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Qin J, Yuchi Z. Identification of a Novel Inhibitor of Cimex lectularius Acetylcholinesterase. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:12498-12507. [PMID: 38771663 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c03157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) stands as a primary target of commercial insecticides, notably organophosphates and carbamates. Despite their widespread use in agricultural and indoor pest control, concerns over their high toxicity and the emergence of resistance have restricted their efficacy. In this study, we conducted high-throughput virtual screening against both wild-type (WT) and resistant Cimex lectularius AChE utilizing a library encompassing 1 270 000 compounds. From this screening, we identified 100 candidate compounds and subsequently assessed their inhibitory effects on purified AChE enzymes. Among these candidates, AE027 emerged as a potent inhibitor against both WT and resistant AChE, exhibiting IC50 values of 10 and 43 μM, respectively. Moreover, the binding of AE027 significantly stabilized AChE, elevating its melting temperature by approximately 7 °C. Through molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation, we delineated the binding mode of AE027, revealing its interaction with a site adjacent to the catalytic center, which is distinct from known inhibitors, with differing poses observed between WT and resistant AChE. Notably, the resistance mutation F348Y, positioned at a site directly interfacing with AE027, impedes ligand binding through steric hindrance. Furthermore, we evaluated the toxicity and pharmacokinetic properties of AE027 utilizing bioinformatics tools. These findings lay a crucial foundation for the development of a novel generation of insecticides that can combat both WT and resistant pest populations effectively and safely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Qin
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin 300192, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiguang Yuchi
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People's Republic of China
- Haihe Laboratory of Sustainable Chemical Transformations, Tianjin 300192, People's Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute & Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin 300060, People's Republic of China
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2
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Pérez-Valera O, Torres-Martínez R, Nieto-Camacho A, Valencia I, Javier Espinosa-García F, Delgado G. Larvicidal Activity against Spodoptera frugiperda of some Constituents from two Diospyros Species. In silico Pesticide-likeness Properties, Acetylcholinesterase Activity and Molecular Docking. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202301871. [PMID: 38320175 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202301871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
This report informs for the first time the chemical constituents of Diospyros xolocotzii and Diospyros digyna, the pesticidal and the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition potential of some compounds calculated by in silico approaches, the larvicidal activity against Spodoptera frugiperda of available compounds, the AChE inhibition of selected compounds, and the results of the molecular docking of the most active ones with this receptor. From the aerial parts of D. xolocotzii were isolated pentacyclic triterpenes (1-4, 6, 10, 11-13), phytosterols (15-17), and isodiospyrin (18), whereas the analysis of aerial parts of D. digyna conducted to the isolation of pentacyclic triterpenes (4, 5, 7-9, 11-14), (4S)-shinanolone (19), and scopoletin (20). For comparison purposes, origanal (21) was chemically prepared from 11. The in silico analysis showed that the tested compounds have pesticide potential. The larvicidal activities of 11>13>12 indicated that the increase of the oxidation degree at C-28 increases their bioactivity. Compounds 11 and 21 presented the higher inhibition in the acetylcholinesterase assay, and the higher binding energies, and for the interactionswith AChE by molecular docking. Both Diospyros species are sources of triterpenes with pesticidal potential and the molecular changes in lupane triterpenes correlate with the observed bioactivity and molecular docking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Pérez-Valera
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Rafael Torres-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Ecología Química y Agroecología, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Morelia, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro, No 8701., Col. Ex-Hacienda de San José de la Huerta 58190, Michoacán, México
| | - Antonio Nieto-Camacho
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Israel Valencia
- Laboratorio de Fitoquímica, Unidad de Biología Tecnológica y Prototipos, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. De los Barrios No 1. Col. Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla 54090, Estado de México, México
| | - Francisco Javier Espinosa-García
- Laboratorio de Ecología Química y Agroecología, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Morelia, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro, No 8701., Col. Ex-Hacienda de San José de la Huerta 58190, Michoacán, México
| | - Guillermo Delgado
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, Ciudad de México, México
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Wang J, Cao Y, Lai B, Liu Y, Li C, Bu C. Discovery selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to control Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2023; 23:19. [PMID: 37578847 PMCID: PMC10424716 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iead073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, has a broad host plant range and presents an extreme capacity for developing pesticide resistance, becoming a major economic pest in agriculture. Anticholinesterase insecticides still account for a big part of global insecticide sales. However, there is a growing concern about the serious resistance problems of anticholinesterase insecticides and their nontarget toxicity. In this study, structure-based virtual screening was performed to discover selective AChE inhibitors from the ChemBridge database, and 39 potential species-specific AChE inhibitor were obtained targeting T. urticae AChE, but not human AChE. Among them, compound No. 8 inhibited AChE from T. urticae, but not from human, and had an inhibitory activity comparable to that of eserine. Compound No. 8 had dose-dependent toxicity to T. urticae in glass slide-dipping assay and had significant mite control effects in a pot experiment, but required a high concentration to achieve similar control effects to spirodiclofen. The toxicity evaluation suggested that compound No. 8 had no acute toxicity on pollinator honey bees and natural predator N. californicus and did not affect strawberry growth in our assay. Compound No. 8 is a potential lead compound for developing novel acaricides with reduced nontarget toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiachen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Center for Growth, Metabolism and Aging, Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Bin Lai
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yongshuai Liu
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Chao Li
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Chunya Bu
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
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Bava R, Castagna F, Palma E, Marrelli M, Conforti F, Musolino V, Carresi C, Lupia C, Ceniti C, Tilocca B, Roncada P, Britti D, Musella V. Essential Oils for a Sustainable Control of Honeybee Varroosis. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10050308. [PMID: 37235392 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10050308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The Varroa destructor parasite is the main obstacle to the survival of honey bee colonies. Pest control mainly involves the use of synthetic drugs which, used with the right criteria and in rotation, are able to ensure that infestation levels are kept below the damage threshold. Although these drugs are easy to use and quick to apply, they have numerous disadvantages. Their prolonged use has led to the emergence of pharmacological resistance in treated parasite populations; furthermore, the active ingredients and/or their metabolites accumulate in the beehive products with the possibility of risk for the end consumer. Moreover, the possibility of subacute and chronic toxicity phenomena for adult honeybees and their larval forms must be considered. In this scenario, eco-friendly products derived from plant species have aroused great interest over the years. In recent decades, several studies have been carried out on the acaricidal efficacy of plant essential oils (EOs). Despite the swarming of laboratory and field studies, however, few EO products have come onto the market. Laboratory studies have often yielded different results even for the same plant species. The reason for this discrepancy lies in the various study techniques employed as well as in the variability of the chemical compositions of plants. The purpose of this review is to take stock of the research on the use of EOs to control the V. destructor parasite. It begins with an extensive discussion of the characteristics, properties, and mechanisms of action of EOs, and then examines the laboratory and field tests carried out. Finally, an attempt is made to standardize the results and open up new lines of study in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Bava
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Fabio Castagna
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Ernesto Palma
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Department of Health Sciences, Institute of Research for Food Safety & Health (IRC-FISH), University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Nutramed S.c.a.r.l., Complesso Ninì Barbieri, Roccelletta di Borgia, 88021 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Mariangela Marrelli
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Rende, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Filomena Conforti
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Rende, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Musolino
- Pharmaceutical Biology Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Institute of Research for Food Safety & Health (IRC-FISH), University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Cristina Carresi
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Pharmaceutical Biology Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Institute of Research for Food Safety & Health (IRC-FISH), University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Carmine Lupia
- Mediterranean Etnobotanical Conservatory, Sersale (CZ), 88054 Catanzaro, Italy
- National Etnobotanical Conservatory, Castelluccio Superiore, 85040 Potenza, Italy
| | - Carlotta Ceniti
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Bruno Tilocca
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Paola Roncada
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Domenico Britti
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Musella
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center Veterinary Service for Human and Animal Health, University of Catanzaro Magna Græcia, CISVetSUA, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
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Ayilara MS, Adeleke BS, Akinola SA, Fayose CA, Adeyemi UT, Gbadegesin LA, Omole RK, Johnson RM, Uthman QO, Babalola OO. Biopesticides as a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides: A case for microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1040901. [PMID: 36876068 PMCID: PMC9978502 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1040901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the years, synthetic pesticides like herbicides, algicides, miticides, bactericides, fumigants, termiticides, repellents, insecticides, molluscicides, nematicides, and pheromones have been used to improve crop yield. When pesticides are used, the over-application and excess discharge into water bodies during rainfall often lead to death of fish and other aquatic life. Even when the fishes still live, their consumption by humans may lead to the biomagnification of chemicals in the body system and can cause deadly diseases, such as cancer, kidney diseases, diabetes, liver dysfunction, eczema, neurological destruction, cardiovascular diseases, and so on. Equally, synthetic pesticides harm the soil texture, soil microbes, animals, and plants. The dangers associated with the use of synthetic pesticides have necessitated the need for alternative use of organic pesticides (biopesticides), which are cheaper, environment friendly, and sustainable. Biopesticides can be sourced from microbes (e.g., metabolites), plants (e.g., from their exudates, essential oil, and extracts from bark, root, and leaves), and nanoparticles of biological origin (e.g., silver and gold nanoparticles). Unlike synthetic pesticides, microbial pesticides are specific in action, can be easily sourced without the need for expensive chemicals, and are environmentally sustainable without residual effects. Phytopesticides have myriad of phytochemical compounds that make them exhibit various mechanisms of action, likewise, they are not associated with the release of greenhouse gases and are of lesser risks to human health compared to the available synthetic pesticides. Nanobiopesticides have higher pesticidal activity, targeted or controlled release with top-notch biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this review, we examined the different types of pesticides, the merits, and demerits of synthetic pesticides and biopesticides, but more importantly, we x-rayed appropriate and sustainable approaches to improve the acceptability and commercial usage of microbial pesticides, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides for plant nutrition, crop protection/yield, animal/human health promotion, and their possible incorporation into the integrated pest management system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Modupe S. Ayilara
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kings University, Ode-Omu, Nigeria
| | - Bartholomew S. Adeleke
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Microbiology Unit, School of Science, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Nigeria
| | - Saheed A. Akinola
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, Butare, Rwanda
| | - Chris A. Fayose
- Department of Agricultural Technology, Ekiti State Polytechnic, Isan-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Uswat T. Adeyemi
- Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Lanre A. Gbadegesin
- Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Richard K. Omole
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Applied Sciences, Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria
| | | | - Qudus O. Uthman
- Soil, Water and Ecosystem Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Olubukola O. Babalola
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
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Kosińska A, Virieux D, Pirat JL, Czarnecka K, Girek M, Szymański P, Wojtulewski S, Vasudevan S, Chworos A, Rudolf B. Synthesis and Biological Studies of Novel Aminophosphonates and Their Metal Carbonyl Complexes (Fe, Ru). Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158091. [PMID: 35897660 PMCID: PMC9330042 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The quest to find new inhibitors of biologically relevant targets is considered an important strategy to introduce new drug candidates for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. A series of (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonates 8a–c and their metallocarbonyl iron 9a–c and ruthenium 10a–c complexes were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their inhibitory potentials against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) by determination of IC50. Metallocarbonyl derivatives, in general, did not show significant inhibition activity against these enzymes, the most potent inhibitor was the (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonate 8a (IC50 = 1.215 µM against AChE). Molecular docking analysis of AChE and (aminomethyl)benzylphosphonates 8a–c showed the strongest interactions of 8a and AChE compared to isomers 8b and 8c. Cytotoxicity studies of synthesized compounds towards the V79 cell line were also performed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Kosińska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland
- ICGM, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France; (D.V.); (J.-L.P.)
