The relationship between motor competence and health-related fitness in children and adolescents

The Influence of Kindergarten Environment on the Development of Preschool Children's Physical Fitness

The aim of this research is to find out to what extent the special qualifications of physical education teachers and the physical environment of kindergartens influence the physical development of preschoolers. Forty-four kindergartens across Estonia participated in the study, half of which had a physical education teacher (PEt), whereas the remaining 22 kindergartens were taught by non-qualified kindergarten teachers (NoPEt). Six Eurofit fitness tests were used to assess the physical development of children (n = 704; aged 6-7 years old, with an average age of 6.55 ± 0.5 years). An analysis of variance was used to compare the mean values of the fitness test results of the two groups. Linear regression analysis was applied to clarify the influence of individual and environmental factors on children's fitness scores. In kindergartens where the position of a PEt had been created, the results of children's physical fitness were statistically significantly better, more specifically in handgrip strength (m = 12.0, 95% CI = 11.8-12.3 vs. m = 11.5, 95% CI = 11.2-11.7) and in speed tests (m = 23.0, 95% CI = 22.8-23.2 vs. m = 23.6, 95% CI = 23.3-23.8). According to the teacher interviews, these kindergartens also had more rooms and areas specially created for physical exercises. The study revealed that the physical development of children is, when controlling for other individual and environmental factors, influenced by the professional qualification of the PE teacher (95% CI = 0.06-0.56) as well as children's participation in sports training (95% CI = 0.29-0.83). These findings are important for preschool institutions and municipalities in designing the optimal physical environment for facilitating children's physical fitness.

Effect of Motor Competence and Health-Related Fitness in the Prevention of Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factors

Purpose: In the last decades we have seen an increase in sedentary behaviors and a decrease in physical activity in children when compared to past generations. This lifestyle is commonly associated with the development of clustering risk factors that define metabolic syndrome (MetS). Knowing that motor competence (MC) development can influence lifelong physical activity habits, it is reasonable to assume that children's MC will directly link to clustered cardiometabolic health outcomes. The aim of this study was to analyze the role of MC in MetS risk factors. Methods: Seventy children with a mean age of 7.49 (SD = 1.28) years were evaluated on motor competence (MCA-Motor Competence Assessment instrument), cardiovascular fitness (PACER test), upper body strength (UBS; handgrip), and the components of MetS, hypertriglyceridemia, hypertension, abdominal obesity, low concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high fasting blood glucose. The composite value of MetS was calculated according to Burns et al. (2017). Multiple standard regressions were performed to explore the effect of different variables on MetS. Motor competence and health-related fitness (cardiovascular fitness and relative upper body strength) were used as independent variables (predictors) and MetS as dependent variable. Results: Overall, the results showed that motor competence (β = -.072; p < .05) is a significant predictor and this model explained 7,1% of the variance in MetS. Conclusion: Although more studies are needed, our results indicate that MC seems to have a positive role in children's health markers.

Longitudinal pathways of associations between motor proficiency and physical fitness during earlier and later childhood: The NW-CHILD study

Understanding the relationships between motor proficiency (MP) and physical fitness (PF) is important for the future health of children, although longitudinal findings of this nature are limited. This study explored the association between MP and PF during earlier childhood (6 and 9 years old) and later childhood (12 years old) in boys and girls. A stratified and randomized research design including a baseline and two follow-up time-point measures (2010, 2013, and 2016) were used. Primary school children (N = 374, boys = 178; girls = 196) were tested with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor-Proficiency-2, Short Form, and the Test of Gross Motor Development- 2, at ages 6 and 9 years, and with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run test at age 12. Spearman Rank Order Correlations and stepwise regression analyses were used to analyze the data. Although of a low magnitude, proof of a dynamic longitudinal, but a stable relationship between MP and PF were found and with different gender-specific relationships in this pathway of association. A small but significant percentage of variation in PF at 12 years could be explained by overall motor competence (MC) and object control skills (OCS) at the ages of 6 and 9 years. Among girls, the association with PF at 12 years was influenced by both OCS, and MC, although only MC contributed to the variation found in boys. Socio-economic status made an insignificant contribution at 6 years to later PF in boys, but not in girls. MC, including OCS during early and middle childhood can be considered as possible triggers of physical activity which again, can increase PF during later childhood. Obtaining early competence in these developmental areas is therefore important to promote positive and sustainable trajectories of health with long-term health outcomes.

Correlation of fundamental movement skills with health-related fitness elements in children and adolescents: A systematic review

Objective

To examine the correlations between fundamental movement skills and health-related fitness elements (cardiopulmonary function, flexibility, body composition, muscle strength and endurance) in children and adolescents and investigate the evaluation methods and tools of fundamental movement skills and health-related fitness.

Methods

Six electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, Scopus, EBSCO and CNKI) were searched, and the research literature on the correlation between children's and adolescents' fundamental movement skills and health-related fitness published since 2002 was collected. The guidelines of the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement and the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement were used to evaluate the quality of the literature, and the sources, samples, measurement methods, main results and statistical data of the study were analyzed, summarized and discussed.

