Scientific opinion on the risks for animal and human health related to the presence of quinolizidine alkaloids in feed and food, in particular in lupins and lupin-derived products

Quinolizidine alkaloids and phomopsin A in animal feed containing lupins: co-occurrence and carry-over into veal products

Lupins are used in animal feed because of their excellent nutritional composition. Australian and European Lupinus angustifolius seeds are incorporated in compound feed of calves for veal production in Belgium. To investigate the co-occurrence of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) and phomopsin A (PHO A) in lupin seeds and lupin-containing feed, and the potential transfer to animal-derived foods, representative samples were obtained from various actors in the chain. A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for the simultaneous quantification of seven QAs and PHO A in relevant matrices. Results indicate highly consistent total QA (TQA) levels in Australian lupins (173 ± 24 mg/kg) (n = 25), while European samples showed a high variability (1442 ± 1497 mg/kg) (n = 15). PHO A was detected in 7 of 40 samples. Lupin-containing feed had a mean TQA content of 42 ± 28 mg/kg (n = 20). An in vivo feeding trial demonstrated the transfer of QAs to muscle and liver of calves that were fed the lupin-containing feed. Highest concentrations were found for lupanine in liver tissue samples (67 ± 46 µg/kg). PHO A concentrations were below the LOD in all feed and tissue samples. These results indicate that animal-derived foods (veal meat/liver) are a potential route for QAs to enter the food chain.

Cramp-Fasciculation Syndrome Associated with Natural and Added Chemicals in Popular Food Items

Cramp-fasciculation syndrome (CFS) is a rare and benign neuromuscular disorder that may initially masquerade as motor neuron disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. While CFS may have a familial disposition, we report on cases associated with high consumption of popular food items. One set of patients reversibly experienced acute onset of headache, flushing, muscle stiffness and fasciculations following the consumption of umami-flavored food containing a large concentration of monosodium glutamate. A second group of patients consuming food derived from lupin seed developed acute cholinergic toxicity, CFS, and, with chronic intake, significant, self-limiting, but incompletely reversible upper and lower motor neuron deficits. While these cases may improve our knowledge about the possible causes of CFS, our series also demonstrates that excessive consumption of some popular foods is not harmless. This warrants further research on their safety at all stages of human development from a neurological point of view.

Agronomic, Nutritional Traits, and Alkaloids of Lupinus albus, Lupinus angustifolius and Lupinus luteus Genotypes: Effect of Sowing Dates and Locations

Lupins (Lupinus spp.) are legumes with high relevance for the sustainability of agricultural systems as they improve the soil quality, namely, through the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and have good adaptability to different climates and soil conditions. Besides, they possess high nutritive value, especially due to the high protein content of the seeds. Nevertheless, the plants' productivity and metabolism can be influenced by the genotype, the edaphoclimatic conditions, and the sowing practices. In this work, the effect of edaphoclimatic conditions and sowing dates on the productivity, nutritional factors, and alkaloids of the seeds of L. albus cv. Estoril, L. angustifolius cv. Tango, and L. luteus cv. Cardiga was evaluated. High variability in the seeds and protein productions, nutritional traits, and alkaloid content related to the species was observed, along with a significant effect of the location. Lupinus albus cv. Estoril showed a good compromise between productivity and low alkaloid content, being an interesting genotype for food and feed use in the conditions of this trial.

Insights from the yield, protein production, and detailed alkaloid composition of white (Lupinus albus), narrow-leafed (Lupinus angustifolius), and yellow (Lupinus luteus) lupin cultivars in the Mediterranean region

Introduction

Lupins and other legumes have been considered as alternative plant-based protein sources to soybeans for both humans and livestock. Furthermore, they can contribute to more sustainable agricultural systems. The productivity and chemical composition of legumes is highly variable between species, cultivars, and with the edaphoclimatic conditions.

Methods

This work evaluated the adaptability of seven Lupinus cultivars in two different sowing locations, during two consecutive years, through the characterization of their seed, as a means of investigating their suitability to be used as a source of food and/or feed.

Results and discussion

Lupinus angustifolius cv. Tango and Lupinus luteus cv. Acos were the most stable genotypes across the environments when considering the seed and protein production, while L. luteus cv. Alburquerque and L. luteus cv. Mister showed less variation in the total alkaloid content across the environments. The edaphoclimatic conditions affected seed and protein yields, as higher rainfall resulted in high productivity. The lower temperatures observed in the first year at both locations caused a reduction in the production of alkaloids in L. luteus cv. Acos and Cardiga. Due to the high alkaloid content of some of the studied cultivars their use as food or feed can pose some safety concerns. However, these cultivars can have high levels of resistance to herbivore and insect attacks, which can be of the utmost importance for the use of these crops for recovering poor or exhausted soils.

The fate of quinolizidine alkaloids during the processing of lupins (Lupinus spp.) for human consumption

Lupin, a protein-rich grain legume, and products thereof, are becoming increasingly important in our diets. However, variable and high concentrations of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) may hamper this evolution. This study assessed the fate of QAs when processing Lupinus albus seeds and lupin-based foods, to give a first indication of the food industry's ability to sufficiently reduce the QA concentration. Typical unit processes, including toasting, dehulling, sterilization (sterilized jarred lupins), oven baking (cookies), frying (chips) and boiling in water (pasta), were simulated on lab-scale. A quantitative determination of five QAs and qualitative screening of other relevant QAs, in the derived fractions and lupin-based foods, was performed with a validated UHPLC-MS/MS and -HRMS method, respectively. Results revealed that the reduction in quinolizidine alkaloid content is highly dependent on the applied unit process, that QAs appear to be heat stabile, and that the depletion can be attributed to the leaching in cooking water.