- Correspondence: (A.K.); (B.R.)
| | - David Virieux
- ICGM, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France; (D.V.); (J.-L.P.)
| | - Jean-Luc Pirat
- ICGM, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34090 Montpellier, France; (D.V.); (J.-L.P.)
| | - Kamila Czarnecka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analyses and Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland; (K.C.); (P.S.)
| | - Małgorzata Girek
- Animal House, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Paweł Szymański
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analyses and Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland; (K.C.); (P.S.)
- Department of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection, Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Kozielska 4, 01-163 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Sławomir Wojtulewski
- Department of Structural Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Ciołkowskiego 1K, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Saranya Vasudevan
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland; (S.V.); (A.C.)
| | - Arkadiusz Chworos
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland; (S.V.); (A.C.)
| | - Bogna Rudolf
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403 Lodz, Poland
- Correspondence: (A.K.); (B.R.)
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Coelho CMM, Pereira R, Vieira TF, Teixeira CM, Fernandes MJG, Rodrigues ARO, Pereira DM, Sousa S, Gil Fortes A, Castanheira EMS, T Gonçalves MS. Synthesis, computational and nanoencapsulation studies on eugenol-derived insecticides. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj01893d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A new set of alkoxy alcohols were synthesised by reaction of eugenol oxirane with aliphatic and aromatic alcohols. These eugenol derivatives were evaluated against their effect upon the viability of...
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8
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Margus A, Piiroinen S, Lehmann P, Grapputo A, Gilbert L, Chen YH, Lindström L. Sequence variation and regulatory variation in acetylcholinesterase genes contribute to insecticide resistance in different populations of Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:15995-16005. [PMID: 34824806 PMCID: PMC8601895 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Although insect herbivores are known to evolve resistance to insecticides through multiple genetic mechanisms, resistance in individual species has been assumed to follow the same mechanism. While both mutations in the target site insensitivity and increased amplification are known to contribute to insecticide resistance, little is known about the degree to which geographic populations of the same species differ at the target site in a response to insecticides. We tested structural (e.g., mutation profiles) and regulatory (e.g., the gene expression of Ldace1 and Ldace2, AChE activity) differences between two populations (Vermont, USA and Belchow, Poland) of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata in their resistance to two commonly used groups of insecticides, organophosphates, and carbamates. We established that Vermont beetles were more resistant to azinphos-methyl and carbaryl insecticides than Belchow beetles, despite a similar frequency of resistance-associated alleles (i.e., S291G) in the Ldace2 gene. However, the Vermont population had two additional amino acid replacements (G192S and F402Y) in the Ldace1 gene, which were absent in the Belchow population. Moreover, the Vermont population showed higher expression of Ldace1 and was less sensitive to AChE inhibition by azinphos-methyl oxon than the Belchow population. Therefore, the two populations have evolved different genetic mechanisms to adapt to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aigi Margus
- Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Saija Piiroinen
- Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Philipp Lehmann
- Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
- Department of ZoologyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
- Zoological Institute and MuseumGreifswald UniversityGreifswaldGermany
| | | | | | - Yolanda H. Chen
- Department of Plant and Soil ScienceUniversity of VermontBurlingtonVermontUSA
| | - Leena Lindström
- Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
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9
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Natal CM, Fernandes MJG, Pinto NFS, Pereira RB, Vieira TF, Rodrigues ARO, Pereira DM, Sousa SF, Fortes AG, Castanheira EMS, T Gonçalves MS. New carvacrol and thymol derivatives as potential insecticides: synthesis, biological activity, computational studies and nanoencapsulation. RSC Adv 2021; 11:34024-34035. [PMID: 35497284 PMCID: PMC9042360 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra05616f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
New compounds with potential insecticide activity were synthesized by structural modifications performed in the monoterpenoid phenolic moieties of carvacrol and thymol, resulting in a set of derivatives with the ether function containing the propyl, chloropropyl or hydroxypropyl chains, as well as a bicyclic ether with an unsaturated chain containing a carboxylic acid terminal. In addition, an analogue of carvacrol and thymol isomers bearing methoxyl, 1-hydroxyethyl and (3-chlorobenzoyl)oxy, instead of the three original methyl groups, was also synthesized. Several structural changes that resulted in diminished insecticide activity have been identified, but two significantly active molecules have been synthesized, one of them being less toxic to human cells than the naturally-derived starting materials. Structure-based inverted virtual screening and molecular dynamics simulations demonstrate that these active molecules likely target the insect odorant binding proteins and/or acetylcholinesterase and are able to form stable complexes. For the most promising compounds, nanoencapsulation assays were carried out in liposomes of egg phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol (7 : 3) prepared by both thin film hydration and ethanolic injection methods. The compound-loaded liposomes were generally monodisperse and with sizes smaller than or around 200 nm. The thin film hydration method allowed high encapsulation efficiencies (above 85%) for both compounds and a delayed release, while for the systems prepared by ethanolic injection the encapsulation efficiency is lower than 50%, but the release is almost complete in two days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina M Natal
- Centre of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Minho Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Maria José G Fernandes
- Centre of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Minho Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Nuno F S Pinto
- Centre of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Minho Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Renato B Pereira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Tatiana F Vieira
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto 4200-319 Porto Portugal.,UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, BioSIM - Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto 4200-319 Porto Portugal
| | - Ana Rita O Rodrigues
- Centre of Physics of Minho and Porto Universities (CF-UM-UP), University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - David M Pereira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228 4050-313 Porto Portugal
| | - Sérgio F Sousa
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto 4200-319 Porto Portugal.,UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, BioSIM - Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto 4200-319 Porto Portugal
| | - A Gil Fortes
- Centre of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Minho Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Elisabete M S Castanheira
- Centre of Physics of Minho and Porto Universities (CF-UM-UP), University of Minho, Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - M Sameiro T Gonçalves
- Centre of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Minho Campus of Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
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10
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Muema JM, Bargul JL, Mutunga JM, Obonyo MA, Asudi GO, Njeru SN. Neurotoxic Zanthoxylum chalybeum root constituents invoke mosquito larval growth retardation through ecdysteroidogenic CYP450s transcriptional perturbations. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 178:104912. [PMID: 34446188 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2021.104912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular effects exerted by phytochemicals eliciting insect growth-retarding responses during vector control intervention remain largely underexplored. We studied the effects of Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. (Rutaceae) (ZCE) root derivatives against malaria (Anopheles gambiae) and arbovirus vector (Aedes aegypti) larvae to decipher possible molecular targets. We report dose-dependent biphasic effects on larval response, with transient exposure to ZCE and its bioactive fraction (ZCFr.5) inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, inducing larval lethality and growth retardation at sublethal doses. Half-maximal lethal concentrations (LC50) for ZCE against An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti larvae after 24-h exposure were 9.00 ppm and 12.26 ppm, respectively. The active fraction ZCFr.5 exerted LC50 of 1.58 ppm and 3.21 ppm for An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti larvae, respectively. Inhibition of AChE was potentially linked to larval toxicity afforded by 2-tridecanone, palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid), linoleic acid ((Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid), sesamin, β-caryophyllene among other compounds identified in the bioactive fraction. In addition, the phenotypic larval retardation induced by ZCE root constituents was exerted through transcriptional modulation of ecdysteroidogenic CYP450 genes. Collectively, these findings provide an explorative avenue for developing potential mosquito control agents from Z. chalybeum root constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson M Muema
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, Kenya; Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics Unit, International Centre of Insect Physiology & Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, Kenya; Department of Entomology, U.S Army Medical Research Directorate-Africa, Kenya (USAMRD-A/K), Kisumu, Kenya.
| | - Joel L Bargul
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, Kenya; Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics Unit, International Centre of Insect Physiology & Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, Kenya
| | - James M Mutunga
- Department of Entomology, U.S Army Medical Research Directorate-Africa, Kenya (USAMRD-A/K), Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Meshack A Obonyo
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya
| | - George O Asudi
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology & Biotechnology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sospeter N Njeru
- Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research (CTMDR), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya.