Results

After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 49 studies were included. There were 13 tools for evaluating fundamental movement skills and 4 tools for evaluating comprehensive health-related fitness in the included literature. Sufficient research evidence supports a significant positive correlation between fundamental movement skills and cardiopulmonary function (10, 100%) and muscle strength and endurance (12, 100%), and most studies support the positive correlation between fundamental movement skills and flexibility (4, 66.7%), and the significant negative correlation between fundamental movement skills and body composition (29, 67.4%). Studies used skinfold, AF%, BF%, FM, and FFMI as evaluation methods. They showed a consistently significant negative correlation between body composition and fundamental movement skills (9, 100%), while BMI or waist circumference as evaluation methods showed no consistent significant negative correlation result (20, 58.8%). Moreover, in the sub-item evaluation of fundamental movement skills, object manipulation, locomotor and balance skills were all significantly and positively correlated with cardiopulmonary function and muscle strength and endurance. In contrast, locomotor skills were more closely related to body composition than object manipulation skills.

Conclusion

A significant correlation exists between children's and adolescents' fundamental movement skills and health-related fitness elements.

Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment - Observation (PPLA-O) for adolescents (15-18 years) from grades 10-12: Development and initial validation through item response theory

Introduction

Aims of these studies were to develop the Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment Observation instrument (PPLA-O) to assess the physical and part of the cognitive domain of Physical Literacy (PL) through data collected routinely by Physical Education (PE) teachers; and to assess the construct validity (dimensionality, measurement invariance, and convergent and discriminant validity) and score reliability of one of its modules [Movement Competence, Rules, and Tactics (MCRT)].

Methods

Content analysis of the Portuguese PE syllabus and literature review were used for PPLA-O domain identification. Multidimensional Item Response Theory (MIRT) models were used to assess construct validity and reliability, along with bivariate correlations in a sample of 515 Portuguese grade 10-12 students (M _age = 16, SD = 1).

Results

PPLA-O development resulted in an instrument with two modules: MCRT (22 physical activities) and Health-Related Fitness (HRF; 5 protocols); both assessed with teacher-reported data entered in a spreadsheet. A two correlated dimensions Graded Response Model (Manipulative-based Activities [MA], and Stability-based Activities [SA]) showed best fit to the MCRT data, suggesting measurement invariance across sexes, and adequate to good score reliabilities (MA = .89, and SA = .73). There was a moderate to high correlation (r = .68) between dimensions, and boys had higher scores in both dimensions. Correlations among MCRT scores and HRF variables were similar in magnitude to previous reports in meta-analysis and systematic reviews.

Conclusions

PPLA-O is composed of two modules that integrate observational data collected by PE teachers into a common frame of criterion-referenced PL assessment. The HRF module uses data collected through widely validated FITescola® assessment protocols. The MCRT makes use of teacher-reported data collected in a wide range of activities and movement pursuits to measure movement competence and inherent cognitive skills (Tactics and Rules). We also gathered initial evidence supporting construct validity and score reliability of the MCRT module. This highly feasible instrument can provide Portuguese grade 10-12 (15-18 years) PE students with feedback on their PL journey, along with the other instrument of PPLA (PPLA-Questionnaire). Further studies should assess inter and intra-rater reliability and criterion-related validity of its two modules.

Associations of fundamental motor skill competence, isometric plank, and modified pull-ups in 5-year old children: An observational analysis of 2012 NHANES NYFS

There are purported relationships between fundamental motor skills (FMS), health-related physical fitness, physical activity, and obesity among children. The purpose of this observational, secondary data analysis was to further examine these associations in children from the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey (NYFS). 121 five-year old children (51% female) from the NYFS database completed the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd edition (TGMD-2), muscular fitness measures of plank and modified pull-ups, and weight status based on body mass index (BMI) percentile. Significant positive correlations were identified between TGMD-2 scores and both pull-ups and plank. Linear regression models, controlling for sex, weight status, and Hispanic ethnicity also identified both modified pull-ups completed and plank time as significant predictors of TGMD-2 total raw score. No demographic factors were significant factors in any of the models. This secondary data analysis identified associations between FMS and health-related physical fitness (i.e., muscular fitness), with both modified pull-ups and plank performance, in five-year old children. Results underscored the importance of different facets of health-related physical fitness contributing significantly to FMS performance and the need for more work related to physical fitness in preschool-age children.

Age and Sex Differences in the State and Relationships between Process and Product Assessments of Fundamental-Motor Skills in Five to Eight-Year-Olds: The ExAMIN Youth SA Study

Adequate development of Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) at a young age benefit holistic development and positive health outcomes. This study determined age and sex developmental differences in the state and the relationships between process and product assessments of four fundamental-motor skills (FMS) in five to eight-year-olds. An availability sample of 636 children; 291 boys, 345 girls, mean age of 6.8 ± 0.97 years in the North West Province of South Africa participated in the study. Spearman rank order correlations analyzed relationships between assessments, while sex and age differences were examined using independent t-testing and one-way ANOVA. Age showed significant developmental trajectories in all FMS. Older children were found to be more at risk for not learning FMS to mastery, while unique developmental patterns were also established compared to international trends. Strong to moderate significant practical associations (p < 0.05) emerged between process and product assessments in catching (r = 0.79), jumping (r = 0.40) running (r = −0.33) and kicking (r = 0.20), while also confirming that the strength of the associations varies depending upon the skill type. Associations strengthened with increasing age, were higher in girls in all FMS, while associations between behavioral criteria in all FMS also differed between FMS and sexes. These strong associations, need to be taken into consideration during the development of FMS towards obtaining full mastery.