Impacts of Different Processes on the Nutritional and Antinutritional Contents of White and Blue Lupin Seeds and Usage Possibilities for Sustainable Poultry Production

In the current era, it is important to consider economic and ecological sustainability issues while optimally meeting the nutrient needs of poultry. The use and research of alternative feedstuffs have gained importance due to these factors. The aim of this study is to reveal the raw lupin seeds' nutrient ingredients as an alternative feedstuff and the effects of debittering methods. In the present study, two different treatments (germination for 2 days; heat treatment in an autoclave at 130 °C for 20 min) were applied to white and blue lupin seeds, and the differences in nutrient compositions between them and raw seeds were determined. When fatty acid compositions were analyzed, oleic, γ-linolenic, arachidic, behenic, erucic, and lignoceric acid values were found to be the highest in the raw, autoclaved, and germinated forms of white lupin (p < 0.01). The highest values of palmitic, stearic, and linoleic acids were observed in blue lupin (p < 0.01). While the value of total quinolizidine alkaloids (QA) in raw white lupin grains was higher than 1.943 mg/g, it was higher than 1.800 mg/g in autoclaved and germination-treated grains. Similarly, the total QA value of raw blue lupin grains was 0.894 mg/g, 0.609 ± 0.244 mg/g in germination-treated seeds, and 0.705 ± 0.282 mg/g in autoclave-treated seeds. As a result of these findings, it can be said that the methods applied for the removal of bitterness gave promising results. Furthermore, it would be rewarding to use these lupin varieties in in vitro and in vivo experiments to reveal the impacts and mechanisms of debittering methods on poultry.

Compositional Attributes of Blue Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) Seeds for Selection of High-Protein Cultivars

Lupin is a promising protein source with a high protein concentration. Breeding efforts have resulted in the development of varieties low in quinolizidine alkaloids. The objective of this work was to evaluate 22 different blue lupin genotypes for a high protein concentration and low content of antinutritional alkaloids. These genotypes were grown under uniform controlled environmental and soil conditions, and the harvested seeds were evaluated for their composition. The low phosphorus content confirmed that the phytic acid presence was low in lupin, especially compared to other legumes. Furthermore, some of the varieties had less than 200 ppm alkaloids. Lupin proteins were rich in leucine and lysine, with the lowest amino acid concentration being methionine. There were significant differences in the protein concentration and recovery. This work demonstrated that an approach for selection of genotypes should be based on not only agronomic yields but also nutritional phenotypes, driving better decision making on future varietal selection.

Quinolizidine-Type Alkaloids: Chemodiversity, Occurrence, and Bioactivity

Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) are nitrogen-containing compounds produced naturally as specialized metabolites distributed in plants and animals (e.g., frogs, sponges). The present review compiles the available information on the chemical diversity and biological activity of QAs reported during the last three decades. So far, 397 QAs have been isolated, gathering 20 different representative classes, including the most common such as matrine (13.6%), lupanine (9.8%), anagyrine (4.0%), sparteine (5.3%), cytisine (6.5%), tetrahydrocytisine (4.3%), lupinine (12.1%), macrocyclic bisquinolizidine (9.3%), biphenylquinolizidine lactone (7.1%), dimeric (7.1%), and other less known QAs (20.9%), which include several structural patterns of QAs. A detailed survey of the reported information about the bioactivities of these compounds indicated their potential as cytotoxic, antiviral, antimicrobial, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, and antiacetylcholinesterase compounds, involving favorable putative drug-likeness scores. In this regard, research progress on the structural and biological/pharmacological diversity of QAs requires further studies oriented on expanding the chemical space to find bioactive scaffolds based on QAs for pharmacological and agrochemical applications.

Chlorinated paraffins in multimedia during residential interior finishing: Occurrences, behavior, and health risk

Though with bioaccumulation and toxicity, chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are still high produced and widely utilized in various daily necessities for extender plasticization and flame retardation. CPs can be released during the reprocessing processes of finishing materials and distributed in multi-environmental media. Herein, concentrations and compositions of CPs in four representative media including interior finishing materials, PM10, total suspended particulate (TSP), and dust samples collected from eight interior finishing stages were studied. Unexpectedly, CP concentrations in ceramic tiles was found to be high with a mean value of 7.02 × 103 μg g-1, which could be attributed to the presence of CPs in the protective wax coated on ceramic tiles surfaces. Furthermore, the pollution characteristics of short-chain and medium-chain CPs (SCCPs and MCCPs) in those samples were inconsistent. According to the investigation regarding Kdust-TSP and [Formula: see text] , the occurrence and distribution of CPs in indoor atmospheric particles (PM10 and TSP) and dust were highly affected by reprocessing processes (cutting, hot melting, etc.) compared to that in the finishing materials. Moreover, dermal contact was the primary pathway of CP exposure for the occupational population (interior construction workers) for most interior finishing stages, and the interior finishing process is the prime CP exposure period for the occupational groups. As suggested by our assessment, though hardly posing an immediate health risk, CPs exposure still presents unneglected adverse health effects, which calls for adequate personal protections during interior finishing, especially in developing countries.