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11
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Zhou L, Meng JY, Ruan HY, Yang CL, Zhang CY. Expression stability of candidate RT-qPCR housekeeping genes in Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 108:e21831. [PMID: 34240760 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is commonly used to quantify gene expression. For normalization, the expression of each gene is compared with a reference "housekeeping" gene that is stably expressed under relevant stress. Unfortunately, there have been no reports on the stability of such reference genes under various treatments of the Spodoptera frugiperda. In this study, we used five tools (RefFinder, GeNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and ΔCt methods) to evaluate the stability of 12 candidate reference genes (RPS18, β-tubulin, GAPDH, RPS7, RPS15, RPL7, RPL32, Actin-5C, EF1-α, EF1-γ, RPL27, and ACE) in different instars, tissues, and treatments (high and low temperature, UV-A, and emamectin benzoate). Several ribosomal proteins (RPS7, RPS15, RPL32, RPS18, and RPL7), GAPDH, Actin-5C, and β-tubulin, were relatively stable, suggesting that they are ideal housekeeping genes for various treatments. ACE was extremely unstable under various experimental treatments, rendering it unsuitable as an internal reference. This study identified the reference housekeeping genes stably expressed by S. frugiperda under different treatments, thus setting a foundation for further exploration of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lv Zhou
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jian-Yu Meng
- Guizhou Tobacco Science Research Institute, Guiyang, China
| | - Hong-Yun Ruan
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Chang-Li Yang
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Chang-Yu Zhang
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
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12
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Dassanayake MK, Chong CH, Khoo TJ, Figiel A, Szumny A, Choo CM. Synergistic Field Crop Pest Management Properties of Plant-Derived Essential Oils in Combination with Synthetic Pesticides and Bioactive Molecules: A Review. Foods 2021; 10:2016. [PMID: 34574123 PMCID: PMC8467659 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The management of insect pests and fungal diseases that cause damage to crops has become challenging due to the rise of pesticide and fungicide resistance. The recent developments in studies related to plant-derived essential oil products has led to the discovery of a range of phytochemicals with the potential to combat pesticide and fungicide resistance. This review paper summarizes and interprets the findings of experimental work based on plant-based essential oils in combination with existing pesticidal and fungicidal agents and novel bioactive natural and synthetic molecules against the insect pests and fungi responsible for the damage of crops. The insect mortality rate and fractional inhibitory concentration were used to evaluate the insecticidal and fungicidal activities of essential oil synergists against crop-associated pests. A number of studies have revealed that plant-derived essential oils are capable of enhancing the insect mortality rate and reducing the minimum inhibitory concentration of commercially available pesticides, fungicides and other bioactive molecules. Considering these facts, plant-derived essential oils represent a valuable and novel source of bioactive compounds with potent synergism to modulate crop-associated insect pests and phytopathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackingsley Kushan Dassanayake
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia; (M.K.D.); (T.-J.K.)
| | - Chien Hwa Chong
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia
| | - Teng-Jin Khoo
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia; (M.K.D.); (T.-J.K.)
| | - Adam Figiel
- Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Chełmońskiego 37a, 51-630 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Antoni Szumny
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Chee Ming Choo
- Centre for Water Research, Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology, SEGi University Kota Damansara, Petaling Jaya 47810, Malaysia;
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13
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Ebadollahi A, Jalali Sendi J, Ziaee M, Krutmuang P. Acaricidal, Insecticidal, and Nematicidal Efficiency of Essential Oils Isolated from the Satureja Genus. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18116050. [PMID: 34199797 PMCID: PMC8200103 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18116050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The overuse of synthetic pesticides in plant protection strategies has resulted in numerous side effects, including environmental contamination, food staff residues, and a threat to non-target organisms. Several studies have been performed to assess the pesticidal effects of plant-derived essential oils and their components, as partially safe and effective agents, on economically important pests. The essential oils isolated from Satureja species are being used in medicinal, cosmetic, and food industries. Their great potential in pest management is promising, which is related to high amounts of terpenes presented in this genus. This review is focused on the acute and chronic acaricidal, insecticidal, and nematicidal effects of Satureja essential oil and their main components. The effects of eighteen Satureja species are documented, considering lethality, repellency, developmental inhibitory, and adverse effects on the feeding, life cycle, oviposition, and egg hatching. Further, the biochemical impairment, including impairments in esterases, acetylcholinesterase, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenases functions, are also considered. Finally, encapsulation and emulsification methods, based on controlled-release techniques, are suggested to overcome the low persistence and water solubility restrictions of these biopesticides. The present review offers Satureja essential oils and their major components as valuable alternatives to synthetic pesticides in the future of pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asgar Ebadollahi
- Department of Plant Sciences, Moghan College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil 56199-36514, Iran
- Correspondence: (A.E.); (P.K.)
| | - Jalal Jalali Sendi
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht 41635-1314, Iran;
| | - Masumeh Ziaee
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz 61357-43311, Iran;
| | - Patcharin Krutmuang
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
- Innovative Agriculture Research Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
- Correspondence: (A.E.); (P.K.)
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14
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Li C, Cao Y, Yang J, Li M, Li B, Bu C. Acetylcholinesterase target sites for developing environmentally friendly insecticides against Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae). EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2021; 84:419-431. [PMID: 33914192 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-021-00624-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The non-target toxicity and resistance problems of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) insecticides, such as organophosphates and carbamates, are of growing concern. To explore the potential targets for achieving inhibitor selectivity, the AChE structures at or near the catalytic pocket of Tetranychus urticae (TuAChE), honey bees, and humans were compared. The entrances to the AChE catalytic pocket differ significantly because of their different peripheral sites. The role of these potential mite-specific sites in AChE function was further elucidated by site-directed mutagenesis of these sites and then examining the catalytic activities of TuAChE mutants. The spider mite E316, H369, and V105 active sites are important for AChE function. By further analyzing their physostigmine inhibitory properties and the detailed interaction between physostigmine and TuAChE, the peripheral site H369 locating near the gorge entrance, and S154 at the oxyanion hole, affects substrate and inhibitor trafficking. The discovery of conserved mite-specific residues in Tetranychus will enable the development of safer, effective pesticides that target residues present only in mite AChEs, potentially offering effective control against this important agricultural pest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Center for Growth, Metabolism and Aging, Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Mengyi Li
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Chunya Bu
- Key Laboratory of Northern Urban Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Bioscience and Resource Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, 102206, China.
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15
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In Silico Studies of Lamiaceae Diterpenes with Bioinsecticide Potential against Aphis gossypii and Drosophila melanogaster. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26030766. [PMID: 33540716 PMCID: PMC7867283 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26030766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The growing demand for agricultural products has led to the misuse/overuse of insecticides; resulting in the use of higher concentrations and the need for ever more toxic products. Ecologically, bioinsecticides are considered better and safer than synthetic insecticides; they must be toxic to the target organism, yet with low or no toxicity to non-target organisms. Many plant extracts have seen their high insecticide potential confirmed under laboratory conditions, and in the search for plant compounds with bioinsecticidal activity, the Lamiaceae family has yielded satisfactory results. Objective: The aim of our study was to develop computer-assisted predictions for compounds with known insecticidal activity against Aphis gossypii and Drosophila melanogaster. Results and conclusion: Structure analysis revealed ent-kaurane, kaurene, and clerodane diterpenes as the most active, showing excellent results. We also found that the interactions formed by these compounds were more stable, or presented similar stability to the commercialized insecticides tested. Overall, we concluded that the compounds bistenuifolin L (1836) and bistenuifolin K (1931), were potentially active against A. gossypii enzymes; and salvisplendin C (1086) and salvixalapadiene (1195), are potentially active against D. melanogaster. We observed and highlight that the diterpenes bistenuifolin L (1836), bistenuifolin K (1931), salvisplendin C (1086), and salvixalapadiene (1195), present a high probability of activity and low toxicity against the species studied.
