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Naveed M, Chao OY, Hill JW, Yang YM, Huston JP, Cao R. Circadian neurogenetics and its implications in neurophysiology, behavior, and chronomedicine. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 157:105523. [PMID: 38142983 PMCID: PMC10872425 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
The circadian rhythm affects multiple physiological processes, and disruption of the circadian system can be involved in a range of disease-related pathways. The genetic underpinnings of the circadian rhythm have been well-studied in model organisms. Significant progress has been made in understanding how clock genes affect the physiological functions of the nervous system. In addition, circadian timing is becoming a key factor in improving drug efficacy and reducing drug toxicity. The circadian biology of the target cell determines how the organ responds to the drug at a specific time of day, thus regulating pharmacodynamics. The current review brings together recent advances that have begun to unravel the molecular mechanisms of how the circadian clock affects neurophysiological and behavioral processes associated with human brain diseases. We start with a brief description of how the ubiquitous circadian rhythms are regulated at the genetic, cellular, and neural circuit levels, based on knowledge derived from extensive research on model organisms. We then summarize the latest findings from genetic studies of human brain disorders, focusing on the role of human clock gene variants in these diseases. Lastly, we discuss the impact of common dietary factors and medications on human circadian rhythms and advocate for a broader application of the concept of chronomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Naveed
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN 55812, USA; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Owen Y Chao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Jennifer W Hill
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Yi-Mei Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN 55812, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Joseph P Huston
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ruifeng Cao
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Department of Neurology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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2
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Oliveira MAB, de Abreu ACOV, Constantino DB, Tonon AC, Díez-Noguera A, Amaral FG, Hidalgo MP. Taking biological rhythms into account: From study design to results reporting. Physiol Behav 2024; 273:114387. [PMID: 37884108 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Numerous physiological and behavioral processes in living organisms exhibit strong rhythmicity and are regulated within a 24-hour cycle. These include locomotor activity and sleep patterns, feeding-fasting cycles, hormone synthesis, body temperature, and even mood and cognitive abilities, all of which are segregated into different phases throughout the day. These processes are governed by the internal timing system, a hierarchical multi-oscillator structure conserved across all organisms, from bacteria to humans. Circadian rhythms have been seen across multiple taxonomic kingdoms. In mammals, a hierarchical internal timing system is comprised of so-called central and periphereal clocks. Although these rhythms are intrinsic, they are under environmental influences, such as seasonal temperature changes, photoperiod variations, and day-night cycles. Recognizing the existence of biological rhythms and their primary external influences is crucial when designing and reporting experiments. Neglecting these physiological variations may result in inconsistent findings and misinterpretations. Thus, here we propose to incorporate biological rhythms into all stages of human and animal research, including experiment design, analysis, and reporting of findings. We also provide a flowchart to support decision-making during the design process, considering biological rhythmicity, along with a checklist outlining key factors that should be considered and documented throughout the study. This comprehensive approach not only benefits the field of chronobiology but also holds value for various other research disciplines. The insights gained from this study have the potential to enhance the validity, reproducibility, and overall quality of scientific investigations, providing valuable guidance for planning, developing, and communicating scientific studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Alves Braga Oliveira
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Graduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Odebrecht Vergne de Abreu
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - André C Tonon
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Graduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Antoni Díez-Noguera
- Department de Bioquimica i Fisiologia, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Maria Paz Hidalgo
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia e Sono do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Graduate Program in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
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3
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Birnie M, Claydon M, Troy O, Flynn B, Yoshimura M, Kershaw Y, Zhao Z, Demski-Allen R, Barker G, Warburton E, Bortolotto Z, Lightman S, Conway-Campbell B. Circadian regulation of hippocampal function is disrupted with corticosteroid treatment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2211996120. [PMID: 37023133 PMCID: PMC10104554 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2211996120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Disrupted circadian activity is associated with many neuropsychiatric disorders. A major coordinator of circadian biological systems is adrenal glucocorticoid secretion which exhibits a pronounced preawakening peak that regulates metabolic, immune, and cardiovascular processes, as well as mood and cognitive function. Loss of this circadian rhythm during corticosteroid therapy is often associated with memory impairment. Surprisingly, the mechanisms that underlie this deficit are not understood. In this study, in rats, we report that circadian regulation of the hippocampal transcriptome integrates crucial functional networks that link corticosteroid-inducible gene regulation to synaptic plasticity processes via an intrahippocampal circadian transcriptional clock. Further, these circadian hippocampal functions were significantly impacted by corticosteroid treatment delivered in a 5-d oral dosing treatment protocol. Rhythmic expression of the hippocampal transcriptome, as well as the circadian regulation of synaptic plasticity, was misaligned with the natural light/dark circadian-entraining cues, resulting in memory impairment in hippocampal-dependent behavior. These findings provide mechanistic insights into how the transcriptional clock machinery within the hippocampus is influenced by corticosteroid exposure, leading to adverse effects on critical hippocampal functions, as well as identifying a molecular basis for memory deficits in patients treated with long-acting synthetic corticosteroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T. Birnie
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew D. B. Claydon
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Troy
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin P. Flynn
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Mitsuhiro Yoshimura
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Yvonne M. Kershaw
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Zidong Zhao
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca C. R. Demski-Allen
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth R. I. Barker
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - E. Clea Warburton
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Zuner A. Bortolotto
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, BristolBS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Stafford L. Lightman
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
| | - Becky L. Conway-Campbell
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Translational Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Bristol, BristolBS1 3NY, United Kingdom