Associations of Motor Competence, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Physical Activity: The Mediating Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness

Purpose: Supporting children's physical activity (PA) behavior is imperative in order to safeguard their health. In an attempt to gain a deeper understanding about children's PA behavior, the aim of this study was to investigate the associations among motor competence (MC), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and ambulatory PA during middle and late childhood. Method: A cross-sectional design was adopted and a total of 576 8-12-year-old children (M_age = 10.2 years, SD = 1.3) were examined. MC was assessed by the Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment; daily PA (steps/day) was obtained by pedometers; CRF was measured by the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run. The associations among the key study variables were investigated by correlation and mediation analyses. Using a bootstrap method, two mediation models were tested: (a) MC predicting PA through CRF, (b) PA predicting MC through CRF. Results: MC, CRF, and PA present significant and positive associations both in boys and girls (p < .05). CRF fully mediates the relationship between MC and PA in both directions [Model 1: b = .138, 95% CI (.0952, .1869), Model 2: b = .108, 95% CI (.0752, .1445)]. The pathway leading from PA to MC (R² = .375, p < .0001) has stronger predictive utility than the reverse pathway (R² = .124, p < .0001). Conclusion: MC and CRF are important predictors of children's PA participation; therefore, systematic and targeted interventions focused on the enhancement of these two factors should be used as a mechanism to reinforce children's PA behavior.

Reference centiles based on year-to-year changes for a longitudinal evaluation of motor performance in children and adolescents

Objectives

The aim was to evaluate the longitudinal course of motor skills development in children with a view to improve the understanding of intra-individual variance. Previous publications have been based on cross-sectional data or analyzed longitudinal studies in a cross-sectional manner.

Design

Longitudinal. Year-to-year change.

Methods

The present study is based on motor function data collected in the LIFE Child study (Germany). The participants (6 to 17 years) completed parts of the motor tests according to the standard of the German Motor Performance Test 6–18 (DMT). For a total of 1653 participants, 4616 motor tests with an annual interval in the period 2011 to 2019 were included in the evaluation.

Results

We were able to produce gender and age-specific change centiles for the test items standing long jump, jumping sideways, push-ups, stand and reach and balancing walking backwards. Each set of centiles revealed a range of variability in motor development in children and adolescents, with distinct progressive patterns in the different test items and different genders. The supplied tables offer an indication of expected year-to-year change for each test item depending on age and gender. Depending on the test item and the mean age, a deterioration in test results after a one-year interval was observed, despite cross-sectional centiles showing an upward trend.

Conclusion

We present a user-friendly tool as a way to assess individual dynamic changes in motor development of children and adolescents. In combination with the well-known cross-sectional centiles as baseline, this can be helpful for the scientific evaluation of motor skills tests and can also be used in school settings.

Clinical Utility and Validity of Exercise Vital Sign in Children

ABSTRACT

We reviewed charts of 14,446 sports medicine patients, children aged 5 to 18 years, over a 3-year period to determine the discriminant validity of Exercise Vital Sign (EVS) questions. A logistic regression analyzed factors related to any moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). A linear regression analyzed factors related to amount of MVPA for those who participated in any weekly MVPA. Overall, 48% of children reported meeting physical activity guidelines for 420 min·wk-1. Overall, children reported 400.36 ± 280.04 min·wk-1 of MVPA. Those with depression had significantly less MVPA than those without (95% confidence interval [CI], -96.65 to -26.31). Girls had significantly less MVPA than boys (95% CI, -59.15 to -40.31). Overweight and obese children reported less MVPA compared with normal weight children (95% CIs, -42.65 to -17.29 and -91.61 to -65.50, respectively). EVS demonstrates strong discriminant validity to detect differences between groups as a function of sex, body mass index, and depression.

Sports activity and changes in physical fitness of Polish children and adolescents: OSF study

BACKGROUND

Physical activity promotion programs for children and adolescents should constitute the basis of any national health policy aiming to improve physical fitness, which is a significant health indicator in children, adolescents, adults as well as elderly persons.

METHODS

The study included 1,230 children and adolescents aged 8-16 years (60.1% of girls) from Poland. Five hundred and twenty-seven persons covered by the survey (42.8%) participated in physical activity promotion called "Athletics for All!" (AFA) as an experimental group and 703 peers not participating in any forms of physical extra-curricular activities as a control group. Participants were measured for basic anthropometric parameters and body mass indices were calculated: Body Mass Index (BMI) and Ponderal Index (PI). Evaluation of physical fitness was made using the OSF Test (3 × 10 m shuttle run, standing broad jump, 1 kg medicine ball overhead throw, 4-min run). Comparative analysis between the experimental and control groups was carried out using the T-test for independent samples. Analysis of correlations between quantitative variables was performed with Pearson's r coefficient.

