times during pregnancy. One-year post-partum, we evaluated children's neurodevelopment with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development 3rd edition (BSID-III). We assessed associations between exposures and neurodevelopmental outcomes (composite and z-scores) using single-chemical linear regression models adjusted for possible confounders (maternal education, parity, sex, gestational age at birth, child age, HOME-score, location of assessment, biomarkers of mancozeb), and studied effect-modification by sex. We evaluated non-linear associations of multiple pesticide exposures with Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR).

RESULTS

We found higher prenatal urinary 2,4-D concentrations were associated with lower language (βper ten-fold increase = -2.0, 95 % confidence interval (CI) = -3.5, -0.5) and motor (βper ten-fold increase = -2.2, 95 %CI = -4.2, -0.1) composite scores among all children. Also, higher chlorpyrifos exposure [measured as urinary 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy)] was associated with lower cognitive composite scores (βper ten-fold increase = -1.9, 95 %CI = -4.7, 0.8), and lower motor composite scores among boys (βper ten-fold increase = -3.8, 95 % CI = -7.7, 0.1) but not girls (βper ten-fold increase = 2.3, 95 %CI = -1.6, 6.3, pINT = 0.11). Finally, higher pyrimethanil was associated with lower language abilities among girls, but not boys. Pyrethroid metabolite concentrations did not explain variability in BSID-III composite scores. Associations were similar for BSID-III z-scores, and we found no evidence for non-linear associations or mixture effects.

DISCUSSION

Prenatal exposure to common-use pesticides may affect children's neurodevelopment at 1-year of age, some effects may be sex-specific.

Prenatal exposure to pyrethroids and chlorpyrifos and IQ in 7-year-old children from the Odense Child Cohort

BACKGROUND

Organophosphates and pyrethroids are two major groups of insecticides used for crop protection worldwide. They are neurotoxicants and exposure during vulnerable windows of brain development may have long-term impact on human neurodevelopment. Only few longitudinal studies have investigated associations between prenatal exposure to these substances and intelligence quotient (IQ) at school age in populations with low, mainly dietary, exposure.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between maternal urinary concentrations of insecticide metabolites at gestational week 28 and IQ in offspring at 7-years of age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data was derived from the Odense Child Cohort (OCC). Metabolites of chlorpyrifos (TCPy) and pyrethroids (3-PBA, cis- and trans-DCCA, 4-F-3PBA, cis-DBCA) were measured in maternal urine collected at gestational week (GW) 28. An abbreviated version of the Danish Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children fifth edition (WISC-V) consisting of four subtests to estimate full scale IQ (FSIQ) was administered by trained psychologists. Data were analyzed by use of multiple linear regression and adjusted for confounders.

RESULTS

812 mother/child-pairs were included. Median concentrations were 0.21 μg/L for 3-PBA, 1.67 μg/L for TCPy and the mean IQ for children were 99.4. Null association between maternal 3-PBA and child IQ at 7 years was seen, but with trends suggesting an inverse association. There was a significant association for maternal TCPy and child IQ at mid-level exposure. Trans-DCCA above the level of detection (LOD) was also associated with slightly lower child IQ, but the association was also not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no significant associations between maternal 3-PBA metabolites and child IQ at 7 years, but with trends suggesting an inverse association. A non-significant trend between maternal TCPy exposure and child IQ in 7-year-children was seen even in this low exposed population. Given the widespread exposure and increasing use of insecticides, this should be elaborated in future studies.

Organophosphorus pesticide exposure from house dust and parent-reported child behavior in Latino children from an orchard community

BACKGROUND

Organophosphorus pesticide (OP) exposure is known to have adverse effects on the nervous system. Children from agricultural communities are at risk of exposure to these chemicals from their indoor environments that can lead to neurological and developmental problems, including changes in behavior.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to evaluate whether the take-home pathway exposure is associated with behavioral and emotional problems in Latino Orchid Community children.

METHOD

The study was implemented over a period of two years (2008-2010) in an orchard farming community with a total of 324 parents who had children between the ages of 5-12 years old. Mothers of the children were asked to complete the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and dust from their carpets was collected. Emotional and behavioral deficits were assessed based on the CBCL and house dust was assessed for OP concentrations. In this study, correlations between OPs in house dust and CBCL subscales were estimated using linear regression models with total OP concentrations classified by tertiles. This study also facilitated the comparison between the agricultural and non-agricultural families in terms of behavioral deficits and house dust concentrations of pesticides.

RESULTS

The data from the study shows that there was a positive association between the concentration of OP residues in house dust and internalizing behavior (β=2.06, p=0.05) whereas the association with externalizing behavior was not significant after accounting for sociocultural covariates. Significant positive associations of OP residues with somatic problems (p=0.02) and thought problems (p=0.05) were also found.

CONCLUSION

The data support a potential role of OP exposure in childhood development, with a specific focus on internalizing behavior. Future work focused on longitudinal studies may uncover the long-term consequences of OP exposure and behavior.

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and child neurodevelopment: The role of breastfeeding duration

BACKGROUND

Prenatal and early-life exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) is associated with detrimental and irreversible neurodevelopmental health outcomes during childhood. Breastfeeding may be a child's largest sustained exposure to PBDE- potentially exacerbating their risk for adverse neurodevelopment outcomes. However, breastfeeding has also been associated with positive neurodevelopment. Our study investigates if breastfeeding mitigates or exacerbates the known adverse effects of prenatal exposure to PBDEs and child neurodevelopment.

METHODS

Participants included 321 mother-infant dyads from the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a longitudinal birth cohort in California. PBDE concentrations were measured in maternal serum blood samples collected during pregnancy or at delivery. Using generalized estimated equations (GEE), we estimated associations of PBDE concentrations with children's attention, executive function, and cognitive scores assessed longitudinally between 7 and 12 years of age, stratified by duration of exclusive and complementary breastfeeding.

RESULTS

We observed that higher maternal prenatal PBDE concentrations were associated with poorer executive function among children who were complementary breastfed for a shorter duration compared to children breastfed for a longer duration; preservative errors (β for 10-fold increase in complementary breastfeeding <7 months = -6.6; 95 % Confidence Interval (CI): -11.4, -1.8; β ≥ 7 months = -5.1; 95 % CI: -10.2, 0.1) and global executive composition (β for 10-fold increase <7 months = 4.3; 95 % CI: 0.4, 8.2; β for 10-fold increase ≥7 months = 0.6; 95 % CI: -2.8, 3.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged breastfeeding does not exacerbate but may mitigate some previously observed negative associations of prenatal PBDE exposure and child neurodevelopment.

Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures

Pesticides are chemical constituents used to prevent or control pests, including insects, rodents, fungi, weeds, and other unwanted organisms. Despite their advantages in crop production and disease management, the use of pesticides poses significant hazards to the environment and public health. Pesticide elements have now perpetually entered our atmosphere and subsequently contaminated water, food, and soil, leading to health threats ranging from acute to chronic toxicities. Pesticides can cause acute toxicity if a high dose is inhaled, ingested, or comes into contact with the skin or eyes, while prolonged or recurrent exposure to pesticides leads to chronic toxicity. Pesticides produce different types of toxicity, for instance, neurotoxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and endocrine disruption. The toxicity of a pesticide formulation may depend on the specific active ingredient and the presence of synergistic or inert compounds that can enhance or modify its toxicity. Safety concerns are the need of the hour to control contemporary pesticide-induced health hazards. The effectiveness and implementation of the current legislature in providing ample protection for human health and the environment are key concerns. This review explored a comprehensive summary of pesticides regarding their updated impacts on human health and advanced safety concerns with legislation. Implementing regulations, proper training, and education can help mitigate the negative impacts of pesticide use and promote safer and more sustainable agricultural practices.

The research landscape concerning environmental factors in neurodevelopmental disorders: Endocrine disrupters and pesticides-A review

In recent years, environmental epidemiology and toxicology have seen a growing interest in the environmental factors that contribute to the increased prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders, with the purpose of establishing appropriate prevention strategies. A literature review was performed, and 192 articles covering the topic of endocrine disruptors and neurodevelopmental disorders were found, focusing on polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, bisphenol A, and pesticides. This study contributes to analyzing their effect on the molecular mechanism in maternal and infant thyroid function, essential for infant neurodevelopment, and whose alteration has been associated with various neurodevelopmental disorders. The results provide scientific evidence of the association that exists between the environmental neurotoxins and various neurodevelopmental disorders. In addition, other possible molecular mechanisms by which pesticides and endocrine disruptors may be associated with neurodevelopmental disorders are being discussed.