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Duhart JM, Inami S, Koh K. Many faces of sleep regulation: beyond the time of day and prior wake time. FEBS J 2023; 290:931-950. [PMID: 34908236 PMCID: PMC9198110 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The two-process model of sleep regulation posits two main processes regulating sleep: the circadian process controlled by the circadian clock and the homeostatic process that depends on the history of sleep and wakefulness. The model has provided a dominant conceptual framework for sleep research since its publication ~ 40 years ago. The time of day and prior wake time are the primary factors affecting the circadian and homeostatic processes, respectively. However, it is critical to consider other factors influencing sleep. Since sleep is incompatible with other behaviors, it is affected by the need for essential behaviors such as eating, foraging, mating, caring for offspring, and avoiding predators. Sleep is also affected by sensory inputs, sickness, increased need for memory consolidation after learning, and other factors. Here, we review multiple factors influencing sleep and discuss recent insights into the mechanisms balancing competing needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Manuel Duhart
- Department of Neuroscience, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia PA
- These authors contributed equally
- Present address: Fundación Instituto Leloir, Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sho Inami
- Department of Neuroscience, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia PA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Kyunghee Koh
- Department of Neuroscience, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia PA
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5
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Li W, Wang Z, Cao J, Dong Y, Chen Y. Perfecting the Life Clock: The Journey from PTO to TTFL. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032402. [PMID: 36768725 PMCID: PMC9916482 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquity of biological rhythms in life implies that it results from selection in the evolutionary process. The origin of the biological clock has two possible hypotheses: the selective pressure hypothesis of the oxidative stress cycle and the light evasion hypothesis. Moreover, the biological clock gives life higher adaptability. Two biological clock mechanisms have been discovered: the negative feedback loop of transcription-translation (TTFL) and the post-translational oscillation mechanism (PTO). The TTFL mechanism is the most classic and relatively conservative circadian clock oscillation mechanism, commonly found in eukaryotes. We have introduced the TTFL mechanism of the classical model organisms. However, the biological clock of prokaryotes is based on the PTO mechanism. The Peroxiredoxin (PRX or PRDX) protein-based PTO mechanism circadian clock widely existing in eukaryotic and prokaryotic life is considered a more conservative oscillation mechanism. The coexistence of the PTO and TTFL mechanisms in eukaryotes prompted us to explain the relationship between the two. Finally, we speculated that there might be a driving force for the evolution of the biological clock. The biological clock may have an evolutionary trend from the PTO mechanism to the TTFL mechanism, resulting from the evolution of organisms adapting to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weitian Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zixu Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jing Cao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yulan Dong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yaoxing Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Haidian, Beijing 100193, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-10-62733778
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6
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Donovan E, Avila C, Klausner S, Parikh V, Fenollar-Ferrer C, Blakely RD, Sarter M. Disrupted Choline Clearance and Sustained Acetylcholine Release In Vivo by a Common Choline Transporter Coding Variant Associated with Poor Attentional Control in Humans. J Neurosci 2022; 42:3426-3444. [PMID: 35232764 PMCID: PMC9034784 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1334-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Transport of choline via the neuronal high-affinity choline transporter (CHT; SLC5A7) is essential for cholinergic terminals to synthesize and release acetylcholine (ACh). In humans, we previously demonstrated an association between a common CHT coding substitution (rs1013940; Ile89Val) and reduced attentional control as well as attenuated frontal cortex activation. Here, we used a CRISPR/Cas9 approach to generate mice expressing the I89V substitution and assessed, in vivo, CHT-mediated choline transport, and ACh release. Relative to wild-type (WT) mice, CHT-mediated clearance of choline in male and female mice expressing one or two Val89 alleles was reduced by over 80% in cortex and over 50% in striatum. Choline clearance in CHT Val89 mice was further reduced by neuronal inactivation. Deficits in ACh release, 5 and 10 min after repeated depolarization at a low, behaviorally relevant frequency, support an attenuated reloading capacity of cholinergic neurons in mutant mice. The density of CHTs in total synaptosomal lysates and neuronal plasma-membrane-enriched fractions was not impacted by the Val89 variant, indicating a selective impact on CHT function. When challenged with a visual disruptor to reveal attentional control mechanisms, Val89 mice failed to adopt a more conservative response bias. Structural modeling revealed that Val89 may attenuate choline transport by altering conformational changes of CHT that support normal transport rates. Our findings support the view that diminished sustained cholinergic signaling capacity underlies perturbed attentional performance in individuals expressing CHT Val89. The CHT Val89 mouse serves as a valuable model to study heritable risk for cognitive disorders arising from cholinergic dysfunction.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Acetylcholine (ACh) signaling depends on the functional capacity of the neuronal choline transporter (CHT). Previous research demonstrated that humans expressing the common CHT coding variant Val89 exhibit attentional vulnerabilities and attenuated fronto-cortical activation during attention. Here, we find that mice engineered to express the Val89 variant exhibit reduced CHT-mediated choline clearance and a diminished capacity to sustain ACh release. Additionally, Val89 mice lack cognitive flexibility in response to an attentional challenge. These findings provide a mechanistic and cognitive framework for interpreting the attentional phenotype associated with the human Val89 variant and establish a model that permits a more invasive interrogation of CNS effects as well as the development of therapeutic strategies for those, including Val89 carriers, with presynaptic cholinergic perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eryn Donovan
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Cassandra Avila
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Sarah Klausner
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Vinay Parikh
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122
| | - Cristina Fenollar-Ferrer
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Section of Human Genetics, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Randy D Blakely
- Stiles-Nicholson Brain Institute and Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, Florida 33458
| | - Martin Sarter
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program and Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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7
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Lehr AB, McDonald RJ, Thorpe CM, Tetzlaff C, Deibel SH. A local circadian clock for memory? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 127:946-957. [PMID: 33476672 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The master clock, suprachiasmatic nucleus, is believed to control peripheral circadian oscillators throughout the brain and body. However, recent data suggest there is a circadian clock involved in learning and memory, potentially housed in the hippocampus, which is capable of acting independently of the master clock. Curiously, the hippocampal clock appears to be influenced by the master clock and by hippocampal dependent learning, while under certain conditions it may also revert to its endogenous circadian rhythm. Here we propose a mechanism by which the hippocampal clock could locally determine the nature of its entrainment. We introduce a novel theoretical framework, inspired by but extending beyond the hippocampal memory clock, which provides a new perspective on how circadian clocks throughout the brain coordinate their rhythms. Importantly, a local clock for memory would suggest that hippocampal-dependent learning at the same time every day should improve memory, opening up a range of possibilities for non-invasive therapies to alleviate the detrimental effects of circadian rhythm disruption on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew B Lehr
- Department of Computational Neuroscience, University of Göttingen, Germany; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Christian Tetzlaff
- Department of Computational Neuroscience, University of Göttingen, Germany; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Scott H Deibel
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada.