RESULTS

Statistically significant differences in all the tests were noted between the experimental group (AFA) and the control group in favor of the former one. Taking into account reference ranges of BMI created according to the latest Polish norms, statistically significant differences were noted between the subgroups in all physical fitness tests. As far as PI is concerned, in the AFA group significant differences were noted in all physical fitness tests between subgroups created in accordance with the aforementioned norms.

CONCLUSION

The findings of our study show that it is necessary to introduce physical activity promotion programs for children and adolescents. Such programs should constitute the basis of national health policy aiming at improving physical fitness among young people.

Health-Related Motor Testing of Children in Primary School: A Systematic Review of Criterion-Referenced Standards

Being physically fit in younger years prevents several diseases in the presence as well as in the life course. Therefore, monitoring physical fitness and motor competence through motor testing is essential for determining developmental status and identifying health-related risks. The main objectives of this systematic review were (1) to identify currently available health-related criterion-referenced standards and cut-off points for physical fitness and motor competence test items, (2) to frame the methodological background on setting health-related criterion-referenced standards and (3) to give implications for a health-related evaluation system for physical fitness and motor competence tests. The electronic data base search (PubMed, Web of Science and SURF) yielded 2062 records in total and identified six empirical studies reporting cut-off points of motor test items for children (7-10 years), as well as 30 methodological papers discussing determination approaches to health-related criterion-referenced standards. Data collection, selection and analyses followed the PRISMA guidelines. Health-related motor test standards need to be gender- and age-specific but should refer to an absolute cut-off point rather than to relative performance in the reference group. Due to the lack of data on health-related criterion referenced standards, receiver-operating-characteristic (ROC) curves provide a tool for the determination of cut-off points and criterion referenced standards for physical fitness and motor competence tests. A standardized approach forms the fundamental base for a globally applicable evaluation of health-related fitness tests.

Effects of Active Video Games on Health-Related Physical Fitness and Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents With Overweight or Obesity: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Childhood obesity is one of the most important public health problems. Active video games (AVGs) have been proposed as an attractive alternative to increase energy expenditure and are being investigated to determine their effectiveness against childhood obesity.

Objective

The aim of this study is to summarize the existing research and draw conclusions about the effects of AVGs on health-related physical fitness and motor competence in children and adolescents with overweight and obesity.

Methods

The search strategy was applied to PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus, including randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials investigating the effects of AVG programs on health-related physical fitness and motor competence in children and adolescents with overweight and obesity. To measure the risk of bias in randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials, 2 different quality assessment tools were used. In total, 15 articles met the inclusion criteria, and the variables of interest were BMI, body fat percentage, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), waist circumference, fat-free mass, muscular fitness, and motor competence. A meta-analysis was performed.

Results

Positive effects were found for BMI and body fat percentage, favoring the AVG group compared with a control group with no intervention (mean difference −0.209; 95% CI −0.388 to −0.031 vs mean difference −0.879; 95% CI −1.138 to −0.602). Positive effects seem to be observed for CRF. The effects of AVG interventions on muscular fitness, fat-free mass, waist circumference, and motor competence are unclear.

Conclusions

AVG programs showed positive effects on BMI, body fat percentage, and CRF. AVG could be a good strategy to combat childhood obesity.

Effects of a 4-Week Neuromuscular Training Program on Movement Competency During the Back-Squat Assessment in Pre- and Post-Peak Height Velocity Male Athletes

ABSTRACT

Dobbs, IJ, Oliver, JL, Wong, MA, Moore, IS, Myer, GD, and Lloyd, RS. Effects of a 4-week neuromuscular training program on movement competency during the back-squat assessment in pre- and post-peak height velocity male athletes. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2698-2705, 2021-The back-squat assessment (BSA) is a novel movement screen to detect functional deficits; however, its sensitivity to detect meaningful changes in movement competency after exposure to short-term neuromuscular training remains unclear. Twenty-six pre- and 22 post-peak height velocity (PHV) males were divided into experimental (EXP) and control groups (CON) and performed the BSA before and after a twice weekly, 4-week neuromuscular training intervention. Intra-rater reliability was determined by rating both EXP group's baseline BSA on 3 separate sessions. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) revealed very strong agreement for BSA total score in pre-PHV (ICC ≥ 0.81) and post-PHV (ICC ≥ 0.97) groups across all sessions, but systematic bias was evident in the pre-PHV group for sessions 1-2. Analysis of kappa values for BSA individual criteria showed greater variability for pre-PHV (K ≥ 0.31) than post-PHV (K ≥ 0.62) across sessions. At baseline, there were no differences in total score between the EXP and CON cohorts (p > 0.05). There were significant within-group improvements in total score for the EXP pre-PHV (5.0 to 3.0, effect size [ES] = 0.68) and post-PHV (2.0 to 1.0, ES = 0.82) cohorts, with no changes in total score for either CON groups (p > 0.05). Hip position was the criterion with the greatest improvement for both the EXP pre-PHV (12.0 to 7.0) and post-PHV (7.0 to 0.0) groups. The BSA seems to be a reliable screening tool for measuring movement competency in youth male athletes and was sensitive to adaptations in movement competency after neuromuscular training.

Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Overarm Throwing in Children With and Without Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) frequently have difficulties performing gross motor skills such as the overarm throw. Our study examines the differences in both qualitative and quantitative characteristics of overarm throwing for accuracy between typically developing (TD) and children with DCD. Methods: A total of 74 children (36 females/38 males) aged between 7 and 11 years, participated in this study. The authors used the Movement Assessment Battery for Children—second edition to assess motor impairment. In total, 37 (50%) met the criteria for DCD. Each participant completed 10 overarm throws for accuracy at a target. The authors assessed movement quality using the component approach (Roberton & Halverson, 1984) and quantity using target accuracy. Results: The analyses revealed significantly lower throwing accuracy in DCD versus TD children. Children with DCD also demonstrated fewer component combinations and lower developmental levels than their TD peers. Finally, product scores tracked with process scores. Discussion: Both qualitative and quantitative measures clearly showed that children with DCD are at a disadvantage in controlling a ball during overarm throwing. They used stability profiles that limited coordination variability. TD participants performed more combinations of higher developmental levels to achieve more accurate throws, suggesting they controlled variability to optimize the accuracy of their throws.

Longitudinal Locomotor Competence and Body Mass Index Across Self-Reported Gender and Vision Level for Youth With Visual Impairments: A 3-Year Investigation

Youth with visual impairments are more likely to be overweight than peers without visual impairments and often struggle with their locomotor skills. Locomotor development can combat unhealthy body weight statuses by supporting physical activity behaviors. There are no longitudinal investigations concerning the locomotor skill and body mass index (BMI) developmental trajectories of youth with visual impairments. The purpose of this study was to examine the 3-year developmental trajectory of the locomotor skills and BMI of youth with visual impairments including differential effects of self-reported gender and degree of vision. Participants (N = 34, Mage = 11.75 years, 47% female) showed severely delayed and arrested locomotor development with increases in BMI across 3 years regardless of self-reported gender or degree of vision. Participants failed to breech a proficiency barrier of motor competence to combat against increases in BMI across time. Additional longitudinal inquiries are needed.

Self-Perceptions, Parents’ Perceptions, Metaperceptions, and Locomotor Skills in Adolescents With Visual Impairments: A Preliminary Investigation

Individuals with visual impairments (VI) trend toward lower motor competence when compared with peers without VI. Various forms of perception often affects motor competence. Thus, it is important to explore factors that influence forms of perception and their differential effects on motor competence for those with VI. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to explore and describe the differential effects of age, gender, and degree of vision on self-perceptions, parents’ perceptions, metaperceptions, and locomotor skills, and to examine potential associations among all variables with actual locomotor competence for adolescents with VI. Adolescents with VI completed two questionnaires and the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition. Parents completed a parent perception questionnaire. Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis H analyses showed no differential effects for gender or age on any dependent measures. Degree of vision affected locomotor skills, but not any other factor. Spearman rho correlations showed significant associations among locomotor and self-perceptions, degree of vision and locomotor, and metaperceptions with parents’ perceptions. Adolescents reported relatively high self-perceptions and metaperceptions; however, their actual locomotor competence and parents’ perceptions were relatively low. Findings may help situate future intervention strategies targeting parents supporting their children’s locomotor skills through self-perceptions.

Relationships among Actual Motor Competence, Perceived Motor Competence, and Health-Related Fitness in College-Aged Males

Actual motor competence (MC), perceived motor competence (PMC), and health-related fitness (HRF) exhibit a dynamic and reciprocal relationship in child populations, but little is known about the nature of these relationships in young adulthood. The purpose of the study was to assess these relationships in a sample of college-aged males. A total of 55 participants enrolled in an undergraduate Kinesiology course completed the study. Perceived motor competence (PMC) was assessed with the Physical Self-Perception Profile questionnaire; MC was assessed using maximum throw and kick speed and maximum jump distance; HRF was assessed with a two-minute push-up test, two-minute sit-up test, and the Multistage 20-m Shuttle Run Test. Pearson’s bivariate correlations were calculated to assess relationships among PMC total score, MC scores, and HRF scores. Two separate indices were calculated to create composite total MC and total HRF scores used for subsequent analyses. Significant correlations were found between PMC total score, MC index, and HRF index. Multiple linear regressions were used for analyzing predictive measures for HRF and PMC scores. From the two regression models, significance varied among total MC scores, PMC scores, and HRF individual measures. These findings may suggest that relationships among MC, HRF, and PMC strengthen over developmental time in young adult males.