Pesticide residue and dietary intake risk of vegetables grown in Shanghai under modern urban agriculture in 2018-2021

Shanghai as an international metropolis is representative of modern urban agriculture in China, so it is of great significance to analyse the pesticide residue in vegetables grown in Shanghai. This study investigated the residue of 68 commonly used pesticides (divided into insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and plant growth regulators) in 7028 vegetable samples in Shanghai from 2018 to 2021, and estimated the dietary intake risk of these pesticides. These samples were divided into 6 categories. A total of 29.21% of vegetable samples had pesticide residues, and 0.47% of samples exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by the national food safety standard of China. Leafy vegetables had the highest detection rate of pesticide residues (32.9%), multiple detection rate (12.2%), pesticide residue concentration (35.7 mg/kg), and the number of samples exceeding the MRL (30). There were 36 out of 68 pesticides detected in vegetables, and the top 3 were dimethomorph, propamocarb and acetamiprid. The target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI) of these noticeablepesticides were all less than 1, illustrating that there may be no obvious health hazard for residents exposed to the pesticide levels. This study can promote the green development of the pesticide industry and provide important reference data for the monitoring of pesticide residues and their hazards under modern urban agriculture.

Occurrence, seasonal variation and gas/particle partitioning of current used pesticides (CUPs) across 60 °C temperature and 30° latitudes in China

Gas and particle phases samples were collected at three sites in China in 2019-2020, with 60 °C temperature span and 30° latitude range. Totally, among 76 target current used pesticides (CUPs) with four types, 51 were quantified in at least one sample. The concentrations of individual CUPs ranged from 8 orders of magnitude, indicating different pollution levels. Herbicides were the dominated CUPs in Northeast China, while higher concentrations of fungicides were found in Southeast China. The highest concentrations of CUPs were observed in Southeast China in spring and winter, while in summer and autumn in Northeast China, caused by local climates and crop cultivation patterns. The gas/particle (G/P) partitioning of CUPs was mainly influenced by their physicochemical properties and ambient temperature. The G/P partitioning study indicated that the L-M-Y model was the optimum prediction model for herbicides, fungicides and pyrethroids. The L-M-Y model and the H-B model presented equal performance for organophosphate insecticides. To our knowledge, the L-M-Y model was firstly applied for the study of the G/P partitioning of CUPs, which provided new insights into the related fields of new emergency contaminates.

Prenatal and childhood exposure to organophosphate pesticides and functional brain imaging in young adults

BACKGROUND

Early life exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides has been linked with poorer neurodevelopment from infancy to adolescence. In our Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) birth cohort, we previously reported that residential proximity to OP use during pregnancy was associated with altered cortical activation using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in a small subset (n = 95) of participants at age 16 years.

METHODS

We administered fNIRS to 291 CHAMACOS young adults at the 18-year visit. Using covariate-adjusted regression models, we estimated associations of prenatal and childhood urinary dialkylphosphates (DAPs), non-specific OP metabolites, with cortical activation in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions of the brain during tasks of executive function and semantic language.

RESULTS

There were some suggestive associations for prenatal DAPs with altered activation patterns in both the inferior frontal and inferior parietal lobes of the left hemisphere during a task of cognitive flexibility (β per ten-fold increase in DAPs = 3.37; 95% CI: -0.02, 6.77 and β = 3.43; 95% CI: 0.64, 6.22, respectively) and the inferior and superior frontal pole/dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the right hemisphere during the letter retrieval working memory task (β = -3.10; 95% CI: -6.43, 0.22 and β = -3.67; 95% CI: -7.94, 0.59, respectively). We did not observe alterations in cortical activation with prenatal DAPs during a semantic language task or with childhood DAPs during any task.

DISCUSSION

We observed associations of prenatal OP concentrations with mild alterations in cortical activation during tasks of executive function. Associations with childhood exposure were null. This is reasonably consistent with studies of prenatal OPs and neuropsychological measures of attention and executive function found in CHAMACOS and other birth cohorts.

Prenatal to preschool exposure of nonylphenol and bisphenol A exposure and neurodevelopment in young children

BACKGROUND

Nonylphenol (NP) and bisphenol A (BPA) are produced in large quantities worldwide as multipurpose agents. However, studies on relations between NP and BPA exposure and childhood neurodevelopment are few, and the results are inconsistent. This study aimed to investigate associations between prenatal and early childhood NP and BPA exposure and neurodevelopment in mother-child pairs.

METHODS

Pregnant women at 27-38 weeks' gestation were recruited, as were children 2-3 years of age (n = 94) and 4-6 years of age (n = 56) years. Urine was collected to assess NP and BPA exposure. Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (3rd edition; Bayley-III), Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (4th edition), and the Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (WPPSI-IV-FSIQ) were used to assess the neurodevelopment of the children.

RESULTS

The detection rate and concentration of NP and BPA in the urine of children 4-6 years old were higher than in those 2-3 years old. Children were divided into a high concentration group (3rd tertile) and a reference group (1st and 2nd tertiles) based on natural log-transformed urine concentration of NP and BPA. Girls' Bayley-III motor scores in the high concentration group were higher than those of the BPA reference group of urine of mothers (β = 6.85, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.58-12.13). Boys' FSIQ in the higher concentration group were significantly lower than those in children 2-3 years old in the NP reference group (β = -11.29, 95% CI: -18.62 to -3.96) (all, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal and childhood exposure to NP and BPA may have different effects on the neurodevelopment of young children, and there are no consistent effects between boys and girls.

Urinary dialkylphosphate metabolites in the assessment of exposure to organophosphate pesticides: from 2000 to 2022

The general population and workers are exposed to organophosphate insecticides, one of the leading chemical classes of pesticides used in rural and urban areas, in the control of arboviruses and agriculture. These pesticides cause environmental/occupational exposure and associated risks to human and environmental health. The objective of this study was to carry out an integrative review of epidemiological studies that identified and quantified dialkylphosphate metabolites in the urine of exposed populations, focusing on the vector control workers, discussing the application and the results found. Searches utilized the Pubmed, Scielo, and the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD) databases between 2000 and 2021. From the 194 selected studies, 75 (39%) were with children/adolescents, 48 (24%) with rural workers, 36 (19%) with the general population, 27 (14%) with pregnant women, and 9 (4%) with vector control workers. The total dialkylphosphate concentrations found in the occupationally exposed population were higher than in the general population. Studies demonstrate that dialkylphosphates are sensitive and representative exposure biomarkers for environmental and occupational organophosphate exposure. The work revealed a lack of studies with vector control workers and a lack of studies in developing countries.

Childhood exposure to pyrethroids and neurodevelopment in Canadian preschoolers

BACKGROUND

Pyrethroid insecticides are used both residentially and agriculturally and their toxicity targets the nervous system of insects. They might also interfere with development and function of the human brain. A few epidemiological studies suggest that exposure to pyrethroids may be associated with neurobehavioral problems in children but there is little data on potential associations with cognitive outcomes. Furthermore, many studies showed that the neurotoxic effects of several pesticides are modified by sex, hence, considerations of potential sex-differences are important to investigate.

OBJECTIVE

To study the cross-sectional association between urinary levels of pyrethroid metabolites and neurodevelopment, including neurobehavioral and cognitive outcomes, in preschool-age children, and to examine whether sex might modify these associations.

METHODS

We used data from a follow-up examination of the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC), the MIREC Child Development study (MIREC-CD Plus) on children at age 3-4 years living in 6 Canadian cities. For each participant, we collected a urine sample for measurements of pyrethroids metabolites (cis-DBCA, cis-DCCA, trans-DCCA, 3-PBA, 4-F-3-PBA). We assessed neurodevelopment with the Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence-III (WPPSI-III) and two scales of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool (BRIEF-P). Parents reported children's behavior using the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 (BASC-2) and the Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2). We examined associations between children's urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations and neurodevelopmental scores with multiple linear regression models, adjusting for confounders, in boys and girls separately.