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8
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Todd WD. Potential Pathways for Circadian Dysfunction and Sundowning-Related Behavioral Aggression in Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:910. [PMID: 33013301 PMCID: PMC7494756 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias are commonly reported to exhibit aggressive behavior and other emotional behavioral disturbances, which create a tremendous caretaker burden. There has been an abundance of work highlighting the importance of circadian function on mood and emotional behavioral regulation, and recent evidence demonstrates that a specific hypothalamic pathway links the circadian system to neurons that modulate aggressive behavior, regulating the propensity for aggression across the day. Such shared circuitry may have important ramifications for clarifying the complex interactions underlying "sundowning syndrome," a poorly understood (and even controversial) clinical phenomenon in AD and dementia patients that is characterized by agitation, aggression, and delirium during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The goal of this review is to highlight the potential output and input pathways of the circadian system that may underlie circadian dysfunction and behavioral aggression associated with sundowning syndrome, and to discuss possible ways these pathways might inform specific interventions for treatment. Moreover, the apparent bidirectional relationship between chronic disruptions of circadian and sleep-wake regulation and the pathology and symptoms of AD suggest that understanding the role of these circuits in such neurobehavioral pathologies could lead to better diagnostic or even preventive measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Todd
- Program in Neuroscience, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, United States
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9
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Forebrain Cholinergic Signaling: Wired and Phasic, Not Tonic, and Causing Behavior. J Neurosci 2020; 40:712-719. [PMID: 31969489 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1305-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Conceptualizations of cholinergic signaling as primarily spatially diffuse and slow-acting are based largely on measures of extracellular brain ACh levels that require several minutes to generate a single data point. In addition, most such studies inhibited the highly potent catalytic enzyme for ACh, AChE, to facilitate measurement of ACh. Absent such inhibition, AChE limits the presence of ambient ACh and thus renders it unlikely that ACh influences target regions via slow changes in extracellular ACh concentrations. We describe an alternative view by which forebrain signaling in cortex driving cognition is largely phasic (milliseconds to perhaps seconds), and unlikely to be volume-transmitted. This alternative is supported by new evidence from real-time amperometric recordings of cholinergic signaling indicating a specific function of rapid, phasic, transient cholinergic signaling in attentional contexts. Previous neurochemical evidence may be reinterpreted in terms of integrated phasic cholinergic activity that mediates specific behavioral and cognitive operations; this reinterpretation fits well with recent computational models. Optogenetic studies support a causal relationship between cholinergic transients and behavior. This occurs in part via transient-evoked muscarinic receptor-mediated high-frequency oscillations in cortical regions. Such oscillations outlast cholinergic transients and thus link transient ACh signaling with more sustained postsynaptic activity patterns to support relatively persistent attentional biases. Reconceptualizing cholinergic function as spatially specific, phasic, and modulating specific cognitive operations is theoretically powerful and may lead to pharmacologic treatments more effective than those based on traditional views.Dual Perspectives Companion Paper: Diverse Spatiotemporal Scales of Cholinergic Signaling in the Neocortex, by Anita A. Disney and Michael J. Higley.
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10
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Balachandran RC, Hatcher KM, Sieg ML, Sullivan EK, Molina LM, Mahoney MM, Eubig PA. Pharmacological challenges examining the underlying mechanism of altered response inhibition and attention due to circadian disruption in adult Long-Evans rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 193:172915. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Ruiz-Gayo M, Olmo ND. Interaction Between Circadian Rhythms, Energy Metabolism, and Cognitive Function. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:2416-2425. [PMID: 32156228 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200310145006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between meal timing and light regulates circadian rhythms in mammals and not only determines the sleep-wake pattern but also the activity of the endocrine system. Related with that, the necessity to fulfill energy needs is a driving force that requires the participation of cognitive skills whose performance has been shown to undergo circadian variations. These facts have led to the concept that cognition and feeding behaviour can be analysed from a chronobiological perspective. In this context, research carried out during the last two decades has evidenced the link between feeding behaviour/nutritional habits and cognitive processes, and has highlighted the impact of circadian disorders on cognitive decline. All that has allowed hypothesizing a tight relationship between nutritional factors, chronobiology, and cognition. In this connection, experimental diets containing elevated amounts of fat and sugar (high-fat diets; HFDs) have been shown to alter in rodents the circadian distribution of meals, and to have a negative impact on cognition and motivational aspects of behaviour that disappear when animals are forced to adhere to a standard temporal eating pattern. In this review, we will present relevant studies focussing on the effect of HFDs on cognitive aspects of behaviour, paying particular attention to the influence that chronobiological alterations caused by these diets may have on hippocampaldependent cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Ruiz-Gayo
- Department of Health and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria D Olmo
- Department of Health and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Madrid, Spain
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12
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Newman AW, Deibel SH, Lewis LM, Viguers KB, Thorpe CM. Brief circadian rhythm disruption does not impair hippocampal dependent memory when rats are over-trained and given more re-entrainment days. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2020.101613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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13
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Khaksari M, Nakhaei P, Khastar H, Bakhtazad A, Rahimi K, Garmabi B. Circadian fluctuation in curiosity is a risk factor for morphine preference. BIOL RHYTHM RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/09291016.2020.1719682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Khaksari
- Addiction Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Parham Nakhaei
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Hosein Khastar
- School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Atefeh Bakhtazad
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kasra Rahimi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Behzad Garmabi
- School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
- Study and Treatment of Circadian Rhythms Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
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14
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Rescuing the attentional performance of rats with cholinergic losses by the M1 positive allosteric modulator TAK-071. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:137-153. [PMID: 31620809 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05354-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons contributes to the severity of the cognitive decline in age-related dementia and, in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), to impairments in gait and balance and the resulting risks for falls. Contrasting with the extensive evidence indicating an essential role of cholinergic activity in mediating cognitive, specifically attentional abilities, treatment with conventional acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) has not fulfilled the promise of efficacy of pro-cholinergic treatments. OBJECTIVES Here, we investigated the potential usefulness of a muscarinic M1 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) in an animal model of cholinergic loss-induced impairments in attentional performance. Given evidence indicating that fast, transient cholinergic signaling mediates the detection of cues in attentional contexts, we hypothesized that a M1 PAM amplifies such transient signaling and thereby rescues attentional performance. RESULTS Rats performed an operant sustained attention task (SAT), including in the presence of a distractor (dSAT) and during a post-distractor (post-dSAT) period. The post-dSAT period served to assess the capacity for recovering performance following a disruptive event. Basal forebrain infusions of the cholino-specific immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin impaired SAT performance, and greater cholinergic losses predicted lower post-dSAT performance. Administration of TAK-071 (0.1, 0.3 mg/kg, p.o., administered over 6-day blocks) improved the performance of all rats during the post-dSAT period (main effect of dose). Drug-induced improvement of post-dSAT performance was relatively greater in lesioned rats, irrespective of sex, but also manifested in female control rats. TAK-071 primarily improved perceptual sensitivity (d') in lesioned rats and facilitated the adoption of a more liberal response bias (B˝D) in all female rats. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that TAK-071 may benefit the attentional performance of patients with partial cholinergic losses and specifically in situations that tax top-down, or goal-driven, attentional control.