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16
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Gorecki L, Andrys R, Schmidt M, Kucera T, Psotka M, Svobodova B, Hrabcova V, Hepnarova V, Bzonek P, Jun D, Kuca K, Korabecny J, Musilek K. Cysteine-Targeted Insecticides against A. gambiae Acetylcholinesterase Are Neither Selective nor Reversible Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:65-71. [PMID: 31938465 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.9b00477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetylcholinesterase cysteine-targeted insecticides against malaria vector Anopheles gambia and other mosquitos have already been introduced. We have applied the olefin metathesis for the preparation of cysteine-targeted insecticides in high yields. The prepared compounds with either a succinimide or maleimide moiety were evaluated on Anopheles gambiae and human acetylcholinesterase with relatively high irreversible inhibition of both enzymes but poor selectivity. The concept of cysteine binding was not proved by several methods, and poor stability was observed of the chosen most potent/selective compounds in a water/buffer environment. Thus, our findings do not support the proposed concept of cysteine-targeted selective insecticides for the prepared series of succinimide or maleimide compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Gorecki
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Rudolf Andrys
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Schmidt
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Kucera
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Psotka
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Svobodova
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Hrabcova
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Vendula Hepnarova
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Bzonek
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Jun
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Kuca
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Korabecny
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Defence, Department of Toxicology and Military Pharmacy, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Musilek
- University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Biomedical Research Centre, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- University of Hradec Kralove, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Rokitanskeho 62, 500 03 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- Florida International University, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Department of Cellular Biology & Pharmacology, 11200 SW Eighth Street GL 495-G Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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17
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Inocente EA, Nguyen B, Manwill PK, Benatrehina A, Kweka E, Wu S, Cheng X, Rakotondraibe LH, Piermarini PM. Insecticidal and Antifeedant Activities of Malagasy Medicinal Plant ( Cinnamosma sp.) Extracts and Drimane-Type Sesquiterpenes against Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes. INSECTS 2019; 10:E373. [PMID: 31731570 PMCID: PMC6920793 DOI: 10.3390/insects10110373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The overuse of insecticides with limited modes of action has led to resistance in mosquito vectors. Thus, insecticides with novel modes of action are needed. Secondary metabolites in Madagascan plants of the genus Cinnamosma (Canellaceae) are commonly used in traditional remedies and known to elicit antifeedant and toxic effects in insect pests. Here we test the hypothesis that extracts of Cinnamosma sp. enriched in drimane sesquiterpenes are toxic and/or antifeedant to the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti. We show that the bark and root extracts, which contain a higher abundance of drimane sesquiterpenes compared to leaves, were the most efficacious. Screening isolated compounds revealed cinnamodial to be the primary driver of adulticidal activity, whereas cinnamodial, polygodial, cinnafragrin A, and capsicodendrin contributed to the larvicidal activity. Moreover, an abundant lactone (cinnamosmolide) in the root extract synergized the larvicidal effects of cinnamodial. The antifeedant activity of the extracts was primarily contributed to cinnamodial, polygodial, and cinnamolide. Parallel experiments with warburganal isolated from Warburgia ugandensis (Canellaceae) revealed that aldehydes are critical for-and a hydroxyl modulates-insecticidal activity. Our results indicate that plant drimane sesquiterpenes provide valuable chemical platforms for developing insecticides and repellents to control mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna Alfaro Inocente
- Department of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, OH 44691, USA; (E.A.I.); (B.N.)
| | - Bao Nguyen
- Department of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, OH 44691, USA; (E.A.I.); (B.N.)
| | - Preston K. Manwill
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (P.K.M.); (A.B.); (S.W.); (X.C.)
- Center for Applied Plant Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Annecie Benatrehina
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (P.K.M.); (A.B.); (S.W.); (X.C.)
| | - Eliningaya Kweka
- Department of Medical Parasitology, School of Medicine, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences-Bugando, Mwanza P.O. Box 1464, Tanzania;
- Division of Livestock and Human Disease Vector Control, Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, Arusha P.O. Box 3024, Tanzania
| | - Sijin Wu
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (P.K.M.); (A.B.); (S.W.); (X.C.)
| | - Xiaolin Cheng
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (P.K.M.); (A.B.); (S.W.); (X.C.)
| | - L. Harinantenaina Rakotondraibe
- Departments of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (P.K.M.); (A.B.); (S.W.); (X.C.)
- Center for Applied Plant Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Peter M. Piermarini
- Department of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, OH 44691, USA; (E.A.I.); (B.N.)
- Center for Applied Plant Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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18
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Taktak NEM, Badawy MEI. Potential of hydrocarbon and oxygenated monoterpenes against Culex pipiens larvae: Toxicity, biochemical, pharmacophore modeling and molecular docking studies. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 158:156-165. [PMID: 31378352 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2019.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Culex pipiens is a main vector for Bancroftian filariasis, Rift Valley Fever and diseases caused by other viruses, leaving several peoples with disabilities. In recent years, plant derived compounds have received much attention as potential alternatives to synthetic chemicals due to their low toxicity to mammals and environmental persistence. Twenty-one monoterpenes from different chemical groups (hydrocarbons and oxygenated products) were evaluated against Culex pipiens larvae. In addition, in vivo biochemical studies including effects on acetylcholine esterase (AChE), acid and alkaline phosphatases (ACP and ALP), total adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) and gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase (GABA-T) were investigated. Furthermore, in silico studies including pharmacophore elucidation, ADMET analysis and molecular docking of these compounds were performed. Among all tested monoterpenes, hydrocarbons [p-cymene, (R)-(+)-limonene and (+)-α-pinene], acetates (cinnamyl acetate, citronellyl acetate, eugenyl acetate and terpinyl acetate), alcohols [(±)-β-citronellol and terpineol], aldehydes [citral and (1R)-(-)-myrtenal] and ketone [(R)-(+)-pulegone] exhibited the highest larval toxicity with LC50 = 14.88, 27.97, 26.13, 2.62, 3.81, 2.74, 21.65, 1.64, 21.70, 21.76, 1.68 and 1.90 mg/L after 48 h of exposure, respectively. The compounds proved a significant inhibition of all tested enzymes except total ATPase. The biochemical and molecular docking studies proved that AChE and GABA-T were the main targets for the tested monoterpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nehad E M Taktak
- Department of Tropical Health, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed E I Badawy
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, 21545-El-Shatby, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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19
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Pelizaro BI, Braga FC, Crispim BDA, de Barros LGML, Pessatto LR, Oliveira EJT, Vani JM, de Souza AP, Grisolia AB, Antoniolli-Silva ACMB, de Lima DP, Dos Santos Jaques JA, Beatriz A, Oliveira RJ. Assessment of acute toxicity and cytotoxicity of fluorescent markers produced by cardanol and glycerol, which are industrial waste, to different biological models. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:9193-9202. [PMID: 30719661 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-04376-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The amphyphylic triazoanilines recently synthesized 1-(4-(3-aminophenyl)-1H-1,2,3- triazole-1-yl)-3-(3-pentadecylphenoxy)propan-2-ol (1) and 1-(4-(4-aminophenyl)-1H- 1,2,3-triazole-1-yl)-3-(3-pentadecylphenoxy)propan-2-ol (2), synthesized from cardanol and glycerol, have photophysical properties which allow their use in the development of fluorescent biomarkers with applicability in the biodiesel quality control. Based on this, the present research evaluated the toxic effects of both compounds in different biological models through the investigation of survival and mortality percentages as a measure of acute toxicity on Daphnia similis and Oreochromis niloticus, larvicidal assay against Aedes aegypti, and cytotoxic activity on mammary cells. Results demonstrate that these triazoanilines 1 and 2 have shown low acute toxicity to the biological models investigated in this study up to the following concentrations: 4.0 mg L-1 (D. similis), 4.0 mg L-1 (A. aegypti larvae), 1.0 mg L-1 (O. niloticus), and 1.0 mg mL-1 (mammary cells). This fact suggests the potential for safe use of compounds 1 and 2 as fluorescent markers for the monitoring of biodiesel quality, even in the case of environmental exposure. Besides all of that, the reuse of cardanol and glycerol, both industrial wastes, favors the maintenance of environmental health and is in agreement with the assumptions of green chemistry. Graphical abstract ᅟ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Ivo Pelizaro
- Stem Cell, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics Research Centre (CeTroGen), "Maria Aparecida Pedrossian" University Hospital, Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
- Master's Program in Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Food and Nutrition - FACFAN, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Felipe Camargo Braga
- Chemistry Institute - INQUI, SINTMOL Laboratory, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Avenue Senador Filinto Müller, 1555 - Universitário, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, 79074-460, Brazil
| | - Bruno do Amaral Crispim
- Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Genotoxicity (LECOGEN), Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences - FCBA, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Luiz Guilherme Maiolino Lacerda de Barros
- Laboratory of Environmental Quality, Faculty of Engineering Architecture and Urbanism and Geography - FAENG, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Lucas Roberto Pessatto
- Stem Cell, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics Research Centre (CeTroGen), "Maria Aparecida Pedrossian" University Hospital, Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
- Graduate Programme in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of General Biology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Edwin José Torres Oliveira
- Stem Cell, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics Research Centre (CeTroGen), "Maria Aparecida Pedrossian" University Hospital, Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
- Graduate Programme in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of General Biology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Juliana Miron Vani
- Graduate Programme in Health and Development in the Central-West Region, School of Medicine (FAMED) "Dr. Hélio Mandetta", Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, S/N., Campo Grande, MS, 79070-900, Brazil
| | - Antonio Pancrácio de Souza
- Biosciences Institute- INBIO, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Alexeia Barufatti Grisolia
- Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Genotoxicity (LECOGEN), Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences - FCBA, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Andréia Conceição Milan Brochado Antoniolli-Silva
- Stem Cell, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics Research Centre (CeTroGen), "Maria Aparecida Pedrossian" University Hospital, Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
- Graduate Programme in Health and Development in the Central-West Region, School of Medicine (FAMED) "Dr. Hélio Mandetta", Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, S/N., Campo Grande, MS, 79070-900, Brazil
| | - Dênis Pires de Lima
- Chemistry Institute - INQUI, SINTMOL Laboratory, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Avenue Senador Filinto Müller, 1555 - Universitário, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, 79074-460, Brazil
| | - Jeandre Augusto Dos Santos Jaques
- Master's Program in Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Food and Nutrition - FACFAN, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | - Adilson Beatriz
- Chemistry Institute - INQUI, SINTMOL Laboratory, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Avenue Senador Filinto Müller, 1555 - Universitário, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, 79074-460, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo Juliano Oliveira
- Stem Cell, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics Research Centre (CeTroGen), "Maria Aparecida Pedrossian" University Hospital, Brazilian Hospital Services Company (EBSERH), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.