RESULTS

The study included 179 children (mean age: 3.2 y, range 2.8-4.0). The detection frequencies were high for most pyrethroid metabolites (83-100%), but lower for 4-F-3-PBA (36%). Higher concentrations of cis-DBCA were significantly associated with lower verbal, performance and full-scale IQ scores in boys (e.g., for a 2-fold increase in cis-DBCA, β = -2.0; 95% CI: -3.4, -0.6 for full-scale IQ). In girls, the only metabolite associated with cognitive scores was 3-PBA, which was associated with lower verbal IQ scores (β = -1.3, 95% CI: -2.6, -0.1). For neurobehavioral outcomes in boys, there were associations between poorer BASC-2 Adaptive Skills scores with higher concentrations of cis-DCCA (β = -1.6, 95% CI: -2.3, -0.9), trans-DCCA (β = -1.5, 95% CI: -2.2, -0.8), 3-PBA (β = -1.7, 95% CI: -2.5, -0.9), and sum of pyrethroid metabolites (β = -1.8, 95% CI: -2.6, -0.9). In girls, we observed a significant association between higher concentration of cis-DCCA and better BASC-2 Adaptive Skills score (β = 1.0; 95% CI, 0.2, 1.8), but not with other urinary pyrethroids metabolites. Scores on the SRS-2 and BRIEF-P were not associated with pyrethroid metabolites.

CONCLUSION

There were associations between some pyrethroid pesticide metabolites and indicators of neurodevelopmental disorder, especially among boys. These associations are in agreement with previous studies and could suggest that exposure to pyrethroid pesticides represents a risk of potential toxicity for the cognitive development of children, and a risk for behavioral development. However, the cross-sectional nature of this study limits causal inferences.

Vector-borne disease, climate change and perinatal health

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are caused by infectious pathogens that spread from an infected human or animal reservoir to an uninfected human via a vector (mosquito, tick, rodent, others) and remain an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Pregnant individuals and their fetuses are especially at risk, as certain pathogens, such as Zika virus, have specific implications in pregnancy and for neonatal health. Global climate change is affecting the incidence and geographic spread of many VBDs. Thus, it is important for clinicians in the fields of obstetrics/gynecology and newborn medicine, regardless of geographic location, to familiarize themselves with a basic understanding of these conditions and how climate change is altering their distributions. In this chapter, we review the incidence, clinical presentation, implications during pregnancy and intersection with climate change for four of the most important VBDs in pregnancy: malaria, Zika, dengue and Chagas disease. Although not exhaustive of all VBDs, a more extensive table is included for reference, and our discussion provides a helpful framework for understanding other vector-borne pathogens and perinatal health.

The susceptibility of humans to neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental toxicities caused by organophosphorus pesticides

The toxicology field is concerned with the impact of organophosphorus (OP) compounds on human health. These compounds have been linked to an increased risk of neurological disorders, including neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases. This article aims to review studies on the role of OP compounds in developing these neurological disorders and explore how genetic variations can affect susceptibility to the neurotoxicity of these pesticides. Studies have shown that exposure to OP compounds can lead to the development of various neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, intellectual disability, and other developmental neurotoxicities. Apart from inhibiting the cholinesterase enzyme, OP compounds are believed to cause other pathological mechanisms at both the extracellular level (cholinergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, glutamatergic, and GABAergic synapses) and the intracellular level (oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, autophagy, and apoptosis) that contribute to these disorders. Specific genetic polymorphisms, including PON1, ABCB1, NOS, DRD4, GST, CYP, and APOE, have increased the risk of developing OP-related neurological disorders.

Perinatal health effects of herbicides exposures in the United States: the Heartland Study, a Midwestern birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

The objective of the Heartland Study is to address major knowledge gaps concerning the health effects of herbicides on maternal and infant health. To achieve this goal, a two-phased, prospective longitudinal cohort study is being conducted. Phase 1 is designed to evaluate associations between biomarkers of herbicide concentration and pregnancy/childbirth outcomes. Phase 2 is designed to evaluate potential associations between herbicide biomarkers and early childhood neurological development.

METHODS

People (target enrollment of 2,000) who are seeking prenatal care, are ages 18 or older, and are ≤ 20 + 6 weeks gestation will be eligible for recruitment. The Heartland Study will utilize a combination of questionnaire data and biospecimen collections to meet the study objectives. One prenatal urine and buccal sample will be collected per trimester to assess the impact of herbicide concentration levels on pregnancy outcomes. Infant buccal specimens will be collected post-delivery. All questionnaires will be collected by trained study staff and clinic staff will remain blinded to all individual level research data. All data will be stored in a secure REDCap database. Hospitals in the agriculturally intensive states in the Midwestern region will be recruited as study sites. Currently participating clinical sites include Indiana University School of Medicine- affiliated Hospitals in Indianapolis, Indiana; Franciscan Health Center in Indianapolis, Indiana; Gundersen Lutheran Medical Center in La Crosse, Wisconsin, and University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa. An anticipated 30% of the total enrollment will be recruited from rural areas to evaluate herbicide concentrations among those pregnant people residing in the rural Midwest. Perinatal outcomes (e.g. birth outcomes, preterm birth, preeclampsia, etc.) will be extracted by trained study teams and analyzed for their relationship to herbicide concentration levels using appropriate multivariable models.

DISCUSSION

Though decades of study have shown that environmental chemicals may have important impacts on the health of parents and infants, there is a paucity of prospective longitudinal data on reproductive impacts of herbicides. The recent, rapid increases in herbicide use across agricultural regions of the United States necessitate further research into the human health effects of these chemicals, particularly in pregnant people. The Heartland Study provides an invaluable opportunity to evaluate health impacts of herbicides during pregnancy and beyond.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study is registered at clinicaltrials.gov, NCT05492708 with initial registration and release 05 August, 2022.

Follicular DNA Damage and Pesticide Exposure Among Latinx Children in Rural and Urban Communities

The intersectional risks of children in United States immigrant communities include environmental exposures. Pesticide exposures and their biological outcomes are not well characterized in this population group. We assessed pesticide exposure and related these exposures to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in Latinx children from rural, farmworker families (FW; N = 30) and from urban, non-farmworker families (NFW; N = 15) living in North Carolina. DSBs were quantified in hair follicular cells by immunostaining of 53BP1, and exposure to 72 pesticides and pesticide degradation products were determined using silicone wristbands. Cholinesterase activity was measured in blood samples. DSB frequencies were higher in FW compared to NFW children. Seasonal effects were detected in the FW group, with highest DNA damage levels in April-June and lowest levels in October-November. Acetylcholinesterase depression had the same seasonality and correlated with follicular DNA damage. Organophosphate pesticides were more frequently detected in FW than in NFW children. Participants with organophosphate detections had increased follicular DNA damage compared to participants without organophosphate detection. Follicular DNA damage did not correlate with organochlorine or pyrethroid detections and was not associated with the total number of pesticides detected in the wristbands. These results point to rural disparities in pesticide exposures and their outcomes in children from vulnerable immigrant communities. They suggest that among the different classes of pesticides, organophosphates have the strongest genotoxic effects. Assessing pesticide exposures and their consequences at the individual level is key to environmental surveillance programs. To this end, the minimally invasive combined approach used here is particularly well suited for children.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12403-023-00609-1.

Sex difference of pre- and post-natal exposure to six developmental neurotoxicants on intellectual abilities: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human studies

BACKGROUND

Early life exposure to lead, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybromide diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphate pesticides (OPPs), and phthalates have been associated with lowered IQ in children. In some studies, these neurotoxicants impact males and females differently. We aimed to examine the sex-specific effects of exposure to developmental neurotoxicants on intelligence (IQ) in a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHOD

We screened abstracts published in PsychINFO and PubMed before December 31st, 2021, for empirical studies of six neurotoxicants (lead, mercury, PCBs, PBDEs, OPPs, and phthalates) that (1) used an individualized biomarker; (2) measured exposure during the prenatal period or before age six; and (3) provided effect estimates on general, nonverbal, and/or verbal IQ by sex. We assessed each study for risk of bias and evaluated the certainty of the evidence using Navigation Guide. We performed separate random effect meta-analyses by sex and timing of exposure with subgroup analyses by neurotoxicant.

RESULTS

Fifty-one studies were included in the systematic review and 20 in the meta-analysis. Prenatal exposure to developmental neurotoxicants was associated with decreased general and nonverbal IQ in males, especially for lead. No significant effects were found for verbal IQ, or postnatal lead exposure and general IQ. Due to the limited number of studies, we were unable to analyze postnatal effects of any of the other neurotoxicants.

CONCLUSION

During fetal development, males may be more vulnerable than females to general and nonverbal intellectual deficits from neurotoxic exposures, especially from lead. More research is needed to examine the nuanced sex-specific effects found for postnatal exposure to toxic chemicals.