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Leite Góes Gitai D, de Andrade TG, Dos Santos YDR, Attaluri S, Shetty AK. Chronobiology of limbic seizures: Potential mechanisms and prospects of chronotherapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 98:122-134. [PMID: 30629979 PMCID: PMC7023906 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (mTLE) characterized by progressive development of complex partial seizures originating from the hippocampus is the most prevalent and refractory type of epilepsy. One of the remarkable features of mTLE is the rhythmic pattern of occurrence of spontaneous seizures, implying a dependence on the endogenous clock system for seizure threshold. Conversely, circadian rhythms are affected by epilepsy too. Comprehending how the circadian system and seizures interact with each other is essential for understanding the pathophysiology of epilepsy as well as for developing innovative therapies that are efficacious for better seizure control. In this review, we confer how the temporal dysregulation of the circadian clock in the hippocampus combined with multiple uncoupled oscillators could lead to periodic seizure occurrences and comorbidities. Unraveling these associations with additional research would help in developing chronotherapy for mTLE, based on the chronobiology of spontaneous seizures. Notably, differential dosing of antiepileptic drugs over the circadian period and/or strategies that resynchronize biological rhythms may substantially improve the management of seizures in mTLE patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Leite Góes Gitai
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA; Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, Maceio, Alagoas, Brazil
| | | | | | - Sahithi Attaluri
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Ashok K Shetty
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA; Research Service, Olin E. Teague Veterans' Medical Center, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, Texas, USA.
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Hatcher KM, Royston SE, Mahoney MM. Modulation of circadian rhythms through estrogen receptor signaling. Eur J Neurosci 2018; 51:217-228. [PMID: 30270552 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Circadian rhythms are physiological and behavioral processes that exhibit a 24-hr cycle. These daily rhythms are essential for living organisms to align their behavior and physiology with the environment to increase the likelihood of survival. In mammals, circadian rhythms synchronize with the environment primarily by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, a hypothalamic brain region that integrates exogenous and endogenous timing cues. Sex steroid hormones, including estrogens, are thought to modulate sexually dimorphic behaviors through developmental programming of the brain (i.e., organization), as well as acute receptor signaling during adulthood (i.e., activation). Importantly, there are known sex differences in the expression of circadian locomotor activity and molecular organization of the suprachiasmatic nucleus, likely due, in part, to the actions of circulating estrogens. Circadian locomotor rhythms, which are coordinated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, have been shown to be regulated by developmental and adult levels of circulating estrogens. Further, increasing evidence suggests that estrogens can modulate expression of circadian clock genes that are essential for orchestration of circadian rhythms by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. In this review, we will discuss the organizational and activational modulation of the circadian timekeeping system by estrogens through estrogen receptor signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M Hatcher
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Sara E Royston
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Medicine and Pain, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Spine and Pain Management, Christie Clinic, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Megan M Mahoney
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
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Nunez AA, Yan L, Smale L. The Cost of Activity during the Rest Phase: Animal Models and Theoretical Perspectives. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:72. [PMID: 29563894 PMCID: PMC5845863 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
For humans, activity during the night is correlated with multiple pathologies that may reflect a lack of harmony among components of the circadian system; however, it remains difficult to identify causal links between nocturnal activity and different pathologies based on the data available from epidemiological studies. Animal models that use forced activity or timed sleep deprivation provide evidence of circadian disruptions that may be at the core of the health risks faced by human night and shift workers. One valuable insight from that work is the importance of changes in the distribution of food intake as a cause of metabolic imbalances associated with activity during the natural rest phase. Limitations of those models stem from the use of only nocturnal laboratory rodents and the fact that they do not replicate situations in which humans engage in work with high cognitive demands or engage voluntarily in nocturnal activity (i.e., human eveningness). Temporal niche switches by rodents have been observed in the wild and interpreted as adaptive responses to energetic challenges, but possible negative outcomes, similar to those associated with human eveningness, have not been systematically studied. Species in which a proportion of animals shows a switch from a day-active to a night-active (e.g., grass rats) when given access to running wheels provide a unique opportunity to model human eveningness in a diurnal rodent. In particular, the mosaic of phases of brain oscillators in night-active grass rats may provide clues about the circadian challenges faced by humans who show voluntary nocturnal wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio A. Nunez
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- *Correspondence: Antonio A. Nunez,
| | - Lily Yan
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Laura Smale
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
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18