Assessment of Motor Development in Childhood: Contemporary Issues, Considerations, and Future Directions

Assessment of the motor domain is a critical aspect of understanding motor development. Measurement of motor development is the baseline to understand potential delays and to promote the tools for change and improvement of this domain. This paper aims to reflect on the construct of motor development and the process of assessing motor performance. We review the use of assessments in motor development research and discuss issues of validity, reliability, sensitivity, and specificity. We appraise selected assessments, describe how the use of assessments changed over the periods of study in motor development, and examine the contemporary status of assessments and its applications. Finally, and most importantly, we provide suggestions and recommendations for future directions in the field, as well as pose important questions for researchers and practitioners to consider when selecting, using, and interpreting assessment results. In light of the contemporary view of motor development and the increasing focus on health applications, we recommend the use of screening tools, short forms, and technology, as well as encouraging the use of and more research on motor development assessments in childhood.

Exploring associations between neuromuscular performance, hypermobility, and children's motor competence

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate if neuromuscular performance and hypermobility are factors associated with children's motor competence.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observation study.

METHODS

Data was collected on 60 children aged 6-12 years; motor competence was determined using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 test, with children classified into 3 groups (Typically Developing n=30; 'At Risk' of low motor competence (LMC) n=9; LMC n=21). Neuromuscular performance was determined utilising the Resistance Training Skills Battery for Children (RTSBc), 5-repetition maximum (5RM) leg press and Biodex dynamometry to assess isometric and isokinetic peak torque of the knee flexors and extensors. Hypermobility was measured using the Beighton and Lower Limb Assessment Score.

RESULTS

Between-groups MANCOVA revealed typically developing children scored significantly higher on the RTSBc than those 'at risk' of LMC (p=0.021) and those in the LMC group (p<0.001). 5RM scores also differed between groups, with typically developing children achieving significantly higher scores than the LMC group. No differences were found between groups for isometric or isokinetic measures of strength. Sequential regression analysis revealed neuromuscular performance variables explained 44.7% of the variance in motor competence, with RTSBc (p<0.001) and 5RM (p=0.019) emerging as positive significant predictors. Hypermobility failed to explain significant variance in motor competence beyond that explained by neuromuscular performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Neuromuscular performance of children varies according to levels of motor competence, with those with LMC performing poorly on tasks requiring multi-joint movement. Furthermore, neuromuscular performance predicted almost half the variance observed in motor competence and highlights a novel intervention strategy.

Intervention Effects of a Kindergarten-Based Health Promotion Programme on Motor Abilities in Early Childhood

Background: Physical activity is positively related to motor abilities. Especially in childhood, an active lifestyle is important to support healthy motor development. The low-threshold health promotion programme "Join the Healthy Boat" in kindergartens promotes physical activity in order to also improve motor abilities. Here, effects of the programme on children's motor abilities after 1 year were investigated. Materials and Methods: The longitudinal study included 419 children (3.7 ± 0.6 years) from 58 kindergartens throughout south-west Germany (intervention: 254, control: 165). Children in the intervention group received physical activity promotion with a focus on motor ability development, led by teachers, through one kindergarten year; children in the control group followed the normal kindergarten routine. At baseline and follow-up, motor tests (3-min-run, one-leg-stand, standing long jump, sit-and-reach-test) were performed, anthropometric measures (body weight and height) were taken and a parental questionnaire was issued. Intervention effects were assessed using differential measures (follow-up - baseline) adjusted for gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES) and baseline values, with covariance analyses. Results: Children in the intervention group showed a significant improvement in endurance performance ( F ( 1 . 329 ) = 20 . 95 ,   p < 0 . 000 ,   η P 2 = 0 . 060 ) , which applies to boys ( F ( 1 , 172 ) = 13 , 66 ,   p ≤ 0 . 000 ,   η P 2 = 0 , 074 )   and girls ( F ( 1 , 152 ) = 7 , 48 ,   p ≤ 0 . 007 , η P 2 = 0 , 047 ) . No significant intervention effects on endurance performance were found for children with low baseline values, children with a low SES, and children aged 5 years, nor for any other assessed motor ability. Conclusions: The theory-based, teacher-centered intervention promoting physical activity in order to also improve motor abilities has shown a positive effect on endurance performance in kindergarten children, but no other motor ability. Future interventions should therefore be either longer, more intense and take into account children's age, initial level of performance and their SES. In addition, the influence of teachers should be considered more closely in future research.

Active play in ASP -a matched-pair cluster-randomized trial investigating the effectiveness of an intervention in after-school programs for supporting children's physical activity

Background

Interventions directed at after school programs (ASPs) have the potential to support physical activity (PA) in young children. Research has indicated that interventions that emphasize competence building among the ASP staff can lead to increased PA among the children. The present study evaluates the effectiveness of the Active Play in ASP intervention—a program for ASP staff aimed at supporting physical activity among first graders in ASP.

Methods

We used a matched-pair cluster randomized design and included 456 first graders from 14 schools in Norway. From these, 7 ASPs received the intervention (N = 229), while 7 acted as controls (N = 227). Measurements were taken at baseline, immediately post intervention (7 month follow-up) and after a year (19 month follow-up). The primary outcome was moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), which was estimated with predefined cut points of counts per minute (CPM) and expressed as minutes/hour. Secondary outcomes were vigorous and light intensity physical activity (VPA and LPA) and sedentary behavior. The analyses of intervention effects were based on between-group differences in outcome changes between the 3 measurement points and were conducted using a mixed-effects model for repeated measures using categorical time. In exploratory analyses, we investigated gender, baseline body mass index, and baseline CPM as potential effect modifiers.