Neuroanatomical differences in Latinx children from rural farmworker families and urban non-farmworker families and related associations with pesticide exposure

Exposure to pesticides in humans may lead to changes in brain structure and function and increase the likelihood of experiencing neurodevelopmental disorders. Despite the potential risks, there is limited neuroimaging research on the effects of pesticide exposure on children, particularly during the critical period of brain development. Here we used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) from magnetic resonance images (MRI) to investigate neuroanatomical differences between Latinx children (n = 71) from rural, farmworker families (FW; n = 48) and urban, non-farmworker families (NFW; n = 23). Data presented here serves as a baseline for our ongoing study examining the longitudinal effects of living in a rural environment on neurodevelopment and cognition in children. The VBM analysis revealed that NFW children had higher volume in several distinct regions of white matter compared to FW children. Tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) of DTI data also indicated NFW children had higher fractional anisotropy (FA) in several key white matter tracts. Although the difference was not as pronounced as white matter, the VBM analysis also found higher gray matter volume in selected regions of the frontal lobe in NFW children. Notably, white matter and gray matter findings demonstrated a high degree of overlap in the medial frontal lobe, a brain region predominantly linked to decision-making, error processing, and attention functions. To gain further insights into the underlying causes of the observed differences in brain structure between the two groups, we examined the association of organochlorine (OC) and organophosphate (OP) exposure collected from passive dosimeter wristbands with brain structure. Based on our previous findings within this data set, demonstrating higher OC exposure in children from non-farmworker families, we hypothesized OC might play a critical role in structural differences between NFW and FW children. We discovered a significant positive correlation between the number of types of OC exposure and the structure of white matter. The regions with significant association with OC exposure were in agreement with the findings from the FW-NFW groups comparison analysis. In contrast, OPs did not have a statistically significant association with brain structure. This study is among the first multimodal neuroimaging studies examining the brain structure of children exposed to agricultural pesticides, specifically OC. These findings suggest OC pesticide exposure may disrupt normal brain development in children, highlighting the need for further neuroimaging studies within this vulnerable population.

The regulation of endocrine-disrupting chemicals to minimize their impact on health

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are substances generated by human industrial activities that are detrimental to human health through their effects on the endocrine system. The global societal and economic burden posed by EDCs is substantial. Poorly defined or unenforced policies can increase human exposure to EDCs, thereby contributing to human disease, disability and economic damage. Researchers have shown that policies and interventions implemented at both individual and government levels have the potential to reduce exposure to EDCs. This Review describes a set of evidence-based policy actions to manage, minimize or even eliminate the widespread use of these chemicals and better protect human health and society. A number of specific challenges exist: defining, identifying and prioritizing EDCs; considering the non-linear or non-monotonic properties of EDCs; accounting for EDC exposure effects that are latent and do not appear until later in life; and updating testing paradigms to reflect 'real-world' mixtures of chemicals and cumulative exposure. A sound strategy also requires partnering with health-care providers to integrate strategies to prevent EDC exposure in clinical care. Critical next steps include addressing EDCs within global policy frameworks by integrating EDC exposure prevention into emerging climate policy.

Association of Prenatal Exposure to Organophosphate, Pyrethroid, and Neonicotinoid Insecticides with Child Neurodevelopment at 2 Years of Age: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Widespread insecticide exposure might be a risk factor for neurodevelopment of our children, but few studies examined the mixture effect of maternal coexposure to organophosphate insecticides (OPPs), pyrethroids (PYRs), and neonicotinoid insecticides (NNIs) during pregnancy on child neurodevelopment, and critical windows of exposure are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the association of prenatal exposure to multiple insecticides with children's neurodevelopment and to identify critical windows of the exposure.

METHODS

Pregnant women were recruited into a prospective birth cohort study in Wuhan, China, from 2014-2017. Eight metabolites of OPPs (mOPPs), three metabolites of PYRs (mPYRs), and nine metabolites of NNIs (mNNIs) were measured in 3,123 urine samples collected at their first, second, and third trimesters. Children's neurodevelopment [mental development index (MDI) and psychomotor development index (PDI)] was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 2 years of age (N = 1,041 ). Multivariate linear regression models, generalized estimating equation models, and weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression were used to estimate the association between the insecticide metabolites and Bayley scores. Potential sex-specific associations were also examined.

RESULTS

Single chemical analysis suggested higher urinary concentrations of some insecticide metabolites at the first trimester were significantly associated with lower MDI and PDI scores, and the associations were more prominent among boys. Each 1-unit increase in ln-transformed urinary concentrations of two mOPPs, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol and 4-nitrophenol, was associated with a decrease of 3.16 points [95% confidence interval (CI): - 5.59 , - 0.74 ] and 3.06 points (95% CI: - 5.45 , - 0.68 ) respectively in boys' MDI scores. Each 1-unit increase in that of trans-3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid (trans-DCCA; an mPYR) was significantly associated with a decrease of 2.24 points (95% CI: - 3.89 , - 0.58 ) in boys' MDI scores and 1.90 points (95% CI: - 3.16 , - 0.64 ) in boys' PDI scores, respectively. Significantly positive associations of maternal urinary biomarker concentrations [e.g., dimethyl phosphate (a nonspecific mOPP) and desmethyl-clothianidin (a relatively specific mNNI)] with child neurodevelopment were also observed. Using repeated holdout validation, a 1-quartile increase in the WQS index of the insecticide mixture (in the negative direction) at the first trimester was significantly associated with a decrease of 3.02 points (95% CI: - 5.47 , - 0.57 ) in MDI scores among the boys, and trans-DCCA contributed the most to the association (18%).

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal exposure to higher levels of certain insecticides and their mixture were associated with lower Bayley scores in children, particularly in boys. Early pregnancy may be a sensitive window for such an effect. Future studies are needed to confirm our findings. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP12097.

Residue levels of organophosphate pesticides and dialkylphosphates in agricultural products in Japan

High urinary levels of dialkylphosphates (DAPs), which are common structures of organophosphate pesticides (OPs), have been associated with several adverse health outcomes in human biomonitoring studies. Previous studies have indicated that dietary OP exposure and ingestion of environmentally degraded DAP, which is inactive with acetylcholinesterase, can lead to an increase in urinary DAP levels in the general population. However, the specific food sources contributing to the intake of OPs and DAPs have not been identified. In this study, we analyzed the levels of OPs and preformed DAPs in various food items. DAP levels were markedly high in certain fruits, such as persimmon, apple juice, kiwi, and mandarin. In contrast, only moderate levels of OPs were detected in these foods. Furthermore, the levels of OPs and DAPs were positively associated with vegetables, whereas no such association was observed in fruits. Increased consumption of certain fruits presumably leads to a marked increase in urinary DAP levels in individuals despite limited exposure to OPs, resulting in reduced reliability of urinary DAPs as a marker of OP exposure. Therefore, the possible effects of dietary habits and the resulting intake of preformed DAPs should be considered when interpreting biomonitoring data of urinary DAPs. Additionally, DAP levels in most organic foods were much lower than those in conventional foods, suggesting that the reduction in urinary DAPs by organic diet intervention may be mainly attributed to the reduced intake of preformed DAPs rather than reduced exposure to OPs. Therefore, urinary DAP levels may not be suitable indicators for evaluating ingested OP exposure.

Disparities in Toxic Chemical Exposures and Associated Neurodevelopmental Outcomes: A Scoping Review and Systematic Evidence Map of the Epidemiological Literature

BACKGROUND

Children are routinely exposed to chemicals known or suspected of harming brain development. Targeting Environmental Neuro-Development Risks (Project TENDR), an alliance of > 50 leading scientists, health professionals, and advocates, is working to protect children from these toxic chemicals and pollutants, especially the disproportionate exposures experienced by children from families with low incomes and families of color.

OBJECTIVE

This scoping review was initiated to map existing literature on disparities in neurodevelopmental outcomes for U.S. children from population groups who have been historically economically/socially marginalized and exposed to seven exemplar neurotoxicants: combustion-related air pollution (AP), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), organophosphate pesticides (OPs), phthalates (Phth), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

METHODS

Systematic literature searches for the seven exemplar chemicals, informed by the Population, Exposure, Comparator, Outcome (PECO) framework, were conducted through 18 November 2022, using PubMed, CINAHL Plus (EBSCO), GreenFILE (EBSCO), and Web of Science sources. We examined these studies regarding authors' conceptualization and operationalization of race, ethnicity, and other indicators of sociodemographic and socioeconomic disadvantage; whether studies presented data on exposure and outcome disparities and the patterns of those disparities; and the evidence of effect modification by or interaction with race and ethnicity.