- Graduate Programme in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Department of General Biology, State University of Londrina (UEL), Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
- Graduate Programme in Health and Development in the Central-West Region, School of Medicine (FAMED) "Dr. Hélio Mandetta", Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Cidade Universitária, S/N., Campo Grande, MS, 79070-900, Brazil.
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20
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Knutsson S, Engdahl C, Kumari R, Forsgren N, Lindgren C, Kindahl T, Kitur S, Wachira L, Kamau L, Ekström F, Linusson A. Noncovalent Inhibitors of Mosquito Acetylcholinesterase 1 with Resistance-Breaking Potency. J Med Chem 2018; 61:10545-10557. [PMID: 30339371 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Resistance development in insects significantly threatens the important benefits obtained by insecticide usage in vector control of disease-transmitting insects. Discovery of new chemical entities with insecticidal activity is highly desired in order to develop new insecticide candidates. Here, we present the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of phenoxyacetamide-based inhibitors of the essential enzyme acetylcholinesterase 1 (AChE1). AChE1 is a validated insecticide target to control mosquito vectors of, e.g., malaria, dengue, and Zika virus infections. The inhibitors combine a mosquito versus human AChE selectivity with a high potency also for the resistance-conferring mutation G122S; two properties that have proven challenging to combine in a single compound. Structure-activity relationship analyses and molecular dynamics simulations of inhibitor-protein complexes have provided insights that elucidate the molecular basis for these properties. We also show that the inhibitors demonstrate in vivo insecticidal activity on disease-transmitting mosquitoes. Our findings support the concept of noncovalent, selective, and resistance-breaking inhibitors of AChE1 as a promising approach for future insecticide development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Knutsson
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Cecilia Engdahl
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Rashmi Kumari
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Nina Forsgren
- Swedish Defence Research Agency , CBRN Defence and Security , SE-906 21 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Cecilia Lindgren
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Tomas Kindahl
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Stanley Kitur
- Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development , Kenya Medical Research Institute , Nairobi , Kenya
| | - Lucy Wachira
- Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development , Kenya Medical Research Institute , Nairobi , Kenya
| | - Luna Kamau
- Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development , Kenya Medical Research Institute , Nairobi , Kenya
| | - Fredrik Ekström
- Swedish Defence Research Agency , CBRN Defence and Security , SE-906 21 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Anna Linusson
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 82 Umeå , Sweden
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21
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Rey-Valeirón C, Pérez K, Guzmán L, López-Vargas J, Valarezo E. Acaricidal effect of Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae) essential oil on unengorged larvae and engorged adult females of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Acari: Ixodidae). EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2018; 76:399-411. [PMID: 30317458 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-018-0303-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The current concern about resistance to acaricides and the impact of toxic waste on the environment has led to the search of vegetal alternatives in the control of the brown tick of the dog Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae) derivatives have been associated with insecticidal, antimicrobial and antiprotozoal activities and essential oil showed to be lethal to R. microplus larvae. This study aimed at evaluating the acaricidal effect of essential oil of S. molle (EOSm) on engorged adult females and larval stages of R. sanguineus. One-hundred engorged females were obtained from the ears, interdigital spaces, neck, groin and base of the tail of two cross-bred dogs. The larvae package test was accomplished with 21-day-old larvae and five concentrations (v/v) of EOSm (0.125, 0.25, 0.50, 1 and 2%) in an anionic detergent, a synthetic acaricide (cypermethrin) and detergent and deionized water as controls. The immersion adult test was carried out with nine concentrations (0.125, 0.25, 0.50, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 20%) of the EOSm. At the concentration of 2%, EOSm caused 99.3% of larval mortality. In adults, inhibition of oviposition, egg hatching (EH) and reproductive efficiency (RE) values were dose-dependent from 4 to 20% EOSm; the lowest values of EH (29.62) and RE (22.61) were achieved with 20% EOSm. Strong and negative correlations were found between concentration of EOSm and EH (r = - 0.948) and between concentration of EOSm and RE (r = - 0.985). This study demonstrated for the first time the acaricidal effect of EOSm on larvae and reproductive parameters of engorged adult females of R. sanguineus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina Rey-Valeirón
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Parasitología Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda, Intercomunal Coro-La Vela, Estado Falcón, Venezuela.
| | - Keila Pérez
- Postgrado en Sanidad Animal, Universidad Nacional Experimental Francisco de Miranda, Coro, Venezuela
- Misión Nevado, Mérida, Estado Mérida, Venezuela
| | - Lucía Guzmán
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, sección Biotecnología y Producción, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
| | - Javier López-Vargas
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
| | - Eduardo Valarezo
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
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22
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Loza-Mejía MA, Salazar JR, Sánchez-Tejeda JF. In Silico Studies on Compounds Derived from Calceolaria: Phenylethanoid Glycosides as Potential Multitarget Inhibitors for the Development of Pesticides. Biomolecules 2018; 8:E121. [PMID: 30360548 PMCID: PMC6322355 DOI: 10.3390/biom8040121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing occurrence of resistance in insect pests and high mammal toxicity exhibited by common pesticides increase the need for new alternative molecules. Among these alternatives, bioinsecticides are considered to be environmentally friendly and safer than synthetic insecticides. Particularly, plant extracts have shown great potential in laboratory conditions. However, the lack of studies that confirm their mechanisms of action diminishes their potential applications on a large scale. Previously, we have reported the insect growth regulator and insecticidal activities of secondary metabolites isolated from plants of the Calceolaria genus. Herein, we report an in silico study of compounds isolated from Calceolaria against acetylcholinesterase, prophenoloxidase, and ecdysone receptor. The molecular docking results are consistent with the previously reported experimental results, which were obtained during the bioevaluation of Calceolaria extracts. Among the compounds, phenylethanoid glycosides, such as verbascoside, exhibited good theoretical affinity to all the analyzed targets. In light of these results, we developed an index to evaluate potential multitarget insecticides based on docking scores.
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23
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Paiva DR, Lima DPDE, Avvari NP, Arruda EJDE, Cabrini I, Marques MR, Santos EAD, Biaggio FC, Sangi DP, Beatriz A. A potent larvicidal agent against Aedes aegypti mosquito from cardanol. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2018; 89:373-382. [PMID: 28562821 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201720160615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardanol is a constituent of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid that presents larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti. The isolation of cardanol is somewhat troublesome, however, in this work we describe an efficient and inexpensive method to obtain it as a pure material. The compound was used as starting material to make chemical transformation leading to saturated cardanol, epoxides and, halohydrins. These derivatives were tested for toxicity against Aedes aegypti larvae. The results showed that iodohydrins are very promising compounds for making commercial products to combat the vector mosquito larvae presenting a LC50 of 0.0023 ppm after 72 h of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derisvaldo R Paiva
- Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca, Valença, RJ, Brazil
| | - Dênis P DE Lima
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Naga P Avvari
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Eduardo J DE Arruda
- Faculdade de Ciências Exatas e Tecnologia, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS, Brazil
| | - Isaias Cabrini
- Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da Fonseca, Valença, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Rita Marques
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Edson A Dos Santos
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Francisco C Biaggio
- Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Universidade de São Paulo, Lorena, SP, Brazil
| | - Diego P Sangi
- Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Volta Redonda, RJ, Brazil
| | - Adilson Beatriz
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
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24
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Jankowska M, Rogalska J, Wyszkowska J, Stankiewicz M. Molecular Targets for Components of Essential Oils in the Insect Nervous System-A Review. Molecules 2017; 23:E34. [PMID: 29295521 PMCID: PMC5943938 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23010034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Essential oils (EOs) are lipophilic secondary metabolites obtained from plants; terpenoids represent the main components of them. A lot of studies showed neurotoxic actions of EOs. In insects, they cause paralysis followed by death. This feature let us consider components of EOs as potential bioinsecticides. The inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the one of the most investigated mechanisms of action in EOs. However, EOs are rather weak inhibitors of AChE. Another proposed mechanism of EO action is a positive allosteric modulation of GABA receptors (GABArs). There are several papers that prove the potentiation of GABA effect on mammalian receptors induced by EOs. In contrast, there is lack of any data concerning the binding of EO components in insects GABArs. In insects, EOs act also via the octopaminergic system. Available data show that EOs can increase the level of both cAMP and calcium in nervous cells. Moreover, some EO components compete with octopamine in binding to its receptor. Electrophysiological experiments performed on Periplaneta americana have shown similarity in the action of EO components and octopamine. This suggests that EOs can modify neuron activity by octopamine receptors. A multitude of potential targets in the insect nervous system makes EO components interesting candidates for bio-insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Jankowska
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland; Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
| | - Justyna Rogalska
- Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland; Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
| | - Joanna Wyszkowska
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland; Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
| | - Maria Stankiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland; Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
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25
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Cespedes CL, Balbontin C, Avila JG, Dominguez M, Alarcon J, Paz C, Burgos V, Ortiz L, Peñaloza-Castro I, Seigler DS, Kubo I. Inhibition on cholinesterase and tyrosinase by alkaloids and phenolics from Aristotelia chilensis leaves. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 109:984-995. [PMID: 28501487 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
It is reported in this study the effect of isolates from leaves of Aristotelia chilensis as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and tyrosinase enzymes. The aim of the paper was to evaluate the activity of A. chilensis towards different enzymes. In addition to pure compounds, extracts rich in alkaloids and phenolics were tested. The most active F5 inhibited AChE (79.5% and 89.8% at 10.0 and 20.0 μg/mL) and against BChE (89.5% and 97.8% at 10.0 and 20.0 μg/mL), showing a strong mixed-type inhibition against AChE and BChE. F3 (a mixture of flavonoids and phenolics acids), showed IC50 of 90.7 and 59.6 μg/mL of inhibitory activity against AChE and BChE, inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase competitively. Additionally, F3 showed and high potency as tyrosinase inhibitor with IC50 at 8.4 μg/mL. Sample F4 (anthocyanidins and phenolic composition) presented a complex, mixed-type inhibition of tyrosinase with a IC50 of 39.8 μg/mL. The findings in this investigation show that this natural resource has a strong potential for future research in the search of new phytotherapeutic treatments for cholinergic deterioration ailments avoiding the side effects of synthetic drugs. This is the first report as cholinesterases and tyrosinase inhibitors of alkaloids and phenolics from A. chilensis leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos L Cespedes
- Biochemistry and Phytochemical-Ecology Lab, Department of Basic Science, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Bio Bio, Chillan, Chile.