Upcycling post-harvest biomass residues from native European Lupinus species: from straws and pod shells production to nutritive value and alkaloids content for ruminant animals

The production of Lupinus seeds for food and feed is increasing worldwide, which results in large amounts of post-harvest biomass residues, considered of low value and left in the field to be burned or incorporated in the soil. To valorize these agricultural wastes, this work aimed to assess their potential as an alternative feed for ruminants. Thus, the production yield, nutritive value, and alkaloid content of straws and pod shells from three native European Lupinus species, L. albus 'Estoril' (white), L. angustifolius 'Tango' (narrow-leafed), and L. luteus 'Cardiga' (yellow), cultivated in two locations, were evaluated. The dry matter (DM) yield of straws and pod shells were the highest for L. albus 'Estoril' (4.10 t ha^-1) and the lowest for L. angustifolius 'Tango' (1.78 t ha^-1), suggesting a poor adaptation of narrow-leafed lupin to the particularly dry and warm agronomic year. Despite species-specific differences, lupin biomass residues presented higher crude protein (53.0-68.9 g kg^-1 DM) and lignin (103-111 g kg^-1 DM) content than cereal straws usually used in ruminant feeding, thus resulting in higher metabolizable energy (6.43-6.58 MJ kg^-1 DM) content. In vitro digestibility was similar among lupin species (47.7-50.6%) and higher in pod shells (53.7%) than in straws (44.6%). Lupinus albus 'Estoril' and L. luteus 'Cardiga' presented considerable amounts of alkaloids in straws (23.9 and 119 mg kg^-1 DM) and pod shells (20.5 and 298 mg kg^-1 DM), while no alkaloids were detected in L. angustifolius 'Tango' biomass residues. Considering the combined production of straw and pod shells per lupin species, it is anticipated that lupin biomass residues produced per ha can fulfill 85% of the energy and nearly 50% of protein requirements of a flock of 4 to 9 dry and mid-pregnancy sheep with 50 kg body weight for one year. No negative effects on small (ovine) and large (bovine) ruminant species due to alkaloids are expected, even if biomass residues are consumed at up to 85% DM intake. The large production yield along with its nutritive value unveils the potential of lupin biomass residues valorization as alternative fodder for ruminants, promoting sustainability under a circular economy approach.

A New Fluorescence Detection Method for Tryptophan- and Tyrosine-Derived Allelopathic Compounds in Barley and Lupin

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is one of the most widely cultivated crops for feedstock and beer production, whereas lupins (Lupinus spp.) are grown as fodder and their seeds are a source of protein. Both species produce the allelopathic alkaloids gramine and hordenine. These plant-specialized metabolites may be of economic interest for crop protection, depending on their tissue distribution. However, in high concentrations they pose a health risk to humans and animals that feed on them. This study was carried out to develop and validate a new method for monitoring these alkaloids and their related metabolites using fluorescence detection. Separation was performed on an HSS T3 column using slightly acidified water-acetonitrile eluents. Calibration plots expressed linearity over the range 0.09-100 pmol/µL for gramine. The accuracy and precision ranged from 97.8 to 123.4%, <7% RSD. The method was successfully applied in a study of the natural range of abundance of gramine, hordenine and their related metabolites, AMI, tryptophan and tyramine, in 22 barley accessions and 10 lupin species. This method provides accurate and highly sensitive chromatographic separation and detection of tryptophan- and tyrosine-derived allelochemicals and is an accessible alternative to LC-MS techniques for routine screening.

An updated overview of anticancer effects of alternariol and its derivatives: underlying molecular mechanisms

Alternariol is a toxic metabolite of Alternaria fungi and studies have shown multiple potential pharmacological effects. To outline the anticancer effects and mechanisms of alternariol and its derivatives based on database reports, an updated search of PubMed/MedLine, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus databases was performed with relevant keywords for published articles. The studies found to suggest that this mycotoxin and/or its derivatives have potential anticancer effects in many pharmacological preclinical test systems. Scientific reports indicate that alternariol and/or its derivatives exhibit anticancer through several pathways, including cytotoxic, reactive oxygen species leading to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction-linked cytotoxic effect, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptotic cell death, genotoxic and mutagenic, anti-proliferative, autophagy, and estrogenic and clastogenic mechanisms. In light of these results, alternariol may be one of the hopeful chemotherapeutic agents.

Lupin (Lupinus albus L.) Seeds: Balancing the Good and the Bad and Addressing Future Challenges

Lupinus albus L. (lupine) is a legume whose grain/seed has gained increasing interest. Its recognized nutritional properties, namely a high content of protein, dietary fiber and its low fat content, make lupine a suitable alternative not only for animal protein, but also as a substitute for more processed and less balanced flours from a nutritional point of view, used in the preparation of bread, cakes and cookies, among others. In addition, its nutritional and bioactive compounds have potential benefits for human health in the prevention and treatment of some diseases. However, the existence of some anti-nutritional compounds and contaminants reveal some concern, requiring effective methods for their detection and eventual removal. This review intends to address the potential of lupine (L. albus) in food and human health and to balance the pros and cons. Nutritional and anti-nutritional components of L. albus seeds and possible contaminants of lupine seeds are examined. The potential health benefits of lupine (seeds), including energy metabolism, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, glucose and insulin metabolism, bower function and anticonvulsant action, are discussed based on scientific evidence (both clinical trials and studies performed with animal models).