RESULTS

Two hundred twelve individual studies met the search criteria and were reviewed, resulting in 218 studies or investigations being included in this review. AP and Pb were the most commonly studied exposures. The most frequently identified neurodevelopmental outcomes were cognitive and behavioral/psychological. Approximately a third (74 studies) reported investigations of interactions or effect modification with 69% (51 of 74 studies) reporting the presence of interactions or effect modification. However, less than half of the studies presented data on disparities in the outcome or the exposure, and fewer conducted formal tests of heterogeneity. Ninety-two percent of the 165 articles that examined race and ethnicity did not provide an explanation of their constructs for these variables, creating an incomplete picture.

DISCUSSION

As a whole, the studies we reviewed indicated a complex story about how racial and ethnic minority and low-income children may be disproportionately harmed by exposures to neurotoxicants, and this has implications for targeting interventions, policy change, and other necessary investments to eliminate these health disparities. We provide recommendations on improving environmental epidemiological studies on environmental health disparities. To achieve environmental justice and health equity, we recommend concomitant strategies to eradicate both neurotoxic chemical exposures and systems that perpetuate social inequities. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11750.

Development and Validation of a New UFLC-MS/MS Method for the Detection of Organophosphate Pesticide Metabolites in Urine

To monitor human exposure to pesticides, experts commonly measure their metabolites in urine, particularly dialkyl phosphates (DAPs), which include diethyl phosphate (DEP), Diethyl thiophosphate (DETP), diethyl dithiophosphate (DEDTP), dimethyl phosphate (DMP), dimethyl thiophosphate (DMTP) and dimethyl dithiophosphate (DMDTP)to monitor the metabolites of organophosphates. These DAP metabolites are a urinary biomarker for assessing pesticide exposure and potential health risks. This study presented a new screening method combining ultrafast liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) to detect six DAP metabolites in human urine. The study also compared standard sample extraction methods, namely, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE); quick, easy, cheap, effective, ruggedand safe (QuEChERS); and lyophilization. After a comprehensive analysis of the methods used to extract the analytes, including recovery rate, repeatability and reproducibility, the liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) method was found to be the best. It had a high recovery rate, was easy to handle, required less sample volume and had a short extraction time. Therefore, the LLE method was chosen for further analysis. The results showed excellent performance with high recoveries between 93% and 102%, precise repeatability (RSD) between 0.62% and 5.46% and acceptable reproducibility values (RSD) between 0.80% and 11.33%. The method also had limits of detection (LOD) ranging from 0.0201 ng/mL to 0.0697 ng/mL and limits of quantification (LOQ) ranging from 0.0609 ng/mL to 0.2112 ng/mL. Furthermore, the UFLC-MS/MS method was validated based on the SANTE guidance and successfully analyzed 150 urine samples from farmers and non-farmers. This validated method proved useful for biomonitoring studies focusing on OP pesticide exposure. It offers several advantages, such as a reduced need for samples, chemicals and materials, and a shorter analysis time. The method is sensitive and selective in detecting metabolites in human urine, making it a valuable approach for the practical and efficient assessment of pesticide exposure.

Factors affecting urinary organophosphate pesticide metabolite levels among Californian agricultural community members

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are widely used in California for agricultural pest and weed control despite their well-documented adverse health effects among infants, children, and adults. We sought to identify factors affecting urinary OP metabolites among families living in high-exposure communities. Our study included 80 children and adults who lived within 61 m (200 ft) of agricultural fields in the Central Valley of California in January and June 2019, which are pesticide non-spraying and spraying seasons, respectively. We collected one urine sample per participant during each visit to measure dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites; these were coupled with in-person surveys to identify health, household, sociodemographic, pesticide exposure, and occupational risk factors. We used a data-driven, best subsets regression approach to identify key factors that influenced urinary DAPs. Participants were mostly Hispanic/Latino(a) (97.5 %), over half were female (57.5 %), and most households reported having a member who worked in agriculture (70.6 %). Among the 149 urine samples suitable for analysis, DAP metabolites were detected in 48.0 % and 40.5 % of samples during January and June, respectively. Total diethyl alkylphosphates (EDE) were only detected in 4.7 % (n = 7) of samples, but total dimethyl alkylphosphates (EDM) were detected in 41.6 % (n = 62) of samples. No differences were observed in urinary DAP levels by visit month or by occupational exposure to pesticides. Best subsets regression identified several individual- and household-level variables that influenced both urinary EDM and total DAPs: the number of years spent living at the current address, household use of chemical products to control mice/rodents, and seasonal employment status. Among adults only, we identified educational attainment (for total DAPs) and age category (for EDM) as significant factors. Our study found consistent urinary DAP metabolites among participants, regardless of spraying season, and identified potential mitigating factors that members of vulnerable populations can implement to protect their health against OP exposure.

Prenatal and Childhood Exposure to Organophosphate Pesticides and Behavior Problems in Adolescents and Young Adults in the CHAMACOS Study

BACKGROUND

We previously reported associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer neurodevelopment in early childhood and at school age, including poorer cognitive function and more behavioral problems, in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a birth cohort study in an agriculture community.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the extent to which early-life exposure to OP pesticides is associated with behavioral problems, including mental health, in youth during adolescence and early adulthood.

METHODS

We measured urinary dialkylphosphates (DAPs), nonspecific OP metabolites, in urine samples collected from mothers twice during pregnancy (13 and 26 wk) and at five different times in their children (ages 6 months to 5 y). We assessed maternal report and youth report of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems using the Behavior Assessment System for Children, 2nd edition (BASC-2), when the youth were ages 14, 16, and 18 y. Because there was evidence of nonlinearity, we estimated associations across quartiles of DAPs and modeled repeated outcome measures using generalized estimating equations.

RESULTS

There were 335 youths with prenatal maternal DAP measures and 14-. 16-, or 18-y BASC-2 scores. Prenatal maternal DAP concentrations (specific gravity-adjusted median, Q 1 - Q 3 = 159.4 , 78.7 - 350.4  nmol / L ) were associated with higher T-scores (more behavior problems) from maternal report, including more hyperactivity [fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β = 2.32 ; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.18, 4.45], aggression (β = 1.90 ; 95% CI: 0.15, 3.66), attention problems (β = 2.78 ; 95% CI: 0.26, 5.30), and depression (β = 2.66 ; 95% CI: 0.08, 5.24). Associations with youth report of externalizing problems were null, and associations with depression were suggestive (fourth vs. first quartile of exposure β = 2.15 ; 95% CI: - 0.36 , 4.67). Childhood DAP metabolites were not associated with behavioral problems.

DISCUSSION

We found associations of prenatal, but not childhood, urinary DAP concentrations with adolescent/young adult externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. These findings are consistent with prior associations we have reported with neurodevelopmental outcomes measured earlier in childhood in CHAMACOS participants and suggests that prenatal exposure to OP pesticides may have lasting effects on the behavioral health of youth as they mature into adulthood, including their mental health. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11380.

Iodine Deficiency, Maternal Hypothyroxinemia and Endocrine Disrupters Affecting Fetal Brain Development: A Scoping Review

This scoping review critically discusses the publications of the last 30 years on the impact of mild to moderate iodine deficiency and the additional impact of endocrine disrupters during pregnancy on embryonal/fetal brain development. An asymptomatic mild to moderate iodine deficiency and/or isolated maternal hypothyroxinemia might affect the development of the embryonal/fetal brain. There is sufficient evidence underlining the importance of an adequate iodine supply for all women of childbearing age in order to prevent negative mental and social consequences for their children. An additional threat to the thyroid hormone system is the ubiquitous exposure to endocrine disrupters, which might exacerbate the effects of iodine deficiency in pregnant women on the neurocognitive development of their offspring. Ensuring adequate iodine intake is therefore essential not only for healthy fetal and neonatal development in general, but it might also extenuate the effects of endocrine disruptors. Individual iodine supplementation of women of childbearing age living in areas with mild to moderate iodine deficiency is mandatory as long as worldwide universal salt iodization does not guarantee an adequate iodine supply. There is an urgent need for detailed strategies to identify and reduce exposure to endocrine disrupters according to the "precautional principle".