Results

No significant intervention effects was observed on MVPA (0.55 min/hour [99% CI -0.55:1.64]) or on the secondary outcomes, min/hour of LPA, VPA or sedentary behavior. Exploratory analyses indicated that among the 50% least physically active children at baseline, children in intervention ASPs reduced sedentary time from baseline to 19 months follow up by 1.67 min/hour (95% CI -3.12:-0.21) compared to the controls.

Conclusions

Although the intervention did not significantly increase the mean MVPA among the children in the intervention ASPs compared to controls, it did seem to have a small effect by reducing sedentary behavior time among the least active children. An even stronger emphasis on how to identify less active children and support their activity may be needed in order to increase their PA and further reduce sedentary behavior time.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials; NCT02954614, Registered 3 November 2016, −Retrospectively registered, first participant enrolled August 2016

Association between motor competence and Functional Movement Screen scores

Background

Motor competence (MC) is generally used to describe a person’s proficiency in a variety of motor skills and is the basis for one’s performance in sports and recreational activities. Functional Movement Screen (FMS^TM) is one of the most used screening systems to provide interpretable measure of movement quality. Both FMS^TM and MC constructs share three components: locomotor, manipulative and stabilizing movements. In the present study, it was hypothesized that MC scores can explain FMS^TM variables. It was also predicted that better MC leads to better functional movement patterns in young adults.

Methods

A sample of 92 young adults (73.9% men) with a mean age of 21.2 years participated in this study. All participants were evaluated on anthropometric measurements, dual x-ray absorptiometry; FMS^TM and MC.

Results

Men showed better MC scores and fat mass composition than women. Regarding specific tests, women scored higher in the FMS^TMactive straight leg raise test, whereas men performed better in the FMS^TM trunk stability push-up (TSP) test. Manipulative tasks and construct presents’ significant and positive associations with FMS^TM composite score (r ≥ 0.303). The significant negative correlation were more related to FMS^TM TSP and MC shuttle run and FMS^TM in-line lunge and MC manipulative. The FMS^TM TSP presents significant associations with all MC constructs and tasks. Meanwhile, the FMS^TM composite score is associated with all components of MC Stability (p < 0.05). In young adults, and independent of gender, the FMS^TMexplains fundamental movements based on motor control according to the stability construct. Moreover, the FMS^TM TSP is associated with better performance in the all MC constructs and MC tasks. The FMS^TM, on its own, is linked to objective MC stability measures.

Motor Competence in Adolescents: Exploring Association with Physical Fitness

The purpose of this study was twofold: First, to examine the correlation between adolescents' performance on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children -2 (MABC-2) and the Test of Motor Competence (TMC), and second, to interpret the correlation between performance on physical fitness measures and motor competence. This study had a cross-sectional design, in which 101 adolescents age 15-16 years were recruited. The participants were assessed with the MABC-2 (eight tasks), the TMC (four tasks) and physical fitness measures (four tasks). Ninety-four participants completed all the test items (51% male). The correlation between the standard score of the MABC-2 and TMC total score was found to be moderate (r = -0.418). A weak correlation was found between MABC-2 and total score of physical fitness (r = 0.278), while the correlation between TMC and physical fitness was a little stronger (r = 0.361). However, when removing one measure from the TMC (the walking/running in slopes), the correlation was weak and not significant (r = 0.109). The results suggest that different test batteries can cause discrepancy in the results regarding correlation between motor competence and physical fitness in adolescents.

Normative values of the motor competence assessment (MCA) from 3 to 23 years of age

OBJECTIVES

Growing evidence of the importance of motor competence for developing a healthy lifestyle has been established in the last decade. Nonetheless, no single instrument or observation tool have been able to fully measure this construct, particularly because most were built for the diagnosis of children in risk for motor impairment; are limited to a few years of the developmental span; lack objectivity in the assessment protocols; or do not include the locomotor, stability, and manipulative components. This led to the difficulty of comparing researches, and longitudinally follow children into adulthood. Recently, a novel proposal to assess motor competence was presented - the Motor Competence Assessment (MCA) - and this study aims to present the MCA normative data from 3-to-23 years.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Two thousand and eighty-seven participants (1102 boys) between 3 and 23 years of age were evaluated in the MCA (standing long jump, 10 m shuttle run, throwing velocity, kicking velocity, lateral jumps, shifting platforms). Results for each test were introduced in the LMS Chartmaker 2.3. The best model for test and sex was used, resulting in normative curves and percentile values.

RESULTS

Final norms showed a good fit to the instrument developmental expectations, allowing to differentiate and classify performances along the age interval.

CONCLUSIONS

The MCA age- and sex- normative values allow to assess motor competence from childhood to early adulthood. Future directions will include obtaining a total MCA score and the normative scores for the MCA components (stability, locomotion, object control), and to expand the norms to adulthood and old age.