| | - Cristian Balbontin
- Plant Production Department, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Quilamapu, Chillan, Chile
| | - Jose G Avila
- Laboratorio de Fitoquimica, Unidad UBIPRO-FES-Iztacala, UNAM, Tlalnepantla de Baz, Mexico, DF, Mexico
| | - Mariana Dominguez
- Departamento de Biologia Celular y Desarrollo, Laboratorio 305-Sur, Instituto de Fisiologia Celular, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacan 04510, Mexico, DF, Mexico
| | - Julio Alarcon
- Synthesis and Biotransformation Lab., Department of Basic Science, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Bio Bio, Chillan, Chile
| | - Cristian Paz
- Departamento de Química y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 1011, Temuco, Chile
| | - Viviana Burgos
- Departamento de Química y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 1011, Temuco, Chile
| | - Leandro Ortiz
- Instituto de Ciencias Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Ignacio Peñaloza-Castro
- Laboratorio de Fisiologia Vegetal, Unidad UBIPRO-FES-Iztacala, UNAM, Tlalnepantla de Baz, Mexico, DF, Mexico
| | - David S Seigler
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Isao Kubo
- Natural Products Chemistry Lab., ESPM Department, University of California, Berkeley, USA
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Salim AMA, Shakeel M, Ji J, Kang T, Zhang Y, Ali E, Xiao Z, Lu Y, Wan H, Li J. Cloning, expression, and functional analysis of two acetylcholinesterase genes in Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 206:16-25. [PMID: 28111266 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Two acetylcholinesterase genes (SlAce1 and SlAce2) were cloned from Spodoptera litura, which is an important pest that causes widespread economic damage to vegetables and ornamental plants. We analyzed their expression patterns and compared their biological functions by using RNA interference. Our results showed that SlAce1 and SlAce2 cDNA contains 2085bp and 1917bp nucleotides and encoding proteins of 694 and 638 amino acid residues, respectively. Phylogenic analysis indicated that the lineage of SlAce genes and SlAce1 was completely different from SlAce2. Although both genes were expressed in all developmental stages and majorly in the brain. The expression levels of the both genes were suppressed by inserting their related dsRNA in the 6th instar larvae, which led to 47.3% (SlAce1) and 37.9% (SlAce2) mortality. Interestingly, the suppression of the SlAce2 transcripts also led to significant reductions in the fecundity, hatching, and offspring in the parental generation of S. litura. It is concluded that SlAce2 is responsible for the hydrolysis of acetylcholine and also plays role in female breeding, embryo progress, and the development of progeny. Considerable larval mortality was observed after both AChE genes (i.e. Ace1 and Ace2) were silenced in S. litura confirms its insecticidal effectiveness, which provided a molecular basis in biological pest control approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdalla M A Salim
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Muhammad Shakeel
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Jinyun Ji
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Tinghao Kang
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Yashu Zhang
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Ehsan Ali
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Zhao Xiao
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Yanhui Lu
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China; State Key Laboratory Breeding Base for Zhejiang Sustainable Pest and Disease Control, Institute of Plant Protection and Microbiology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, PR China.
| | - Hu Wan
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China.
| | - Jianhong Li
- Hubei Insect Resources Utilization and Sustainable Pest Management Key Laboratory, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, PR China
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27
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Ngai M, McDowell MA. The search for novel insecticide targets in the post-genomics era, with a specific focus on G-protein coupled receptors. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2017; 112:1-7. [PMID: 28076467 PMCID: PMC5225528 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760160345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Insects are considered pests globally, implicated in the destruction of agricultural fields and transmission of pathogens that cause deadly human diseases, such as dengue, Zika and malaria. The diversity of the insecticide arsenal has remained stagnant for decades, but the recent rise of insecticide resistance fueled the discovery of novel modes of action, and the power of genomics has reinvigorated this search. This review discusses the importance of comparative and functional insect genomics in the identification of potential gene targets for an insecticidal mode of action with low off-target toxicity. Due to the global participation in the sequencing and annotation of insect genomes, the targeting of specific genes with molecular tools like RNAi and CRISPR/Cas9 for genome engineering and consequent functional identification and validation has become more efficient. While there are multiple avenues to explore for insecticidal candidates, this review identifies G-protein coupled receptors as attractive targets, and hones in on the octopamine and dopamine receptors due to their potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mary Ann McDowell
- University of Notre Dame, Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of
Biological Sciences, Notre Dame, USA
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28
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Hrabcova V, Korabecny J, Manyova B, Matouskova L, Kucera T, Dolezal R, Musilek K, Gorecki L, Nepovimova E, Kuca K, Jun D. Bis-isoquinolinium and bis-pyridinium acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: in vitro screening of probes for novel selective insecticides. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra05838a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Library screening of pyridinium-based compounds, acting as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, for their potential insecticidal efficacy.
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Wang DM, Zhang BX, Liu XM, Rao XJ, Li SG, Li MY, Liu S. MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF TWO ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE GENES FROM THE RICE LEAFFOLDER, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE). ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 93:129-142. [PMID: 27447944 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, two full-length cDNA sequences (Cmace1 and Cmace2) encoding putative acetylcholinesterases (AChEs) were cloned and characterized from the rice leaffolder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, an important lepidopteran rice pest in Asia. Cmace1 encodes a CmAChE1 consisting of 689 amino acid residues, while Cmace2 encodes a 639 amino acids CmAChE2. The two CmAChEs both have N-terminal signal peptides and conserved motifs including the catalytic triad, choline-binding sites, oxianion hole, acyl pocket, peripheral anionic subsite, and the characteristic FGESAG motif and conserved 14 aromatic amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Cmace1 and Cmace2 are clustered into distinct clusters that are completely diverged from each other. Reverse-transcription quantitative PCR analysis revealed that Cmace1 and Cmace2 were predominately expressed in the larval brain and at the fifth-instar larvae stage, and the transcription levels of Cmace1 were significantly higher than those of Cmace2 in all the tested samples. Recombinant CmAChE1 and CmAChE2 were heterologously expressed in baculovirus system. Using acetylthiocholine iodide (ATChI) as substrate, the Michaelis constant (Km ) values of rCmAChE1 and rCmAChE2 were 39.81 ± 6.49 and 68.29 ± 6.72 μmol/l, respectively; and the maximum velocity (Vmax ) values of the two rCmAChEs were 0.60 ± 0.02 and 0.31 ± 0.06 μmol/min/mg protein, respectively. Inhibition assay indicated that rCmAChE1 was more sensitive to the organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and triazophos than rCmAChE2. This study is the first report of molecular cloning and biochemical characterization of two acetylcholinesterase genes/enzymes in C. medinalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Ming Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Bang-Xian Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiang-Jun Rao
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Shi-Guang Li
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Mao-Ye Li
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Su Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui, China.