The Effect of the Addition of Low-Alkaloid Lupine Flour on the Glycemic Index In Vivo and the Physicochemical Properties and Cooking Quality of Durum Wheat Pasta

The aim of this research was to determine the effect of the addition of lupine flour (LF) on the values of the glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL), physicochemical properties, and cooking quality of durum semolina pasta. The pasta was enriched with 0–25% of lupine flour (LF0-LF25). Additionally, 7.5 and 20% of oat β-glucans, 5% of vital gluten, and 20% of millet flour were used in a selected sample. The addition of 7.5% β-glucans and 5% vital gluten to the product resulted in only a slight decrease in the GI of the products. A significant decrease in pasta GI was noted after the addition of 20% of lupine flour. The product enriched with 20% of lupine flour, 20% of β-glucans, and 20% of millet flour had the lowest glycemic index and glycemic load (GI = 33.75%, GL = 7.2%, respectively). At the same time, the lupine-flour-enriched products were characterized by an increased concentration of protein, fat, ash, and dietary fiber. The addition of lupine flour at the level of up to 20% yielded functional products characterized by good cooking quality.

Investigations on the Transfer of Quinolizidine Alkaloids from Lupinus angustifolius into the Milk of Dairy Cows

Lupin varieties with a low content of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) like blue sweet lupin (BSL) have long been used as a protein source for dairy cows. A health concern for humans may arise from the transfer of acute toxic QAs from feed into cow's milk. This study is the first to quantify the transfer of QAs from BSL into cow's milk with experimental and modeling methods. Four lactating dairy cows were subjected to two 7 day feeding periods with 1 and 2 kg/d BSL, respectively, each followed by a depuration period. BSL contained 1774 mg/kg dry matter total QAs. Individual milk samples were taken twice daily and QA contents in feed and milk determined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Transfer of QAs into the milk was already seen with the administration of 1 kg/d BSL, with differences in transfer rates (TRs) between individual QAs. A toxicokinetic model was derived to quantify and predict QA feed-to-food transfer. For the four most prominent QAs, our model shows an α-half-life of around 0.27 d. TRs were obtained for six QAs and were between 0.13 (sparteine) and 3.74% (multiflorine). A toxicological assessment of milk containing QAs as measured in this study indicated a potential health concern.

The modification of volatile and nonvolatile compounds in lupines and faba beans by substrate modulation and lactic acid fermentation to facilitate their use for legume-based beverages-A review

Lupines and faba beans are promising ingredients for the beverage industry. They contain high amounts of protein and can be grown in different climate zones and agricultural areas. Therefore, these legumes appear as ideal raw material for vegan, functional, and sustainable beverages. Nevertheless, the sensory characteristic of legumes is generally not accepted in beverages. Therefore, the market contribution of legume-based beverages is currently only marginal. This review highlights known major flavor aspects of lupines and faba beans and the possibilities to improve these by germination, heat treatment, enzymatic treatment, and subsequent lactic acid fermentation. First, the main aroma and taste compounds are described. Thereby, the "beany" aroma is identified as the most relevant off-flavor. Second, the nutrients and antinutrients of these legumes regarding to their use as food and as substrate for lactic acid fermentation are reviewed, and possibilities to modulate the substrate are summarized. Finally, the modification of the sensory profile by lactic acid fermentation is outlined. To conclude, it seems likely that the nutritional and flavor attributes in legume-based beverages can be improved by a combined process of substrate modulation and fermentation. In a first step, antinutrients should be decomposed and proteins solubilized while transforming the solid grains into a liquid substrate. Due to such substrate modulation, a broader variety of strains could be employed and the fermentation could be based exclusively on their impact on the flavor. By applying the concept of combining a substrate modulation with a subsequent fermentation, the use of legumes in beverages could be facilitated and new products like vegan, protein-rich, refreshing beverages could be marketed.

Composition and Antifungal Activity of the Alkaloidal Fraction of Lupinus mirabilis Leaves: A Biochemometrics-Based Exploration

Lupinus plants are well-recognized due to their significant alkaloid content, which has made them the subject of several studies. However, the lack of chemical and biological information on the Colombian Lupinus species remains a fact. Therefore, the alkaloidal fractions from the leaves of L. mirabilis obtained by conventional solvent and ultrasound-assisted extraction (CSE and UAE, respectively) at different time frames were analyzed. Sparteine (2) was the main component in all cases; however, its relative abundance showed large variability, ranging from 64.7% to 80.6%. Minor constituents were also affected by the extraction conditions. In general, prolonged times gave a higher proportion of alkaloids under CSE, while only a slight decrease was observed under UAE. Both the method and extraction time appeared to equally affect the ratios of particular alkaloids, leading to variations in their effect on the mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum. Holistic analysis through multiple-covariate statistical methods as an approach to integrating chemical and bioactivity datasets allowed inferring the compounds most likely responsible for the changes in mycelial growth inhibition. 13α-Hydroxylupanine (12) might represent a promising compound to be included in further studies against this phytopathogen.

Greener Strategy for Lupanine Purification from Lupin Bean Wastewaters Using a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer

Lupanine is an alkaloid used in the pharma industry as a building block or precursor in the synthesis of sparteine and also explored for drug synthesis in the pharma industry as a chiral selector. This alkaloid is found in lupin bean processing wastewaters originated from the debittering process to make these beans edible. In this work, a computational chemistry approach was taken to design molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) selecting itaconic acid, a biobased building block, as a functional monomer that can provide higher affinities for lupanine. MIP-1 was prepared using lupanine as the template, itaconic acid as a functional monomer, and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as a cross-linker by bulk polymerization. Lupanine was concentrated from lupin bean wastewater by nanofiltration, extracted with ethyl acetate, and purified using the synthesized MIP. MIP-1 was able to selectively recognize lupanine and improve the purity of lupanine from 78 to 88%, with 82% recovery of the alkaloid. These results show the potential application of this strategy to render the industrial process more sustainable.