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Bangasser DA, Wicks B, Waxler DE, Eck SR. Touchscreen Sustained Attention Task (SAT) for Rats. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28994786 DOI: 10.3791/56219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sustained attention is the ability to monitor intermittent and unpredictable events over a prolonged period of time. This attentional process subserves other aspects of cognition and is disrupted in certain neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, it is clinically important to identify mechanisms that impair and improve sustained attention. Such mechanisms are often first discovered using rodent models. Therefore, several behavior procedures for testing aspects of sustained attention have been developed for rodents. One, first described by McGaughy and Sarter (1995), called the sustained attention task (SAT), trains rats to distinguish between signal (i.e., brief light presentation) and non-signal trials. The signals are short and thus require careful attention to be perceived. Attentional demands can be increased further by introducing a distractor (e.g., flashing houselight). We have modified this task for touchscreen operant chambers, which are configured with a touchscreen on one wall that can present stimuli and record responses. Here we detail our protocol for SAT in touchscreen chambers. Additionally, we present standard measures of performance in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Comparable performance on this task in both sexes highlights its use for attention studies, especially as more researchers are including female rodents in their experimental design. Moreover, the easy implementation of SAT for the increasingly popular touchscreen chambers increases its utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debra A Bangasser
- Psychology Department, Temple University; Neuroscience Program, Temple University;
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19
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The cholinergic forebrain arousal system acts directly on the circadian pacemaker. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:13498-13503. [PMID: 27821764 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1610342113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep and wake states are regulated by a variety of mechanisms. One such important system is the circadian clock, which provides temporal structure to sleep and wake. Conversely, changes in behavioral state, such as sleep deprivation (SD) or arousal, can phase shift the circadian clock. Here we demonstrate that the level of wakefulness is critical for this arousal resetting of the circadian clock. Specifically, drowsy animals with significant power in the 7- to 9-Hz band of their EEGs do not exhibit phase shifts in response to a mild SD procedure. We then show that treatments that both produce arousal and reset the phase of circadian clock activate (i.e., induce Fos expression in) the basal forebrain. Many of the activated cells are cholinergic. Using retrograde tract tracing, we demonstrate that cholinergic cells activated by these arousal procedures project to the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). We then demonstrate that arousal-induced phase shifts are blocked when animals are pretreated with atropine injections to the SCN, demonstrating that cholinergic activity at the SCN is necessary for arousal-induced phase shifting. Finally, we demonstrate that electrical stimulation of the substantia innominata of the basal forebrain phase shifts the circadian clock in a manner similar to that of our arousal procedures and that these shifts are also blocked by infusions of atropine to the SCN. These results establish a functional link between the major forebrain arousal center and the circadian system.
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20
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Kucinski A, de Jong IEM, Sarter M. Reducing falls in Parkinson's disease: interactions between donepezil and the 5-HT 6 receptor antagonist idalopirdine on falls in a rat model of impaired cognitive control of complex movements. Eur J Neurosci 2016; 45:217-231. [PMID: 27469080 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Falls are a leading cause of death in the elderly and, in a majority of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), the leading levodopa-insensitive cause of hospitalization and long-term care. Falling in PD has been attributed to degeneration of forebrain cholinergic neurons that, in interaction with striatal dopamine losses, impairs the cognitive control of balance, gait, and movement. We previously established an animal model of these dual cholinergic-dopaminergic losses ("DL rats") and a behavioral test system (Michigan Complex Motor Control Task, MCMCT) to measure falls associated with traversing dynamic surfaces and distractors. Because the combined treatment of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil and the 5-HT6 receptor antagonist idalopirdine (Lu AE58054) was reported to exhibit synergistic pro-cholinergic activity in rats and improved cognition in patients with moderate Alzheimer's disease, here we assessed the effects of this treatment on MCMCT performance and attention in DL rats. Compared with the vehicle-treated group, the combined treatment greatly reduced (Cohen's d = 0.96) falls in DL rats when traversing dynamic surfaces and when exposed to a passive distractor. However, falls associated with a dual task distractor and sustained attentional performance did not benefit from this treatment. Analyses of the behavior in fall-prone moments suggested that this treatment improved the efficacy and speed of re-instating forward movement after relatively short stoppages. This treatment may reduce fall propensity in PD patients via maintaining planned movement sequences in working memory and improving the vigor of executing such movements following brief periods of freezing of gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Kucinski
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | | | - Martin Sarter
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
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Hummer DL, Lee TM. Daily timing of the adolescent sleep phase: Insights from a cross-species comparison. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 70:171-181. [PMID: 27450579 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Adolescence is a time of tremendous adjustment and includes changes in cognition, emotion, independence, social environment, and physiology. One of the most consistent changes exhibited by human adolescents is a dramatic delay in the daily timing of the sleep-wake cycle. This delay is strongly correlated with pubertal maturation and is believed to be influenced by gonadal hormone-induced changes in the neural mechanisms regulating sleep and/or circadian timing. Data from both human and non-human animals indicate that developmental changes in the intrinsic period of the circadian mechanism or its sensitivity to light are not adequate to explain adolescent changes in the daily timing of sleep and wakefulness. Rather, current evidence suggests that pubertal changes in the homeostatic drive to sleep and/or behaviorally induced changes in the amount and/or timing of light exposure permit adolescents to stay up later in the evening and cause them to wake up later in the morning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Hummer
- Department of Psychology, Morehouse College, 830 Westview Dr. SW, Atlanta, GA, 30314, USA; Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30302-5090, USA.
| | - Theresa M Lee
- Department of Psychology, College of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 312 Ayres Hall, 1403 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN, 37996-1330, USA,.