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Engdahl C, Knutsson S, Ekström F, Linusson A. Discovery of Selective Inhibitors Targeting Acetylcholinesterase 1 from Disease-Transmitting Mosquitoes. J Med Chem 2016; 59:9409-9421. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Engdahl
- Department
of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sofie Knutsson
- Department
of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Ekström
- Swedish Defense Research Agency, CBRN Defense and
Security, SE-906 21 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anna Linusson
- Department
of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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31
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Dahan-Moss YL, Koekemoer LL. Analysis of esterase enzyme activity in adults of the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:110. [PMID: 26920365 PMCID: PMC4769541 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1379-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles funestus is a major vector of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa. In order to apply effective control measures against this vector, it is necessary to understand the underlying physiological factors that play a critical role in its development, reproduction, fertility and susceptibility to insecticides. One enzyme family involved in the above mentioned biological pathways is the esterases. The aim of this study was to analyse esterase activity levels at different ages during the life-span of adult Anopheles funestus Giles in order to better understand the complex biological processes in this species. Methods Isoenzyme electrophoresis (IEE) was used to examine the esterase activity in laboratory colonised An. funestus adults aged between 2 h (h) and 30 days post eclosion as well as in wild An. funestus adults aged between 2 h and 15 days post eclosion. Esterase activity was quantified by densitometry analysis of the IEE gels. Esterases were classified according to their activity inhibition by organic phosphates, eserine sulphate and sulphydryl reagents. Results Nine esterases IEE profiles were common to both the laboratory colonised and wild An. funestus adults. These esterases were further divided into acetylesterases, arylesterases, carboxylesterases and acetylcholinesterase. The activity level of certain specific esterases was primarily influenced by age and/or gender. Conclusions The information from this study contributes towards the general understanding of esterase enzyme activity variation in adults of a major malaria vector An. funestus. This variation likely carries physiological and adaptive significance and may influence specific characteristics, such as reproductive fitness and insecticide resistance that are epidemiologically important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Leah Dahan-Moss
- Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. .,Centre for Opportunistic, Tropical and Hospital Infections, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Lizette Leonie Koekemoer
- Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. .,Centre for Opportunistic, Tropical and Hospital Infections, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, a Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Bu C, Peng B, Cao Y, Wang X, Chen Q, Li J, Shi G. Novel and selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Acari: Tetranychidae). INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 66:129-135. [PMID: 26520174 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Acari: Tetranychidae), is an economically important and extremely polyphagous herbivorous pest, with the title of "resistance champion" among arthropods. Anticholinesterase insecticides such as organophosphate and carbamate account for more than one-third of global insecticide sales. The non-target toxicity and resistance problem of organophosphate and carbamate have become of growing concern, which may be due to the fact that they target the ubiquitous catalytic serine residue of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in mammals, birds, and beneficial insects. In this study, the structural differences between T. cinnabarinus AChE and human AChE, at or near the catalytic pocket, were illustrated. From the SPECS chemical lead-compound database, 55 AChE inhibitor candidates were screened for high affinity for T. cinnabarinus AChE, but low affinity for human AChE, using the DOCK 6 and AutoDock Vina software. Three of the fifty-five candidates had inhibitory activity greater than that of the reversible AChE inhibitor eserine, with no observed inhibitory activities against human AChE. Two of the three had toxicity to T. cinnabarinus comparable to that of natural insecticidal pyrethrins. However, their potency is low compared with that of etoxazole, and further work is needed to optimize their potency. The selectivity of the three compounds over human and mite AChE may be due to their interaction with the mite-specific residues, as analyzed by Cyscore. The three compounds are potential lead compounds for development of novel acaricides against T. cinnabarinus with reduced toxicity to non-target species and a low propensity for resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunya Bu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (North) of Ministry of Agriculture People's Republic of China, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Bo Peng
- Plant Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Center for Growth, Metabolism and Aging, Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xiaoqin Wang
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (North) of Ministry of Agriculture People's Republic of China, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Qing Chen
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (North) of Ministry of Agriculture People's Republic of China, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Jinling Li
- Plant Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Guanglu Shi
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (North) of Ministry of Agriculture People's Republic of China, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China.
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Engdahl C, Knutsson S, Fredriksson SÅ, Linusson A, Bucht G, Ekström F. Acetylcholinesterases from the Disease Vectors Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae: Functional Characterization and Comparisons with Vertebrate Orthologues. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138598. [PMID: 26447952 PMCID: PMC4598118 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes of the Anopheles (An.) and Aedes (Ae.) genus are principal vectors of human diseases including malaria, dengue and yellow fever. Insecticide-based vector control is an established and important way of preventing transmission of such infections. Currently used insecticides can efficiently control mosquito populations, but there are growing concerns about emerging resistance, off-target toxicity and their ability to alter ecosystems. A potential target for the development of insecticides with reduced off-target toxicity is the cholinergic enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Herein, we report cloning, baculoviral expression and functional characterization of the wild-type AChE genes (ace-1) from An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti, including a naturally occurring insecticide-resistant (G119S) mutant of An. gambiae. Using enzymatic digestion and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry we found that the secreted proteins were post-translationally modified. The Michaelis-Menten constants and turnover numbers of the mosquito enzymes were lower than those of the orthologous AChEs from Mus musculus and Homo sapiens. We also found that the G119S substitution reduced the turnover rate of substrates and the potency of selected covalent inhibitors. Furthermore, non-covalent inhibitors were less sensitive to the G119S substitution and differentiate the mosquito enzymes from corresponding vertebrate enzymes. Our findings indicate that it may be possible to develop selective non-covalent inhibitors that effectively target both the wild-type and insecticide resistant mutants of mosquito AChE.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Anna Linusson
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Göran Bucht
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, CBRN Defence and Security, Umeå, Sweden
- * E-mail: (GB); (FE)
| | - Fredrik Ekström
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, CBRN Defence and Security, Umeå, Sweden
- * E-mail: (GB); (FE)
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Cha DJ, Lee SH. Evolutionary origin and status of two insect acetylcholinesterases and their structural conservation and differentiation. Evol Dev 2015; 17:109-19. [DOI: 10.1111/ede.12111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Deok Jea Cha
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology; Seoul National University; Gwanakno; Gwanakgu Seoul 151-742 Republic of Korea
| | - Si Hyeock Lee
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology; Seoul National University; Gwanakno; Gwanakgu Seoul 151-742 Republic of Korea
- Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Science; Seoul National University; Seoul 151-742 Republic of Korea
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Céspedes CL, Salazar JR, Ariza-Castolo A, Yamaguchi L, Avila JG, Aqueveque P, Kubo I, Alarcón J. Biopesticides from plants: Calceolaria integrifolia s.l. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 132:391-406. [PMID: 24893349 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The effects of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on humans and biodiversity are multiple and varied. Nowadays environmentally-friendly pesticides are strongly preferred to POPs. It is noteworthy that the crop protection role of pesticides and other techniques, i.e. biopesticides, plant extracts, prevention methods, organic methods, evaluation of plant resistance to certain pests under an integrated pest management (IPM), could improve the risks and benefits which must be assessed on a sound scientific basis. For this directive it is crucial to bring about a significant reduction in the use of chemical pesticides, not least through the promotion of sustainable alternative solutions such as organic farming and IPM. Biopesticides are derived from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. Most of them are biodegradable in relatively short periods of time. On this regard, substances from Calceolaria species emerge as a strong alternative to the use of POPs. The American genus Calceolaria species are regarded both as a notorious weeds and popular ornamental garden plants. Some have medicinal applications. Other taxa of Calceolaria are toxic to insects and resistant to microbial attack. These properties are probably associated with the presence of terpenes, iridoids, flavonoids, naphthoquinones and phenylpropanoids previously demonstrated to have interesting biological activities. In this article a comprehensive evaluation of the potential utilization of Calceolaria species as a source of biopesticides is made. The chemical profile of selected members of the Chilean Calceolaria integrifolia sensu lato complex represents a significant addition to previous studies. New secondary metabolites were isolated, identified and tested for their antifeedant, insect growth regulation and insecticidal activities against Spodoptera frugiperda and Drosophila melanogaster. These species serve as a model of insect pests using conventional procedures. Additionally, bactericidal and fungicidal activity were determined. Dunnione mixed with gallic acid was the most active fungistatic and fungicidal combination encountered. Several compounds as isorhamnetin, combined with ferulic and gallic acid quickly reduced cell viability, but cell viability was recovered quickly and did not differ from that of the control. The effect of these mixtures on cultures of Aspergillus niger, Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium sporotrichum, Rhizoctonia solani, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, was sublethal. However, when fungistatic isorhamnetin and dunnione were combined with sublethal amounts of both ferulic and gallic acid, respectively, strong fungicidal activity against theses strains was observed. Thus, dunnione combined with gallic acid completely restricted the recovery of cell viability. This apparent synergistic effect was probably due to the blockade of the recovery process from induced-stress. The same series of phenolics (iridoids, flavonoids, naphthoquinones and phenylpropanoids) were also tested against the Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Enterobacter agglomerans, and Salmonella typhi, and against the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Sarcinia lutea, and Staphylococcus aureus and their effects compared with those that of kanamycin. Mixtures of isorhamnetin/dunnione/kaempferol/ferulic/gallic acid in various combinations were found to have the most potent bactericidal and fungicidal activity with MFC between 10 and 50 μg/ml. Quercetin was found to be the most potent fungistatic single compound with an MIC of 15 µg/ml. A time-kill curve study showed that quercetin was fungicidal against fungi assayed at any growth stage. This antifungal activity was slightly enhanced by combination with gallic acid. The primary antifungal action of the mixtures assayed likely comes from their ability to act as nonionic surfactants that disrupt the function of native membrane-associated proteins. Hence, the antifungal activity of isorhamnetin and other O-methyl flavonols appears to be mediated by biophysical processes. Maximum activity is obtained when the balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions of the molecules of the mixtures becomes the most appropriate. Diterpenes, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, iridoids and phenolic acids were identified by chromatographic procedures (HPLC-DAD), ESI-MS, and NMR hyphenated techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos L Céspedes
- Basic Science Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Bío Bío, Andres Bello Av, s/n, Chillán, P.O. Box 447, Ñuble 3780000, Chile.