Quinolizidine-Based Variations and Antifungal Activity of Eight Lupinus Species Grown under Greenhouse Conditions

Fusarium oxysporum is an aggressive phytopathogen that affects various plant species, resulting in extensive local and global economic losses. Therefore, the search for competent alternatives is a constant pursuit. Quinolizidine alkaloids (QA) are naturally occurring compounds with diverse biological activities. The structural diversity of quinolizidines is mainly contributed by species of the family Fabaceae, particularly the genus Lupinus. This quinolizidine-based chemo diversity can be explored to find antifungals and even mixtures to address concomitant effects on F. oxysporum. Thus, the antifungal activity of quinolizidine-rich extracts (QREs) from the leaves of eight greenhouse-propagated Lupinus species was evaluated to outline promising QA mixtures against F. oxysporum. Thirteen main compounds were identified and quantified using an external standard. Quantitative analysis revealed different contents per quinolizidine depending on the Lupinus plant, ranging from 0.003 to 32.8 mg/g fresh leaves. Bioautography showed that all extracts were active at the maximum concentration (5 µg/µL). They also exhibited >50% mycelium growth inhibition. All QREs were fungistatic except for the fungicidal QRE of L. polyphyllus Lindl. Angustifoline, matrine, 13α-hydroxylupanine, and 17-oxolupanine were ranked to act jointly against the phytopathogen. Our findings constitute reference information to better understand the antifungal activity of naturally afforded QA mixtures from these globally important plants.

Assessment of the Optimum Linker Tethering Site of Alternariol Haptens for Antibody Generation and Immunoassay Development

Immunochemical methods for mycotoxin analysis require antigens with well-defined structures and antibodies with outstanding binding properties. Immunoreagents for the mycotoxins alternariol and/or alternariol monomethyl ether have typically been obtained with chemically uncharacterized haptens, and antigen conjugates have most likely been prepared with mixtures of functionalized molecules. For the first time, total synthesis was performed, in the present study, to obtain two haptens with opposite linker attachment locations. The functionalized synthetic haptens were purified and deeply characterized by different spectrometric methods, allowing the preparation of bioconjugates with unequivocal structures. Direct and indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, using homologous and heterologous conjugates, were employed to extensively evaluate the generated immunoreagents. Antibodies with high affinity were raised from conjugates of both haptens, and a structure-activity relationship between the synthetic haptens and the specificity of the generated antibodies could be established. These results pave the way for the development of novel highly sensitive immunoassays selective of one or two of these Alternaria mycotoxins.

Natural Dibenzo-α-Pyrones: Friends or Foes?

Natural dibenzo-α-pyrones (DAPs) can be viewed from two opposite angles. From one angle, the gastrointestinal metabolites urolithins are regarded as beneficial, while from the other, the emerging mycotoxin alternariol and related fungal metabolites are evaluated critically with regards to potential hazardous effects. Thus, the important question is: can the structural characteristics of DAP subgroups be held responsible for distinct bioactivity patterns? If not, certain toxicological and/or pharmacological aspects of natural DAPs might yet await elucidation. Thus, this review focuses on comparing published data on the two groups of natural DAPs regarding both adverse and beneficial effects on human health. Literature on genotoxic, estrogenic, endocrine-disruptive effects, as well as on the induction of the cellular anti-oxidative defense system, anti-inflammatory properties, the inhibition of kinases, the activation of mitophagy and the induction of autophagy, is gathered and critically reviewed. Indeed, comparing published data suggests similar bioactivity profiles of alternariol and urolithin A. Thus, the current stratification into hazardous Alternaria toxins and healthy urolithins seems debatable. An extrapolation of bioactivities to the other DAP sub-class could serve as a promising base for further research. Conclusively, urolithins should be further evaluated toward high-dose toxicity, while alternariol derivatives could be promising chemicals for the development of therapeutics.

Exposure to multiple mycotoxins in domestic and imported rice commercially traded in Tehran and possible risk to public health

Mycotoxins are secondary fungi metabolites that induce acute and chronic toxic effects in humans and animals. In the present study, nine mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), Ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) were determined in one hundred rice samples collected from Tehran using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence or photodiode array detector. In addition, possible risk to public health was investigated by assessing dietary exposure through rice consumption, the margin of exposure (MOE), respective risk of cancer and hazard index (HI) of the monitored mycotoxins in children and adults. The higher mean levels were determined for DON (102.22 μg.Kg-1), followed by FB1 (85.00 μg.Kg-1). For the rests of mycotoxins the levels did not exceed 20 μg.Kg-1. The estimated AFB1 intake for the adults and children through rice consumption exceeds the safe levels established for both carriers and non-carriers of hepatitis B virus. The mean and median determined exposure levels of OTA, DON ZEN and FB1, were found lower than the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) value for both adults and children of Tehran that consuming domestic and imported rice. The mean HI for adults and median HI for adults and children were below one, and mean HI for children was close to one. All the mean, median and maximum MoE values were <10,000 in adults and children, indicating a risk due to AFB1 exposure through rice consumption in Tehran. In addition, the calculated mean cancer risk in adult and child populations of Tehran were 0.27 and 0.64 cases per year per 105 individuals, respectively, that shows population in Tehran could be at risk of cancer due to AFB1 exposure through rice consumption as calculated. So further studies are necessary for the monitoring mycotoxins in rice and different food products as well as estimating average dietary exposure and cumulative exposure assessment of mycotoxins for main foods in IR Iran.