An all-embracing analytical method comprising modified QuEChERS-dispersive micro-solid-phase extraction-dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction using FeGA MOF for the extraction and preconcentration of pesticides simultaneously from juice and flesh of watermelon

For the first time, a comprehensive analytical method based on a one-dimensional metal-organic framework comprising "quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe-dispersive micro solid phase extraction-dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction" was introduced in this research. Moreover, the first-ever attempt was accomplished to apply the iron-gallic acid metal-organic framework in analytical method development. The goal of the research was to analyze the pesticide content of watermelon comprehensively in its flesh and juice. Based on this, comprehensive and reliable food safety monitoring can be done. Initially, pesticides of the watermelon flesh were extracted using an mL volume of acetonitrile by vortexing. At the same time, the pesticides of watermelon juice were extracted from the juice matrix onto the sorbent particles facilitated by vortexing. The obtained acetonitrile phase was also used to desorb the analytes from the sorbent surface by vortexing. As a result, the pesticide content of both juice and flesh was extracted into the acetonitrile. The pesticide-enriched acetonitrile was then used as the disperser solvent by being merged with µL level of 1,2-dibromoethane and injection into deionized water. A cloudy solution was created as the result. Centrifugation triggered extractant at the bottom of the conical glass test tube and an aliquot of it was injected into a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector. High enrichment factors (210-400), appreciable extraction recoveries (42-80%), wide linear ranges (3.20-1000 µg kg^-1), relative standard deviations in the ranges of 3.6-4.4% for intra- (n = 6) and 4.4-5.3% for inter-day (n = 3) precisions, and low limits of detection (0.43-0.97 µg kg^-1), and quantification (1.42-3.20 µg kg^-1) were obtained by the application of the developed method.

Assessment of Preschool Children's Exposure Levels to Organophosphate and Pyrethroid Pesticide: A Human Biomonitoring Study in Two Turkish Provinces

Pesticides are products developed to prevent, destroy, repel or control certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests. However, now they are one of the critical risk factors threatening the environment, and they create a significant threat to the health of children. Organophosphate (OP) and pyrethroid (PYR) pesticides are widely used in Turkey as well as all over the world. The main focus of this presented study was to analyze the OP and PYR exposure levels in urine samples obtained from 3- to 6-year-old Turkish preschool children who live in the Ankara (n:132) and Mersin (n:54) provinces. In order to measure the concentrations of three nonspecific metabolites of PYR insecticides and four nonspecific and one specific metabolite of OPs, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses were performed. The nonspecific PYR metabolite 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) found in 87.1% of samples (n = 162) and the specific OP metabolite 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPY) found in 60.2% of samples (n = 112) were the most frequently detected metabolites in all urine samples. The mean concentrations of 3-PBA and TCPY were 0.38 ± 0.8 and 0.11 ± 0.43 ng/g creatinine, respectively. Although due to the large individual variation no statistically significant differences were found between 3-PBA (p = 0.9969) and TCPY (p = 0.6558) urine levels in the two provinces, significant exposure differences were determined both between provinces and within the province in terms of gender. Risk assessment strategies performed in light of our findings do not disclose any proof of a possible health problems related to analyzed pesticide exposure in Turkish children.

Pyrethroid and Chlorpyrifos Pesticide Exposure, General Intellectual Abilities, and Executive Functions of School Children from Montevideo, Uruguay

Children's developing brains are susceptible to pesticides. Less is known about the effect of exposure to chlorpyrifos and pyrethroids on executive functions (EF). We measured urinary 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), a metabolite of chlorpyrifos, and urinary 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), a general, nonspecific metabolite of pyrethroids in first-grade children from Montevideo, Uruguay (n = 241, age 80.6 ± 6.4 months, 58.1% boys). EFs were assessed with the Intra-dimensional/Extra-dimensional shift (IED), Spatial Span (SSP), and Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) tests from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated (CANTAB) Battery. General intellectual ability (GIA) was assessed using the Woodcock-Muñoz Cognitive battery. Median (range) urinary TCPy and 3-PBA levels were 16.7 (1.9, 356.9) ng/mg of creatinine and 3.3 (0.3, 110.6) ng/mg of creatinine, respectively. In multivariable generalized linear models, urinary TCPy was inversely associated with postdimensional errors on the IED task β [95% CI]: -0.11 [-0.17, -0.06]. Urinary 3-PBA was inversely associated with the total number of trials -0.07 [-0.10, -0.04], and the total number of errors -0.12 [-0.18, -0.07] on the IED task. When TCPy and 3-PBA were modeled together, the associations did not differ from single-metabolite models. We found no evidence of effect modification by blood lead level (BLL). Pesticide exposure may affect EF performance in urban children.

Microbial Detoxification of Residual Pesticides in Fermented Foods: Current Status and Prospects

The treatment of agricultural areas with pesticides is an indispensable approach to improve crop yields and cannot be avoided in the coming decades. At the same time, significant amounts of pesticides remain in food and their ingestion causes serious damage such as neurological, gastrointestinal, and allergic reactions; cancer; and even death. However, during the fermentation processing of foods, residual amounts of pesticides are significantly reduced thanks to enzymatic degradation by the starter and accompanying microflora. This review concentrates on foods with the highest levels of pesticide residues, such as milk, yogurt, fermented vegetables (pickles, kimchi, and olives), fruit juices, grains, sourdough, and wines. The focus is on the molecular mechanisms of pesticide degradation due to the presence of specific microbial species. They contain a unique genetic pool that confers an appropriate enzymological profile to act as pesticide detoxifiers. The prospects of developing more effective biodetoxification strategies by engaging probiotic lactic acid bacteria are also discussed.

Cognitive Development and Prenatal Air Pollution Exposure in the CHAMACOS Cohort

BACKGROUND

Because fine particulate matter [PM, with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μ m (PM 2.5 )] is a ubiquitous environmental exposure, small changes in cognition associated with PM 2.5 exposure could have great societal costs. Prior studies have demonstrated a relationship between in utero PM 2.5 exposure and cognitive development in urban populations, but it is not known whether these effects are similar in rural populations and whether they persist into late childhood.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we tested for associations between prenatal PM 2.5 exposure and both full-scale and subscale measures of IQ among a longitudinal cohort at age 10.5 y.

METHODS

This analysis used data from 568 children enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a birth cohort study in California's agricultural Salinas Valley. Exposures were estimated at residential addresses during pregnancy using state of the art, modeled PM 2.5 surfaces. IQ testing was performed by bilingual psychometricians in the dominant language of the child.

RESULTS

A 3 - μ g / m 3 higher average PM 2.5 over pregnancy was associated with - 1.79 full-scale IQ points [95% confidence interval (CI): - 2.98 , - 0.58 ], with decrements specifically in Working Memory IQ (WMIQ) and Processing Speed IQ (PSIQ) subscales [WMIQ - 1.72 (95% CI: - 2.98 , - 0.45 ) and PSIQ - 1.19 (95% CI: - 2.54 , 0.16)]. Flexible modeling over the course of pregnancy illustrated mid-to-late pregnancy (months 5-7) as particularly susceptible times, with sex differences in the timing of susceptible windows and in which subscales were most affected [Verbal Comprehension IQ (VCIQ) and WMIQ in males; and PSIQ in females].

DISCUSSION

We found that small increases in outdoor PM 2.5 exposure in utero were associated with slightly lower IQ in late childhood, robust to many sensitivity analyses. In this cohort there was a larger effect of PM 2.5 on childhood IQ than has previously been observed, perhaps due to differences in PM composition or because developmental disruption could alter the cognitive trajectory and thus appear more pronounced as children get older. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10812.

Impact of endocrine disruptors from mother's diet on immuno-hormonal orchestration of brain development and introduction of the virtual human twin tool

Diet has long been known to modify physiology during development and adulthood. However, due to a growing number of manufactured contaminants and additives over the last few decades, diet has increasingly become a source of exposure to chemicals that has been associated with adverse health risks. Sources of food contaminants include the environment, crops treated with agrochemicals, inappropriate storage (e.g., mycotoxins) and migration of xenobiotics from food packaging and food production equipment. Hence, consumers are exposed to a mixture of xenobiotics, some of which are endocrine disruptors (EDs). The complex interactions between immune function and brain development and their orchestration by steroid hormones are insufficiently understood in human populations, and little is known about the impact on immune-brain interactions by transplacental fetal exposure to EDs via maternal diet. To help to identify the key data gaps, this paper aims to present (a) how transplacental EDs modify immune system and brain development, and (b) how these mechanisms may correlate with diseases such as autism and disturbances of lateral brain development. Attention is given to disturbances of the subplate, a transient structure of crucial significance in brain development. Additionally, we describe cutting edge approaches to investigate the developmental neurotoxicity of EDs, such as the application of artificial intelligence and comprehensive modelling. In the future, highly complex investigations will be performed using virtual brain models constructed using sophisticated multi-physics/multi-scale modelling strategies based on patient and synthetic data, which will enable a greater understanding of healthy or disturbed brain development.