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22
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Activation of M1/4 receptors phase advances the hamster circadian clock during the day. Neurosci Lett 2016; 621:22-27. [PMID: 27063283 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) can be reset by the cholinergic agonist carbachol. In hamsters, intraSCN carbachol produces phase advances during the day. This phenomenon has previously been attributed to the muscarinic receptors, as carbachol-induced phase shifts are blocked by pretreatment with the muscarinic antagonist atropine. The SCN contains all five muscarinic receptors, leaving open the question as to which muscarinic receptors mediate these shifts. Here we test two selective muscarinic agonists, the M1/4 agonist McN-A-343 and the M2/3 agonist bethanechol, in addition to the non-selective cholinergic agonist carbachol. Consistent with previous reports, carbachol produced significant phase advances when injected to the SCN during the mid-subjective day. At the doses used here, McN-A-343, but not bethanechol, also produced significant phase shifts when injected to the SCN during the mid-subjective day. Phase shifts to McN-A-343 were as large as those produced by carbachol, suggesting that activation of the M1/4 receptors alone can fully account for the daytime phase advances produced by cholinergic agonists. Given acetylcholine's role in arousal, and the similarity between phase advances to carbachol/McN-A-343 and to exercise and arousal manipulations, it is possible that acetylcholine may contribute to non-photic resetting of the circadian clock.
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de Souza CM, Carissimi A, Costa D, Francisco AP, Medeiros MS, Ilgenfritz CA, de Oliveira MA, Frey BN, Hidalgo MP. The Mood Rhythm Instrument: development and preliminary report. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PSIQUIATRIA (SAO PAULO, BRAZIL : 1999) 2016; 38:148-53. [PMID: 27304757 PMCID: PMC7111362 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2015-1763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the initial steps in the development and validation of a new self-reported instrument designed to assess daily rhythms of mood symptoms, namely, the Mood Rhythm Instrument. METHODS A multidisciplinary group of experts took part in systematic meetings to plan the construction of the instrument. Clarity of items, their relevance to evaluation of mood states, and the consistency of findings in relation to the available evidence on the biological basis of mood disorders were investigated. The internal consistency of the questionnaire was evaluated through Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS All of the items proposed in a first version were well rated in terms of clarity. The items more frequently rated as "rhythmic" were related to the somatic symptoms of mood. Their peaks in 24 hours were more frequent in the morning. The items associated with affective symptoms of mood were rated as less rhythmic, and their peak in 24 hours occurred more frequently in the afternoon and evening. Males and females behaved more similarly with respect to somatic than behavioral-affective items. The second version of the Mood Rhythm Instrument had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.73. CONCLUSION The proposed Mood Rhythm Instrument may be able to detect individual rhythms of cognitive and behavioral measures associated with mood states. Validation in larger samples and against objective measures of rhythms, such as actigraphy, is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila M. de Souza
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psiquiatria e Ciências do Comportamento, Faculdade de Medicina, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Alicia Carissimi
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psiquiatria e Ciências do Comportamento, Faculdade de Medicina, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniele Costa
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Francisco
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Carlos A. Ilgenfritz
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Melissa A. de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Benicio N. Frey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Mood Disorders Program and Women’s Health Concerns Clinic, St. Joseph’s Healthcare, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Maria Paz Hidalgo
- Laboratório de Cronobiologia, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psiquiatria e Ciências do Comportamento, Faculdade de Medicina, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Departamento de Psiquiatria e Medicina Legal, Faculdade de Medicina, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Mulder CK, Gerkema MP, Van der Zee EA. Role of Aging and Hippocampus in Time-Place Learning: Link to Episodic-Like Memory? Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 9:362. [PMID: 26834595 PMCID: PMC4717310 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION With time-place learning (TPL), animals link an event with the spatial location and the time of day (TOD). The what-where-when TPL components make the task putatively episodic-like in nature. Animals use an internal sense of time to master TPL, which is circadian system based. Finding indications for a role of the hippocampus and (early) aging-sensitivity in TPL would strengthen the episodic-like memory nature of the paradigm. METHODS Previously, we used C57Bl/6 mice for our TPL research. Here, we used CD1 mice which are less hippocampal-driven and age faster compared to C57Bl/6 mice. To demonstrate the low degree of hippocampal-driven performance in CD1 mice, a cross maze was used. The spontaneous alternation test was used to score spatial working memory in CD1 mice at four different age categories (young (3-6 months), middle-aged (7-11 months), aged (12-18 months) and old (>19 months). TPL performance of middle-aged and aged CD1 mice was tested in a setup with either two or three time points per day (2-arm or 3-arm TPL task). Immunostainings were applied on brains of young and middle-aged C57Bl/6 mice that had successfully mastered the 3-arm TPL task. RESULTS In contrast to C57Bl/6 mice, middle-aged and aged CD1 mice were less hippocampus-driven and failed to master the 3-arm TPL task. They could, however, master the 2-arm TPL task primarily via an ordinal (non-circadian) timing system. c-Fos, CRY2, vasopressin (AVP), and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB) were investigated. We found no differences at the level of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN; circadian master clock), whereas CRY2 expression was increased in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). The most pronounced difference between TPL trained and control mice was found in c-Fos expression in the paraventricular thalamic nucleus, a circadian system relay station. CONCLUSIONS These results further indicate a key role of CRY proteins in TPL and confirm the limited role of the SCN in TPL. Based on the poor TPL performance of CD1 mice, the results suggest age-sensitivity and hippocampal involvement in TPL. We suspect that TPL reflects an episodic-like memory task, but due to its functional nature, also entail the translation of experienced episodes into semantic rules acquired by training.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Mulder