Assessment of Human Exposure to Five Alternaria Mycotoxins in China by Biomonitoring Approach

This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate the concentration levels of five Alternaria mycotoxins in urine samples from 269 healthy volunteers living in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in 38.3%, 48.7%, 63.9% and 23.4% of urine samples with the concentrations ranging from 0.057 to 45.8 ng/mL, 0.020 to 0.802 ng/mL, 0.050 to 80.6 ng/mL and 0.021 to 0.939 ng/mL, respectively. Altenuene (ALT) was not detected in any urine sample. Based on the urinary concentrations, the probable daily intake (PDI) values of Alternaria mycotoxins were calculated, and 100%, 99.2-100%, 0.372% and 1.12% of participants exceeded the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) values for AOH, AME, TeA and TEN, respectively. This study revealed high potential health risks related to the contaminations of major Alternaria mycotoxins in China and highlighted the necessity for more toxicological studies to provide better basis for further comprehensive risk assessments.

Influence of processing steps on the fate of ochratoxin A, patulin, and alternariol during production of cloudy and clear apple juices

Mycotoxins are frequently found in fruits and fruit juices. However, data about occurrence and fate of mycotoxins along the fruit juice processing chain are currently insufficient. Herein, a liquid chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric (LC–MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin method was developed and applied to investigate the effect of technological unit operations on the fate of three of the most relevant mycotoxins along the processing chain for cloudy and clear apple juice, namely patulin (PAT), ochratoxin A (OTA), and alternariol (AOH). Raw juice obtained directly after dejuicing was spiked with the aforementioned mycotoxins at pilot-plant scale prior to subjecting it to different technological unit operations. Regarding clear apple juice production treatment with a pectinolytic enzyme preparation, and pasteurization were insignificant for mycotoxin reduction, but fining with subsequent filtration was effective, although the mycotoxins showed different affinity towards the tested agents. The most effective fining agent was activated charcoal/bentonite in combination with ultrafiltration, which removed OTA (54 µg/L) and AOH (79 µg/L) to not quantifiable amounts (limit of quantification (LOQ) 1.4 and 4.6 µg/L, respectively), while PAT was reduced only by 20% (from 396 to 318 µg/L). Regarding cloudy apple juice production, all studied processing steps such as centrifugation and pasteurization were ineffective in reducing mycotoxin levels. In brief, none of the common steps of clear and cloudy apple juice production represented a fully effective safety step for minimizing or even eliminating common mycotoxins. Thus, ensuring the sole use of sound apples should be of utmost importance for processors, particularly for those manufacturing cloudy juices.

Biomarkers of Deoxynivalenol, Citrinin, Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone in Pigs after Exposure to Naturally Contaminated Feed Close to Guidance Values

This study applied multi-mycotoxin liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection (LC-MS/MS) methods to determine the biomarkers of exposure in urine and serum samples from a dose-response study with pigs. The 24 studied pigs were divided into three groups: a control and two experimental ones (with different levels of feed contamination). They were exposed to feed prepared from cereals contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) for 14 days. After that, both experimental groups received the same feed as the control group for the next 14 days to determine the kinetics of the disappearance of mycotoxin biomarkers. Urine samples were collected daily in the morning and blood samples-eight-times during the experiment. The study reported herein was the first prolonged exposure experiment for multiple mycotoxins like OTA and CIT in pigs. The urinary and serum levels of all biomarkers correlated well with the respective toxin intake; thereby demonstrating that they are suitable biomarkers of exposure in pigs. Urine is a good candidate to monitor DON, ZEN, OTA, CIT exposure while serum may be used to monitor DON, OTA and CIT. Additionally, OTA has even been quantified in both matrices in the experimental groups two weeks after changing the contaminated feed back to the control, this result differed from those produced by the other mycotoxins which were only quantified during the first two weeks. Therefore both matrices are suitable candidates to monitor prolonged OTA exposure in pigs.

Prioritization of Mycotoxins Based on Their Genotoxic Potential with an In Silico-In Vitro Strategy

Humans are widely exposed to a great variety of mycotoxins and their mixtures. Therefore, it is important to design strategies that allow prioritizing mycotoxins based on their toxic potential in a time and cost-effective manner. A strategy combining in silico tools (Phase 1), including an expert knowledge-based (DEREK Nexus®, Lhasa Limited, Leeds, UK) and a statistical-based platform (VEGA QSAR©, Mario Negri Institute, Milan, Italy), followed by the in vitro SOS/umu test (Phase 2), was applied to a set of 12 mycotoxins clustered according to their structure into three groups. Phase 1 allowed us to clearly classify group 1 (aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin) as mutagenic and group 3 (ochratoxin A, zearalenone and fumonisin B1) as non-mutagenic. For group 2 (trichothecenes), contradictory conclusions were obtained between the two in silico tools, being out of the applicability domain of many models. Phase 2 confirmed the results obtained in the previous phase for groups 1 and 3. It also provided extra information regarding the role of metabolic activation in aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin mutagenicity. Regarding group 2, equivocal results were obtained in few experiments; however, the group was finally classified as non-mutagenic. The strategy used correlated with the published Ames tests, which detect point mutations. Few alerts for chromosome aberrations could be detected. The SOS/umu test appeared as a good screening test for mutagenicity that can be used in the absence and presence of metabolic activation and independently of Phase 1, although the in silico-in vitro combination gave more information for decision making.