Neurobehavioral Effects of Low-Dose Chronic Exposure to Insecticides: A Review

The modes of action of insecticides frequently involve a neurotoxic effect; therefore, the study of neurotoxic effects caused by long-term and low-dose insecticide exposure is of particular interest. This study looks at whether or not new studies conducted after 2009 and up to 2021 have provided new evidence for a better understanding of the actual neurobehavioral risk associated with long-term insecticide exposure. We selected and reviewed studies carried out on the neurobehavioral effects of neurotoxic insecticides (organophosphates and/or carbamates, pyrethroids, multiple or undefined insecticides, and organochlorines) considering occupational and non-occupational exposures. The articles were also scored and ranked based on seven parameters. Eighty-six studies were chosen for a final review process from among the 950 scientific papers identified. Twenty-six addressed occupational exposure and six environmental exposure. Among the latter group of studies, 17 focused on rural residents, to be assumed exposed because of living in rural areas, and 43 on the general population. Pending doubts have not been resolved in the last ten years due to the presence of contradictory and hardly comparable results and the fact that in most of the studies showing an evident neurobehavioral impairment the frequent presence of a previous episode of poisoning and hospitalization, with severe brain hypoxia, impaired the possibility of confirming the presence of a causal association with insecticide exposure. Interestingly, the most severely exposed groups, such as applicators who did not wear personal protective equipment, performed worse on neurobehavioral tests. As for residential exposure, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that prenatal OP exposure may increase the risk of ADHD in children.

The Evolving Need for Neuropsychology in Neurosurgical Settings: Challenges Facing Transformative Care

Clinical neuropsychology has been a valuable asset to neurologic surgery, contributing to lateralization and localization of pathologic brain tissue, identification of eloquent cortex, and evaluation of postoperative neuropsychological functioning. Moreover, neuropsychologists provide empirically driven interventions aimed at supporting preparation and/or recovery of neurosurgery patients. Nonetheless, several challenges may limit the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the assessment data obtained and reduce the usefulness of other neuropsychological services provided. Specifically, linguistic, cultural, educational, and other biases associated with demographic characteristics can lead to a narrowed view of an individual's life experiences, which must be confronted to fulfill the mission of ensuring that all patients have access to care that is appropriate to their needs. Instead of perceiving these challenges as insurmountable barriers, such issues can be viewed as opportunities to catalyze change and foster innovation for the future of neuropsychological care in neurosurgical settings. In addition to reviewing the possible mechanisms of these obstacles, the current article offers tangible solutions at both a macro level (e.g., discipline-wide transformations) and micro level (e.g., individualized patient-centric approaches). Outlined are practical techniques to potentially improve consensus and standardization of methods, advance and globalize research, expand representativeness of measures and practices to serve diverse individuals, and increase treatment adherence through engagement of patients and their families.

The Pediatrician's Role in Protecting Children from Environmental Hazards

Children suffer disproportionately from disease and disability due to environmental hazards, for reasons rooted in their biology. The contribution is substantial and increasingly recognized, particularly due to ever-increasing awareness of endocrine disruption. Regulatory actions can be traced directly to reductions in toxic exposures, with tangible benefits to society. Deep flaws remain in the policy framework in industrialized countries, failing to offer sufficient protection, but are even more limited in industrializing nations where the majority of chemical production and use will occur by 2030. Evidence-based steps for reducing chemical exposures associated with adverse health outcomes exist and should be incorporated into anticipatory guidance.

Maternal exposure to pesticides and autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders in offspring: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the association between maternal pesticide exposure and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) in offspring.

METHOD

Five databases including PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Medline, as well as PsycINFO were systematically retrieved for the records related to pesticide exposure during pregnancy and ASD and ADHD in offspring before August 30, 2022. The pesticide category, maternal age and window of exposure as the main subgroups were presented.

RESULTS

949 studies were initially identified, and 19 studies were eventually included. Eleven were on ASD, seven were on ADHD, and one was on both disorders. Maternal pesticide exposure was positively related to ASD (pooled OR = 1.19 (95%CI: 1.04 to 1.36)) and ADHD (pooled OR = 1.20 (95%CI: 1.04 to 1.38)) in offspring. In the subgroup analysis, organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) (pooled OR = 1.14 (95%CI: 1.04 to 1.24)), pyrethroid (pooled OR = 1.40 (95%CI: 1.09 to 1.80)), and maternal age ≥30 years old (pooled OR = 1.24 (95%CI: 1.10 to 1.40)) increased the risk of ASD in offspring. Maternal organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) exposure was a risk factor for ADHD in offspring (pooled OR = 1.22 (95%CI: 1.03 to 1.45)).

CONCLUSION

Maternal pesticide exposure increased the risk of ASD and ADHD in offspring. Moreover, OPs, pyrethroid, and maternal age ≥30 years old were found to be risk factors affecting children's ASD. Maternal exposure to OCPs increased the risk of ADHD in offspring. Our findings contribute to our understanding of health risks related to maternal pesticide exposure and indicate that the in utero developmental period is a vulnerable window-of-susceptibility for ASD and ADHD risk in offspring. These findings should guide policies that limit maternal exposure to pesticides, especially for pregnant women living in agricultural areas.

Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals and Children's Health

We are all exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) starting from embryonic life. The fetus and child set up crucial developmental processes allowing adaptation to the environment throughout life: they are extremely sensitive to very low doses of hormones and EDCs because they are developing organisms. Considering the developmental origin of well-being and diseases, every adult organism expresses consequences of the environment in which it developed. The molecular mechanisms through which the main EDCs manifest their effects and their potential association with endocrine disorders, such as diabetes, obesity, thyroid disease and alteration of adrenal hormones, will be reviewed here. Despite 40 years having passed since the first study on EDCs, little is yet known about them; therefore, our purpose is to take stock of the situation to establish a starting point for further studies. Since there is plenty of evidence showing that exposure to EDCs may adversely impact the health of adults and children through altered endocrine function-suggesting their link to endocrinopathies-it is essential in this context to bear in mind what is already known about endocrine disruptors and to deepen our knowledge to establish rules of conduct aimed at limiting exposure to EDCs' negative effects. Considering that during the COVID-19 pandemic an increase in endocrine disruptor effects has been reported, it will also be useful to address this new phenomenon for better understanding its basis and limiting its consequences.

Multiple neurological effects associated with exposure to organophosphorus pesticides in man

This article reviews available data regarding the possible association of organophosphorus (OP) pesticides with neurological disorders such as dementia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, neurodevelopment, autism, cognitive development, Parkinson's disease and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder. These effects mainly develop after repeated (chronic) human exposure to low doses of OP. In addition, three well defined neurotoxic effects in humans caused by single doses of OP compounds are discussed. Those effects are the cholinergic syndrome, the intermediate syndrome and organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy. Usually, the poisoning can be avoided by an improved administrative control, limited access to OP pesticides, efficient measures of personal protection and education of OP pesticide applicators and medical staff.

Determinants of organophosphorus pesticide urinary metabolite levels in pregnant women from the CHAMACOS cohort

Organophosphosphorus pesticides (OPs) are widely used as insecticides in agriculture. Human exposure to OPs has been linked to adverse effects including poorer child neurodevelopment, reduced birth weight, altered serum hormone levels, and reduced semen quality. We measured six OP dialkyl phosphate (DAP) metabolites [three dimethyl alkylphosphates (DMs) and three diethyl alkylphosphates (DEs)] in urine samples collected two times during pregnancy (~13 and ~26 weeks gestation) from 594 women participating in the CHAMACOS birth cohort study and resided in an agricultural community in the United States (U.S.) between 1999 and 2000. Previous studies have shown these women have higher OP exposures compared with the general U.S. population. We examined bivariate associations between prenatal DAP metabolite levels and exposure determinants such as age, season, years living in the US, housing characteristics, fruit and vegetable consumption, occupation and residential proximity to agricultural fields. Final multivariable models indicated that season of urine collection was significantly associated (p < 0.01) with specific gravity-adjusted DM, DE and total DAP metabolites; samples collected in fall and winter had higher concentrations than those collected in spring-summer. Specific gravity-adjusted levels of DM and total DAP metabolites were significantly higher in women who had resided in the U.S. for 5 years or less (p < 0.05). Levels of DM metabolites also increased with daily fruit and vegetable servings (p < 0.01), and levels of DE metabolites were higher in residences with poorer housekeeping quality (p < 0.01) and in mothers that worked in agriculture (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that there are multiple determinants of OP exposure in pregnant women.