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands; Department of Chronobiology, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - M P Gerkema
- Department of Chronobiology, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
| | - E A Van der Zee
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen Groningen, Netherlands
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Pellman BA, Kim E, Reilly M, Kashima J, Motch O, de la Iglesia HO, Kim JJ. Time-Specific Fear Acts as a Non-Photic Entraining Stimulus of Circadian Rhythms in Rats. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14916. [PMID: 26468624 PMCID: PMC4606733 DOI: 10.1038/srep14916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Virtually all animals have endogenous clock mechanisms that "entrain" to the light-dark (LD) cycle and synchronize psychophysiological functions to optimal times for exploring resources and avoiding dangers in the environment. Such circadian rhythms are vital to human mental health, but it is unknown whether circadian rhythms "entrained" to the LD cycle can be overridden by entrainment to daily recurring threats. We show that unsignaled nocturnal footshock caused rats living in an "ethological" apparatus to switch their natural foraging behavior from the dark to the light phase and that this switch was maintained as a free-running circadian rhythm upon removal of light cues and footshocks. Furthermore, this fear-entrained circadian behavior was dependent on an intact amygdala and suprachiasmatic nucleus. Thus, time-specific fear can act as a non-photic entraining stimulus for the circadian system, and limbic centers encoding aversive information are likely part of the circadian oscillator network that temporally organizes behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake A. Pellman
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| | - Earnest Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| | - Melissa Reilly
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| | - James Kashima
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| | - Oleksiy Motch
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| | - Horacio O. de la Iglesia
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Jeansok J. Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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Krishnan HC, Lyons LC. Synchrony and desynchrony in circadian clocks: impacts on learning and memory. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:426-37. [PMID: 26286653 PMCID: PMC4561405 DOI: 10.1101/lm.038877.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Circadian clocks evolved under conditions of environmental variation, primarily alternating light dark cycles, to enable organisms to anticipate daily environmental events and coordinate metabolic, physiological, and behavioral activities. However, modern lifestyle and advances in technology have increased the percentage of individuals working in phases misaligned with natural circadian activity rhythms. Endogenous circadian oscillators modulate alertness, the acquisition of learning, memory formation, and the recall of memory with examples of circadian modulation of memory observed across phyla from invertebrates to humans. Cognitive performance and memory are significantly diminished when occurring out of phase with natural circadian rhythms. Disruptions in circadian regulation can lead to impairment in the formation of memories and manifestation of other cognitive deficits. This review explores the types of interactions through which the circadian clock modulates cognition, highlights recent progress in identifying mechanistic interactions between the circadian system and the processes involved in memory formation, and outlines methods used to remediate circadian perturbations and reinforce circadian adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harini C Krishnan
- Department of Biological Science, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA
| | - Lisa C Lyons
- Department of Biological Science, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, USA
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Hu RF, Jiang XY, Hegadoren KM, Zhang YH. Effects of earplugs and eye masks combined with relaxing music on sleep, melatonin and cortisol levels in ICU patients: a randomized controlled trial. CRITICAL CARE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CRITICAL CARE FORUM 2015; 19:115. [PMID: 25881268 PMCID: PMC4391192 DOI: 10.1186/s13054-015-0855-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Intensive care unit (ICU) environmental factors such as noise and light have been cited as important causes of sleep deprivation in critically ill patients. Previous studies indicated that using earplugs and eye masks can improve REM sleep in healthy subjects in simulated ICU environment, and improve sleep quality in ICU patients. This study aimed to determine the effects of using earplugs and eye masks with relaxing background music on sleep, melatonin and cortisol levels in ICU patients. Methods Fifty patients who underwent a scheduled cardiac surgery and were expected to stay at least 2 nights in Cardiac Surgical ICU (CSICU) were included. They were randomized to sleep with or without earplugs and eye masks combined with 30-minute relaxing music during the postoperative nights in CSICU. Urine was analyzed for nocturnal melatonin and cortisol levels. Subjective sleep quality was evaluated using the Chinese version of Richards-Campbell Sleep Questionnaire (a visual analog scale, ranging 0–100). Results Data from 45 patients (20 in intervention group, 25 in control group) were analyzed. Significant differences were found between groups in depth of sleep, falling asleep, awakenings, falling asleep again after awakening and overall sleep quality (P < 0.05). Perceived sleep quality was better in the intervention group. No group differences were found in urinary melatonin levels and cortisol levels for the night before surgery, and the first and second nights post-surgery (P > 0.05). The urinary melatonin levels of the first and second postoperative nights were significantly lower than those of the night before surgery (P = 0.01). The opposite pattern was seen with urinary cortisol levels (P = 0.00). Conclusion This combination of non-pharmacological interventions is useful for promoting sleep in ICU adult patients; however, any influence on nocturnal melatonin levels and cortisol level may have been masked by several factors such as the timing of surgery, medication use and individual differences. Larger scale studies would be needed to examine the potential influences of these factors on biological markers and intervention efficacy on sleep. Trial registration Chinese Clinical Trial Registry: ChiCTR-IOR-14005511. Registered 21 November 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong-Fang Hu
- School of Nursing, Fujian Medical University, 1 Xue Yuan Road, University Town, Fuzhou, 350108, China.
| | - Xiao-Ying Jiang
- School of Nursing, Fujian Medical University, 1 Xue Yuan Road, University Town, Fuzhou, 350108, China.
| | - Kathleen M Hegadoren
- Faculty of Nursing, University of Alberta, 11405 87 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1C9, Canada.
| | - You-Hua Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Fujian Province Hospital, East Street 134, Fuzhou, 350001, China.