Dietary Heavy Metal Exposure among Finnish Adults in 2007 and in 2012

For the non-smoking and non-occupationally exposed population in Europe, food is the main source of heavy metal exposure. The aim of the study was to estimate the dietary exposure of the Finnish adult population to cadmium, lead, inorganic arsenic, inorganic mercury and methyl mercury as well as nickel using governmental as well as industry data on heavy metal occurrence in foodstuffs and the data from two national food consumption surveys conducted in 2007 and 2012. The sources of heavy metal exposure were estimated for the working-age population (25 to 64 years) and for the elderly (65 to 74 years). Exposure differences between years and between population groups were compared statistically. The mean exposure of women aged 25 to 45 years to cadmium and lead was statistically significantly (p < 0.001) higher, and the methyl mercury exposure lower (p = 0.001) than that of women aged 46 to 64 years. For nickel and inorganic arsenic the differences were lower but still statistically significant (p < 0.05). Between genders, significant difference (p < 0.05) was only seen for lead and nickel. Mean cadmium exposure was significantly higher in 2012 than in 2007. For at least 95% of the adult population, the risk of health damage from mercury or nickel exposure is negligible, but the margin of exposure for lead and inorganic arsenic is small and shows a possible risk of cancer or neurotoxic effects.

Overall Exposure of European Adult Population to Mycotoxins by Statistically Modelled Biomonitoring Data

This study presents the exposure scenario to mycotoxins of adult population throughout Europe. The urinary biomarkers values were obtained by modelling data from two European projects. Exposure to AFB1, OTA, CIT, FBs, DON, NIV and T2/HT2 are presented. The main output obtained refers to a concern for public health about AFM1, FBs, T2/HT2 and NIV, and low concern for OTA, DON and CIT. The margin of exposure for AFM1 did not respect the reference value of 10,000 considered of low priority for risk; for Fusarium toxins, FBs and T2/HT2, probable daily intake (PDI) values resulted about ten times higher than their tolerable daily intake and NIV presented the most critical situation with a calculated PDI 30 times higher than the reference TDI value. North and South Europe scenarios were also depicted by clustering biomonitoring data. OTA and DON showed to be prevalent in Northern countries and the opposite was noticed for ZEN, higher in Southern countries. The critical issues of the availability of records feeding the dataset and of the accuracy of excretion rate for some mycotoxins are source of uncertainty for the reliability of the outputs, nevertheless the time is ripe for asking for more concrete HBM values and/or HBM-HBGV which would help in interpreting the burden of mycotoxins in Europe.

Fungal Contamination and Aflatoxin B1 Detected in Hay for Dairy Cows in South Italy

The growth of filamentous fungi on fodder is recognized as responsible for fungal deterioration and mycotoxin contamination of the plant mass leads to economic losses in the dairy cow production system. Mycotoxin contamination has significant implications for human and animal health and is one of the major concerns in the food and feed chain. This research provides an insight into the variety of viable molds (i.e., filamentous microfungi) that can be isolated from hay produced in South Italy and destined to dairy cows. On different lots of hay (n = 55) collected from 20 dairy farms, a total of 33 different fungal species were identified. The most representative was Cladosporium cladosporioides (n = 46, 84%) followed by Alternaria alternata (n = 25, 45%), and Rhizopus stolonifer (n = 24, 44%). The species most closely related to aflatoxin (AF) contamination, Aspergillus flavus, was often isolated (n = 11, 20%). Regarding AF detection, all the hay samples were found to be scarcely contaminated by AFB1 and showed values from 0.0020 to 0.0077 mg/kg, below the limits established by European Union (EU legislation) (0.02 mg/kg). None of the samples were positive for Aspergillia and tested for AFB1 showed results exceeding established limits. Additionally, hay with moisture between 15.0 and 19.2% or crude ash on dry matter content ranging from 14.0 to 15.5% reported an increased presence of AFB1 (p < 0.05) compared to the other samples. All the analyzed hay samples, besides the presence of molds, can be considered safe for the presence of AFB1. Prevention of mold spoilage is mandatory to reduce the exposure of humans and animals to mycotoxins.

Production of Alternaria Toxins in Yellow Peach (Amygdalus persica) upon Artificial Inoculation with Alternaria alternate

The yellow peach (Amygdalus persica), an important fruit in China, is highly susceptible to infection by Alternaria sp., leading to potential health risks and economic losses. In the current study, firstly, yellow peaches were artificially inoculated with Alternariaalternate. Then, the fruits were stored at 4 °C and 28 °C to simulate the current storage conditions that consumers use, and the Alternaria toxins (ATs) contents from different parts of the fruits were analyzed via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The results showed that the growth of A. alternate and the ATs production were dramatically affected by the storage temperature. At 28 °C, the fungi grew rapidly and the lesion diameter reached about 4.0 cm within 15 days of inoculation, while, at 4 °C, the fungal growth was noticeably inhibited, with no significant change in the lesion diameter. To our surprise, high contents of ATs were produced under both storage conditions even though the fungal growth was suppressed. With an increase in the incubation time, the amounts of ATs showed a steady tendency to increase in most cases. Remarkably, alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were detected in the rotten tissue and also in the surrounding tissue, while a large amount of TeA could also be found in the healthy tissue. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the production of ATs by the infection of Alternaria sp. in yellow peach fruits via artificial inoculation under regulated conditions, and, based on the evidence herein, it is recommended that ATs be included in monitoring and control programs of yellow peach management and food safety administration.