Effects of Pesticide Intake on Gut Microbiota and Metabolites in Healthy Adults

Animal experiments have indicated that pesticides may affect gut microbiota, which is responsible for the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and polyamines. Here, we present a preliminary observation of the relationship between pesticide exposure and fecal SCFAs and polyamines in Japanese adults. In total, 38 healthy adults aged 69 ± 10 years (mean ± SD) were recruited and subjected to stool and spot urine tests. Urinary dialkylphosphates (DAP), 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, and glyphosate were assayed as pesticide exposure markers of organophosphorus insecticide (OP), a pyrethroid insecticide, and glyphosate, respectively. Significant negative correlations (p < 0.05, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient) were found between urinary DAP, fecal acetate (r = −0.345), and lactate (r = −0.391). Multiple regression analyses revealed that urinary DAP was a significant explanatory variable of fecal acetate concentration (p < 0.001, β = −24.0, SE = 4.9, t = −4.9) with some vegetable intake (adjusted R-square = 0.751). These findings suggest that OP exposure is independently associated with lower fecal acetate levels, which may contribute to human health in middle-aged and older adult groups. Given that the human gut environment has long-term effects on the host, studies on wide-range age groups, including children, are necessary.

The relationship between prenatal exposure to organophosphate insecticides and neurodevelopmental integrity of infants at 5-weeks of age

Introduction

Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are among the most abundantly used insecticides worldwide. Thailand ranked third among 15 Asian countries in its use of pesticides per unit hectare and fourth in annual pesticide use. More than 40% of Thai women of childbearing age work on farms where pesticides are applied. Thus, the potential for pregnant women and their fetuses to be exposed to pesticides is significant. This study investigated the relationship between early, mid, and late pregnancy maternal urine concentrations of OP metabolites and infant neural integrity at 5 weeks of age.

Method

We enrolled women employed on farms from two antenatal clinics in the Chiang Mai province of northern Thailand. We collected urine samples monthly during pregnancy, composited them by early, mid and late pregnancy and analyzed the composited samples for dialkylphosphate (DAP) metabolites of OP insecticides. At 5 weeks after birth, nurses certified in use of the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) completed the evaluation of 320 healthy infants. We employed generalized linear regression, logistic and Poisson models to determine the association between NNNS outcomes and DAP concentrations. All analyses were adjusted for confounders and included creatinine as an independent variable.

Results

We did not observe trimester specific associations between DAP concentrations and NNNS outcomes. Instead, we observed statistically significant inverse associations between NNNS arousal (β = -0.10; CI: -0.17, -0.002; p = 0.0091) and excitability [0.79 (0.68, 0.92; p = 0.0026)] among participants with higher average prenatal DAP concentrations across pregnancy. We identified 3 NNNS profiles by latent profile analysis. Higher prenatal maternal DAP concentrations were associated with higher odds of being classified in a profile indicative of greater self-regulation and attention, but arousal and excitability scores below the 50th percentile relative to US normative samples [OR = 1.47 (CI: 1.05, 2.06; p = 0.03)]. Similar findings are also observed among infants with prenatal exposure to substances of abuse (e.g., methamphetamine).

Discussion

Overall, the associations between prenatal DAP concentrations and NNNS summary scores were not significant. Further evaluations are warranted to determine the implications of low arousal and excitability for neurodevelopmental outcomes of attention and memory and whether these results are transitory or imply inadequate responsivity to stimulation among children as they develop.

Residential proximity to agricultural pesticide use and risk-taking behaviors in young adults from the CHAMACOS study

BACKGROUND

Prenatal pesticide exposure has been associated with poorer neurodevelopment during childhood, which could lead to greater risk-taking behaviors and delinquency in adolescence. This association may be augmented by adversity exposure.

OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the relationship between prenatal pesticide exposure and risk-taking behavior in young adults at 18-years of age. Assess whether adversity exposure modifies these associations.

METHODS

Participants included mother-child dyads (n = 467) enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children Of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a longitudinal birth cohort set in the agricultural Salinas Valley of California. We estimated agricultural pesticide use within one km of maternal residences during pregnancy using a geographic information system, residential addresses, and California's Pesticide Use Reporting data. We used Bayesian hierarchical regression to evaluate associations of prenatal exposure to a mixture of 11 neurotoxic pesticides with self-reported police encounters, risk-taking behaviors, and unique types and frequency of delinquent acts. We also evaluated effect modification of these relationships by adversity exposure.

RESULTS

We observed generally null associations of neurotoxic pesticide use with risk-taking behaviors. Prenatal residential proximity to chlorpyrifos use was associated with higher risk of a police encounter, a delinquent act, and higher incidence of both unique types of acts committed and total frequency of delinquent acts. Prenatal residential proximity to dimethoate use was associated with a higher incidence of police encounters and methomyl with a higher risk of committing a delinquent act. There were no consistent differences when stratified by the number of adverse childhood experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed mostly null associations between prenatal residential proximity to agricultural pesticide use and risk-taking behaviors at age 18, with little evidence of effect modification by childhood adversity. There were suggestive associations for chlorpyrifos use with having any police encounter and with all measures of delinquent acts that warrant confirmation in other studies.

Neurotoxicity of pesticides in the context of CNS chronic diseases

Following the introduction and application of pesticides in human life, they have always been along with health concerns both in acute poisoning and chronic toxicities. Neurotoxicity of pesticides in chronic exposures has been known as one of the most important human health problems, as most of these chemicals act through interacting with some elements of nervous system. Pesticide-induced neurotoxicity can be defined in different categories of neurological disorders including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer, Parkinson, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis), neurodevelopmental (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delay, and intellectual disability), neurobehavioral and neuropsychiatric (depression/suicide attempt, anxiety/insomnia, and cognitive impairment) disorders some of which are among the most debilitating human health problems. In this review, neurotoxicity of pesticides in the mentioned categories and sub-categories of neurological diseases have been systematically presented in relation to different route of exposures including general, occupational, environmental, prenatal, postnatal, and paternal.

Metabolome-wide association study of the relationship between chlorpyrifos exposure and first trimester serum metabolite levels in pregnant Thai farmworkers

INTRODUCTION

Organophosphate (OP) insecticides, including chlorpyrifos, have been linked with numerous harmful health effects on maternal and child health. Limited data are available on the biological mechanisms and endogenous pathways underlying the toxicity of chlorpyrifos exposures on pregnancy and birth outcomes. In this study, we measured a urinary chlorpyrifos metabolite and used high-resolution metabolomics (HRM) to identify biological perturbations associated with chlorpyrifos exposure among pregnant women in Thailand, who are disparately exposed to high levels of OP insecticides.

METHODS

This study included 50 participants from the Study of Asian Women and their Offspring's Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE). We used liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry to conduct metabolic profiling on first trimester serum samples collected from participants to evaluate metabolic perturbations in relation to chlorpyrifos exposures. We measured 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), a specific metabolite of chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl, in first trimester urine samples to assess the levels of exposures. Following an untargeted metabolome-wide association study workflow, we used generalized linear models, pathway enrichment analyses, and chemical annotation to identify significant metabolites and pathways associated with urinary TCPy levels.

RESULTS

In the 50 SAWASDEE participants, the median urinary TCPy level was 4.36 μg TCPy/g creatinine. In total, 691 unique metabolic features were found significantly associated with TCPy levels (p < 0.05) after controlling for confounding factors. Pathway analysis of metabolic features associated with TCPy indicated perturbations in 24 metabolic pathways, most closely linked to the production of reactive oxygen species and cellular damage. These pathways include tryptophan metabolism, fatty acid oxidation and peroxisome metabolism, cytochromes P450 metabolism, glutathione metabolism, and vitamin B3 metabolism. We confirmed the chemical identities of 25 metabolites associated with TCPy levels, including glutathione, cystine, arachidic acid, itaconate, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.

DISCUSSION

The metabolic perturbations associated with TCPy levels were related to oxidative stress, cellular damage and repair, and systemic inflammation, which could ultimately contribute to health outcomes, including neurodevelopmental deficits in the child. These findings support the future development of sensitive biomarkers to investigate the metabolic underpinnings related to pesticide exposure during pregnancy and to understand its link to adverse outcomes in children.