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Mulder CK, Papantoniou C, Gerkema MP, Van Der Zee EA. Neither the SCN nor the adrenals are required for circadian time-place learning in mice. Chronobiol Int 2014; 31:1075-92. [PMID: 25083974 PMCID: PMC4219850 DOI: 10.3109/07420528.2014.944975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
During Time-Place Learning (TPL), animals link biological significant events (e.g. encountering predators, food, mates) with the location and time of occurrence in the environment. This allows animals to anticipate which locations to visit or avoid based on previous experience and knowledge of the current time of day. The TPL task applied in this study consists of three daily sessions in a three-arm maze, with a food reward at the end of each arm. During each session, mice should avoid one specific arm to avoid a foot-shock. We previously demonstrated that, rather than using external cue-based strategies, mice use an internal clock (circadian strategy) for TPL, referred to as circadian TPL (cTPL). It is unknown in which brain region(s) or peripheral organ(s) the consulted clock underlying cTPL resides. Three candidates were examined in this study: (a) the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a light entrainable oscillator (LEO) and considered the master circadian clock in the brain, (b) the food entrainable oscillator (FEO), entrained by restricted food availability, and (c) the adrenal glands, harboring an important peripheral oscillator. cTPL performance should be affected if the underlying oscillator system is abruptly phase-shifted. Therefore, we first investigated cTPL sensitivity to abrupt light and food shifts. Next we investigated cTPL in SCN-lesioned- and adrenalectomized mice. Abrupt FEO phase-shifts (induced by advancing and delaying feeding time) affected TPL performance in specific test sessions while a LEO phase-shift (induced by a light pulse) more severely affected TPL performance in all three daily test sessions. SCN-lesioned mice showed no TPL deficiencies compared to SHAM-lesioned mice. Moreover, both SHAM- and SCN-lesioned mice showed unaffected cTPL performance when re-tested after bilateral adrenalectomy. We conclude that, although cTPL is sensitive to timing manipulations with light as well as food, neither the SCN nor the adrenals are required for cTPL in mice.
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Smarr BL, Jennings KJ, Driscoll JR, Kriegsfeld LJ. A time to remember: the role of circadian clocks in learning and memory. Behav Neurosci 2014; 128:283-303. [PMID: 24708297 PMCID: PMC4385793 DOI: 10.1037/a0035963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The circadian system has pronounced influence on learning and memory, manifesting as marked changes in memory acquisition and recall across the day. From a mechanistic perspective, the majority of studies have investigated mammalian hippocampal-dependent learning and memory, as this system is highly tractable. The hippocampus plays a major role in learning and memory, and has the potential to integrate circadian information in many ways, including information from local, independent oscillators, and through circadian modulation of neurogenesis, synaptic remodeling, intracellular cascades, and epigenetic regulation of gene expression. These local processes are combined with input from other oscillatory systems to synergistically augment hippocampal rhythmic function. This overview presents an account of the current state of knowledge on circadian interactions with learning and memory circuitry and provides a framework for those interested in further exploring these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L. Smarr
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720 USA
| | | | - Joseph R. Driscoll
- The Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720 USA
| | - Lance J. Kriegsfeld
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720 USA
- The Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720 USA
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Paolone G, Mallory CS, Cherian AK, Miller TR, Blakely RD, Sarter M. Monitoring cholinergic activity during attentional performance in mice heterozygous for the choline transporter: a model of cholinergic capacity limits. Neuropharmacology 2013; 75:274-85. [PMID: 23958450 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Reductions in the capacity of the human choline transporter (SLC5A7, CHT) have been hypothesized to diminish cortical cholinergic neurotransmission, leading to risk for cognitive and mood disorders. To determine the acetylcholine (ACh) release capacity of cortical cholinergic projections in a mouse model of cholinergic hypofunction, the CHT+/- mouse, we assessed extracellular ACh levels while mice performed an operant sustained attention task (SAT). We found that whereas SAT-performance-associated increases in extracellular ACh levels of CHT+/- mice were significantly attenuated relative to wildtype littermates, performance on the SAT was normal. Tetrodotoxin-induced blockade of neuronal excitability reduced both dialysate ACh levels and SAT performance similarly in both genotypes. Likewise, lesions of cholinergic neurons abolished SAT performance in both genotypes. However, cholinergic activation remained more vulnerable to the reverse-dialyzed muscarinic antagonist atropine in CHT+/- mice. Additionally, CHT+/- mice displayed greater SAT-disrupting effects of reverse dialysis of the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine. Receptor binding assays revealed a higher density of α4β2* nAChRs in the cortex of CHT+/- mice compared to controls. These findings reveal compensatory mechanisms that, in the context of moderate cognitive challenges, can overcome the performance deficits expected from the significantly reduced ACh capacity of CHT+/- cholinergic terminals. Further analyses of molecular and functional compensations in the CHT+/- model may provide insights into both risk and resiliency factors involved in cognitive and mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Paolone
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48103
| | - Caitlin S Mallory
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48103
| | - Ajeesh Koshy Cherian
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48103
| | - Thomas R Miller
- Neuroscience Discovery, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, IL 60064
| | - Randy D Blakely
- Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232-8548
| | - Martin Sarter
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48103
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Abbott SM, Arnold JM, Chang Q, Miao H, Ota N, Cecala C, Gold PE, Sweedler JV, Gillette MU. Signals from the brainstem sleep/wake centers regulate behavioral timing via the circadian clock. PLoS One 2013; 8:e70481. [PMID: 23950941 PMCID: PMC3741311 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep-wake cycling is controlled by the complex interplay between two brain systems, one which controls vigilance state, regulating the transition between sleep and wake, and the other circadian, which communicates time-of-day. Together, they align sleep appropriately with energetic need and the day-night cycle. Neural circuits connect brain stem sites that regulate vigilance state with the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the master circadian clock, but the function of these connections has been unknown. Coupling discrete stimulation of pontine nuclei controlling vigilance state with analytical chemical measurements of intra-SCN microdialysates in mouse, we found significant neurotransmitter release at the SCN and, concomitantly, resetting of behavioral circadian rhythms. Depending upon stimulus conditions and time-of-day, SCN acetylcholine and/or glutamate levels were augmented and generated shifts of behavioral rhythms. These results establish modes of neurochemical communication from brain regions controlling vigilance state to the central circadian clock, with behavioral consequences. They suggest a basis for dynamic integration across brain systems that regulate vigilance states, and a potential vulnerability to altered communication in sleep disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabra M. Abbott
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- College of Medicine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Jennifer M. Arnold
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- College of Medicine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Qing Chang
- Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Hai Miao
- Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Nobutoshi Ota
- Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Christine Cecala
- Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Paul E. Gold
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- College of Medicine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Jonathan V. Sweedler
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Martha U. Gillette
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Cell & Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- College of Medicine University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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