| | - Juan R Salazar
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad La Salle, México DF, México
| | | | - Lydia Yamaguchi
- Instituto de Química, Universidad de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José G Avila
- Laboratorio de Fitoquímica, UBIPRO, FES-Iztacala, UNAM, México DF, México
| | - Pedro Aqueveque
- Laboratorio de Microbiología y Micología Aplicada, Departamento de Agroindustrias, Facultad de Ingeniería Agrícola, Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile
| | - Isao Kubo
- ESPM Department, University of California at Berkeley, USA
| | - Julio Alarcón
- Basic Science Department, Faculty of Sciences, University of Bío Bío, Andres Bello Av, s/n, Chillán, P.O. Box 447, Ñuble 3780000, Chile
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Cespedes CL, Muñoz E, Salazar JR, Yamaguchi L, Werner E, Alarcon J, Kubo I. Inhibition of cholinesterase activity by extracts, fractions and compounds from Calceolaria talcana and C. integrifolia (Calceolariaceae: Scrophulariaceae). Food Chem Toxicol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Zhao P, Wang Y, Jiang H. Biochemical properties, expression profiles, and tissue localization of orthologous acetylcholinesterase-2 in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 43:260-271. [PMID: 23267863 PMCID: PMC3578101 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Revised: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/14/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Acetylcholinesterases (AChEs) catalyze the hydrolysis of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter for cholinergic neurotransmission in animals. Most insects studied so far possess two AChE genes: ace-1 paralogous and ace-2 orthologous to Drosophila melanogaster ace. We characterized the catalytic domain of Anopheles gambiae AChE1 in a previous study (Jiang et al., 2009) and report here biochemical properties of A. gambiae AChE2 expressed in Sf9 cells. An unknown protease in the expression system cleaved the recombinant AChE2 next to Arg(110), yielding two non-covalently associated polypeptides. A mixture of the intact and cleaved AChE2 had a specific activity of 72.3 U/mg, much lower than that of A. gambiae AChE1 (523 U/mg). The order of V(max)/K(M) values for the model substrates was acetylthiocholine > propionylthiocholine ≈ acetyl-(β-methyl)thiocholine > butyrylthiocholine. The IC(50)'s for eserine, carbaryl, BW284C51, paraoxon and malaoxon were 1.32, 13.6, 26.8, 192 and 294 nM, respectively. A. gambiae AChE2 bound eserine and carbaryl stronger than paraoxon and malaoxon, whereas eserine and malaoxon modified the active site Ser(232) faster than carbaryl or paraoxon did. Consequently, the k(i)'s were 1.173, 0.245, 0.029 and 0.018 μM(-1)min(-1) for eserine, carbaryl, paraoxon and malaoxon, respectively. Quantitative polymerase chain reactions showed a similar pattern of ace-1 and ace-2 expression. Their mRNAs were abundant in early embryos, greatly decreased in late embryos, larvae, pupae, and pharate adult, and became abundant again in adults. Both transcripts were higher in head and abdomen than thorax of adults and higher in male than female mosquitoes. Transcript levels of ace-1 were 1.9- to 361.8-fold higher than those of ace-2, depending on developmental stages and body parts. Cross-reacting polyclonal antibodies detected AChEs in adult brains, thoracic ganglia, and genital/rectal area. Activity assays, immunoblotting, and tandem mass spectrometric analysis indicated that A. gambiae AChE1 is responsible for most of acetylthiocholine hydrolysis in the head extracts. Taken together, these data indicate that A. gambiae AChE2 may play a less significant role than AChE1 does in the mosquito nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Picheng Zhao
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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38
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Novel selective and irreversible mosquito acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for controlling malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. Sci Rep 2013; 3:1068. [PMID: 23323211 PMCID: PMC3545233 DOI: 10.1038/srep01068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We reported previously that insect acetylcholinesterases (AChEs) could be selectively and irreversibly inhibited by methanethiosulfonates presumably through conjugation to an insect-specific cysteine in these enzymes. However, no direct proof for the conjugation has been published to date, and doubts remain about whether such cysteine-targeting inhibitors have desirable kinetic properties for insecticide use. Here we report mass spectrometric proof of the conjugation and new chemicals that irreversibly inhibited African malaria mosquito AChE with bimolecular inhibition rate constants (kinact/KI) of 3,604–458,597 M−1sec−1 but spared human AChE. In comparison, the insecticide paraoxon irreversibly inhibited mosquito and human AChEs with kinact/KI values of 1,915 and 1,507 M−1sec−1, respectively, under the same assay conditions. These results further support our hypothesis that the insect-specific AChE cysteine is a unique and unexplored target to develop new insecticides with reduced insecticide resistance and low toxicity to mammals, fish, and birds for the control of mosquito-borne diseases.
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39
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Rossi GD, Santos CD, Carvalho GA, Alves DS, Pereira LLS, Carvalho GA. Biochemical analysis of a castor bean leaf extract and its insecticidal effects against Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). NEOTROPICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2012; 41:503-9. [PMID: 23949676 DOI: 10.1007/s13744-012-0078-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Plant extracts represent a great source of molecules, with insecticidal activity, which are used for pest control in several crop production systems. This work aimed to evaluate the toxicity of an aqueous extract of leaves of castor bean against larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in search for different classes of molecules with insecticidal activities by using in vitro assays. The effects of the castor bean leaf extract on the food utilization, development, and survival of S. frugiperda larvae was evaluated by feeding the larvae an artificial diet supplemented with different concentrations of the extract (0%, 1%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% w/v). The effects observed were dose-dependent, and the highest concentration evaluated (10% w/v) was the one the most affected food utilization by altering the nutritional indices, as well as larval weight gain, development time, and survivorship. In vitro assays to detect saponins, lectins, and trypsin inhibitors in the castor bean leaf extract were performed, but only trypsin inhibitors were detected. No preference for the diet source was detected in S. frugiperda by feeding the larvae in choice experiments with diets containing different concentrations of the castor bean extract tested. The data obtained indicate the existence of a potential molecule in the tested extract of castor bean to be used as an alternative insecticide to be integrated in the management of S. frugiperda.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Rossi
- Depto de Química, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, Brasil.
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40
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Casida JE, Durkin KA. Anticholinesterase insecticide retrospective. Chem Biol Interact 2012; 203:221-5. [PMID: 22926007 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2012.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/04/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The anticholinesterase (antiChE) organophosphorus (OP) and methylcarbamate (MC) insecticides have been used very effectively as contact and systemic plant protectants for seven decades. About 90 of these compounds are still in use - the largest number for any insecticide chemotype or mode of action. In both insects and mammals, AChE inhibition and acetylcholine accumulation leads to excitation and death. The cholinergic system of insects is located centrally (where it is protected from ionized OPs and MCs) but not at the neuromuscular junction. Structural differences between insect and mammalian AChE are also evident in their genomics, amino acid sequences and active site conformations. Species selectivity is determined in part by inhibitor and target site specificity. Pest population selection with OPs and MCs has resulted in a multitude of modified AChEs of altered inhibitor specificity some conferring insecticide resistance and others enhancing sensitivity. Much of the success of antiChE insecticides results from a suitable balance of bioactivation and detoxification by families of CYP450 oxidases, hydrolases, glutathione S-transferases and others. Known inhibitors for these enzymes block detoxification and enhance potency which is particularly important in resistant strains. The current market for OPs and MCs of 19% of worldwide insecticide sales is only half of that of 10 years ago for several reasons: there have been no major new compounds for 30 years; resistance has eroded their effectiveness; human toxicity problems are still encountered; the patents have expired reducing the incentive to update registration packages; alternative chemotypes or control methods have been developed. Despite this decline, they still play a major role in pest control and the increasing knowledge on their target sites and metabolism may make it possible to redesign the inhibitors for insensitive AChEs and to target new sites in the cholinergic system. The OPs and MCs are down but not out.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Casida
- Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3112, USA.
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Cholinergic and non-cholinergic functions of two acetylcholinesterase genes revealed by gene-silencing in Tribolium castaneum. Sci Rep 2012; 2:288. [PMID: 22371826 PMCID: PMC3286809 DOI: 10.1038/srep00288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We compared biological functions of two acetylcholinesterase genes (TcAce1 and TcAce2) in Tribolium castaneum, a globally distributed major pest of stored grain products and an emerging model organism, by using RNA interference. Although both genes expressed at all developmental stages and mainly in the brain, the transcript level of TcAce1 was 1.2- to 8.7-fold higher than that of TcAce2, depending on developmental stages. Silencing TcAce1 in 20-day larvae led to 100% mortality within two weeks after eclosion and increased larval susceptibilities to anticholinesterase insecticides. In contrast, silencing TcAce2 did not show insect mortality and significantly affect insecticide susceptibility, but delayed insect development and reduced female egg-laying and egg hatching. These results demonstrate for the first time that TcAce1 plays a major role in cholinergic functions and is the target of anticholinesterase insecticides, whereas TcAce2 plays an important, non-cholinergic role in female reproduction, embryo development, and growth of offspring.
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Genome organization, phylogenies, expression patterns, and three-dimensional protein models of two acetylcholinesterase genes from the red flour beetle. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32288. [PMID: 22359679 PMCID: PMC3281121 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the report of a paralogous acetylcholinesterase (AChE, EC3.1.1.7) gene in the greenbug (Schizaphis graminum) in 2002, two different AChE genes (Ace1 and Ace2) have been identified in each of at least 27 insect species. However, the gene models of Ace1 and Ace2, and their molecular properties have not yet been comprehensively analyzed in any insect species. In this study, we sequenced the full-length cDNAs, computationally predicted the corresponding three-dimensional protein models, and profiled developmental stage and tissue-specific expression patterns of two Ace genes from the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum; TcAce1 and TcAce2), a globally distributed major pest of stored grain products and an emerging model organism. TcAce1 and TcAce2 encode 648 and 604 amino acid residues, respectively, and have conserved motifs including a choline-binding site, a catalytic triad, and an acyl pocket. Phylogenetic analysis show that both TcAce genes are grouped into two insect Ace clusters and TcAce1 is completely diverged from TcAce2, suggesting that these two genes evolve from their corresponding Ace gene lineages in insect species. In addition, TcAce1 is located on chromosome 5, whereas TcAce2 is located on chromosome 2. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative real-time PCR analyses indicate that both genes are virtually transcribed in all the developmental stages and predominately expressed in the insect brain. Our computational analyses suggest that the TcAce1 protein is a robust acetylcholine (ACh) hydrolase and has susceptibility to sulfhydryl agents whereas the TcAce2 protein is not a catalytically efficient ACh hydrolase.
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