Motor competence and health-related fitness in children: A cross-cultural comparison between Portugal and the United States

BACKGROUND

Motor competence and health-related fitness are important components for the development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle in children. This study examined cross-cultural performances on motor competence and health-related fitness between Portuguese and U.S. children.

METHODS

Portuguese (n = 508; 10.14 ± 2.13 years , mean ± SD) and U.S. (n = 710; 9.48 ± 1.62 years) children performed tests of cardiorespiratory fitness (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run), upper body strength (handgrip), locomotor skill performance (standing long jump), and object projection skill performance (throwing and kicking). Portuguese and U.S. children were divided into 2 age groups (6-9 and 10-13 years) for data analysis purposes. A two-factor one-way analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was conducted with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, handgrip, standing long jump scores, kicking, and throwing speed (km/h) as dependent variables.

RESULTS

Results indicated that Portuguese children, irrespective of sex, presented better performances in locomotor and cardiorespiratory performance (standing long jump and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run) than U.S. children in both age bands. U.S. children outperformed Portuguese children during throwing and handgrip tests. Kicking tests presented gender differences: Portuguese boys and U.S. girls outperformed their internationally matched counterparts.

CONCLUSION

Cultural differences in physical education curricula and sports participation may impact differences in motor competence and fitness development in these countries.

The role of physical activity and body-related perceptions in motor skill competence of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

Purpose: This study assessed the associations of motor skill competence with physical activity and physical self-perception of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).Study design: Cross-sectional study.Methods: A total of 63 male adolescents, aged 12-18 years, with ASD participated in the study. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Second Edition and the Chinese version of the Physical Self-Perception Profile were administered. Physical activity was assessed using a uniaxial accelerometer.Results: The main findings were that (a) both moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and self-perceived physical condition were positively related to manual coordination (MC) and strength and agility (SA); (b) moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was the only predictor of MC and accounted for 14% of the variance; and (c) perceived physical condition explained 16% of the variance in SA, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and perceived physical condition together accounted for 26% of the SA.Conclusion: Future interventions aimed at improving motor skill competence in adolescents with ASD should focus on improving the time spent on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and developing a positive perceived physical condition.Implications for rehabilitationLess than half of the participants with ASD accumulated at least 60 min of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.Of the participants with ASD, only 19% had clinical levels of total motor impairments.Activities that promote successful moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and support positive physical self-perception (i.e., physical condition) are most likely to develop motor skill competency in adolescents with ASD.

The relationship of gross upper and lower limb motor competence to measures of health and fitness in adolescents aged 13-14 years

Introduction

Motor competence (MC) is an important factor in the development of health and fitness in adolescence.

Aims

This cross-sectional study aims to explore the distribution of MC across school students aged 13–14 years old and the extent of the relationship of MC to measures of health and fitness across genders.

Methods

A total of 718 participants were tested from three different schools in the UK, 311 girls and 407 boys (aged 13–14 years), pairwise deletion for correlation variables reduced this to 555 (245 girls, 310 boys). Assessments consisted of body mass index, aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, and upper limb and lower limb MC. The distribution of MC and the strength of the relationships between MC and health/fitness measures were explored.

Results

Girls performed lower for MC and health/fitness measures compared with boys. Both measures of MC showed a normal distribution and a significant linear relationship of MC to all health and fitness measures for boys, girls and combined genders. A stronger relationship was reported for upper limb MC and aerobic capacity when compared with lower limb MC and aerobic capacity in boys (t=−2.21, degrees of freedom=307, P=0.03, 95% CI −0.253 to –0.011).

Conclusion

Normally distributed measures of upper and lower limb MC are linearly related to health and fitness measures in adolescents in a UK sample.

Trial registration number

NCT02517333.

Commentary on the Assessment and Interpretation of Pediatric Aerobic Fitness-The Year That Was 2017

Three papers, which between them contribute to the current debate on the assessment and interpretation of pediatric aerobic fitness, were selected for commentary. The first paper (Children. 2017; 4:6; doi: 10.3390/children4010006 ) highlights the merits of clinical exercise testing and advocates the advancement of pediatric exercise testing through a rationale founded on demonstrated prognostic value of data obtained. It notes the lack of well-accepted definitions of exercise outcome variables in children and promotes the case for data harmonization across laboratories. The second paper (J Appl Physiol. 2017; 122: 997-1002) argues persuasively that the acceptance of peak oxygen uptake (peak [Formula: see text]) at the termination of an exercise test to voluntary exhaustion as a surrogate for a "true" maximal value (ie, [Formula: see text]) is no longer tolerable. The authors present a compelling case for the adoption of a follow-up verification test to unambiguously validate the achievement of [Formula: see text]. The third paper (Br J Sports Med. 2017; 1-10, doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097982 ) compiles large, previously published datasets to provide a review of temporal trends in 20-m shuttle run test scores. The authors assert that temporal trends in 20-m shuttle run test performance provide meaningful insight into trends in population health. The commentary stresses the importance of scientific rigor in pediatric exercise testing, emphasizes the use of precise definitions when describing health-related variables, and cautions against the misuse of exercise outcome measures in recommendations relating to or impacting on young people's health and well-being.