The Influence of Zearalenone on Selected Hemostatic Parameters in Sexually Immature Gilts

Vascular toxicity induced by xenobiotics is associated with dysfunctions or damage to endothelial cells, changes in vascular permeability or dysregulation of the vascular redox state. The aim of this study was to determine whether per os administration of zearalenone (ZEN) influences selected hemostatic parameters in prepubertal gilts. This study was performed on female gilts divided into a control group which received placebo and an experimental group which received ZEN at a dose of 5.0 µg·kg-1 b.w. × day-1. On days 14, 28 and 42, blood samples were collected from the animals for analyses of hematological, coagulation and fibrinolysis parameters, nitric oxide, von Willebrand factor antigen content and catalase activity. The results demonstrated that the treatment of gilts with ZEN at a dose below no observable adverse effect level did not affect the primary hemostasis and the blood coagulation cascade. However, ZEN could have temporarily affected the selected indicators of endothelial cell function (increase of von Willebrand factor, decrease of nitric oxide levels) and the oxidative status plasma (decrease of catalase activity) of the exposed gilts. In summary, these results suggest that the adaptive response to ZEN-exposure can induce a transient imbalance in the vascular system by acting on vascular endothelial cells.

Effects of Microenvironmental Changes on the Fluorescence Signal of Alternariol: Magnesium Induces Strong Enhancement in the Fluorescence of the Mycotoxin

Alternariol (AOH) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by Alternaria molds. It occurs as a contaminant e.g., in oilseeds, cereals, grapes, and tomatoes. Chronic exposure to AOH may cause genotoxic and endocrine disruptor effects. Our recent studies demonstrated that the fluorescence signal of AOH can be strongly affected by the environmental pH as well as by the presence of serum albumin or cyclodextrins. In the current study, we aimed to characterize the most optimal circumstances regarding the highly sensitive fluorescent detection of AOH. Therefore, the further detailed investigation of the microenvironment on the fluorescence signal of the mycotoxin has been performed, including the effects of different buffers, organic solvents, detergents, and cations. Organic solvents (acetonitrile and methanol) caused only slight increase in the emission signal of AOH, while detergents (sodium dodecyl sulfate and Triton-X100) and Ca2+ induced considerably higher enhancement in the fluorescence of the mycotoxin. In addition, Mg2+ proved to be a superior fluorescence enhancer of the AOH. Spectroscopic and modeling studies suggest the formation of low-affinity AOH-Mg2+ complexes. The effect of Mg2+ was also tested in two HPLC assays: Our results show that Mg2+ can considerably increase the fluorescence signal of AOH even in a chromatographic system.

Chlorpyrifos and Δ9 Tetrahydrocannabinol exposure and effects on parameters associated with the endocannabinoid system and risk factors for obesity

Marilyn Silva. Retired from a career in toxicology and risk assessment. Increased childhood and adult obesity are associated with chlorpyrifos (CPF), an organophosphate pesticide. Cannabis (Δ9Tetrahydrocannabinol: Δ9THC) use has increased globally with legalization. CPF applications on cannabis crops lacks federally regulated tolerances and may pose health risks through exposure during development and in adulthood. Both CPF and Δ9THC affect the endocannabinoid system (eCBS), a regulator of appetite, energy balance, and gut microbiota, which, if disrupted, increases risk for obesity and related diseases. CPF inhibits eCB metabolism and Δ9THC is a partial agonist/antagonist at the cannabinoid receptor (CB1R). Effects of each on obesogenic parameters were examined via literature search. Male rodents with CPF exposure showed increased body weights, dysbiosis, inflammation and oxidative stress, potentially associated with increased eCBs acting through the gut-microbiota-adipose-brain regulatory loop. Δ9THC generally decreased body weights via partial agonism at the CB1R, lowering levels of eCBs. Dysbiosis and/or oxidative stress associated inflammation occurred with CPF, but these parameters were not tested with Δ9THC. Database deficiencies included limited endpoints to compare between chemicals/age-groups, inter-study variables (dose ranges, dosing vehicle, rodent strain, treatment duration, etc.). CPF and Δ9THC were not tested together, but human co-chemical effects would depend on exposure ratio, subject age, exposure duration, and health status, among others. An overriding concern is that both chemicals are well-documented developmental neurotoxins in addition to their low dose effects on energy balance. A co-exposure risk assessment is warranted with increased use and lack of federal CPF regulation on cannabis.

Fungal Diversity and Aflatoxins in Maize and Rice Grains and Cassava-Based Flour (Pupuru) from Ondo State, Nigeria

Grains and cassava-based foods serve as major dietary sources for many households in Nigeria. However, these foods are highly prone to contamination by moulds and aflatoxins owing to poor storage and vending practices. Therefore, we studied the fungal diversity in maize, cassava-based flour (pupuru), and rice vended in markets from Ondo state, Nigeria, and assessed their aflatoxin levels using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Molecular analysis of 65 representative fungal isolates recovered from the ground grains and pupuru samples revealed 26 species belonging to five genera: Aspergillus (80.9%), Penicillium (15.4%), and Talaromyces (1.9%) in the Ascomycota; Syncephalastrum (1.2%) and Lichtheimia (0.6%) in Mucoromycota. Aspergillus flavus was the predominant species in the ground grains and pupuru samples. Aflatoxins were found in 73.8% of the 42 representative food samples and 41.9% exceeded the 10 μg/kg threshold adopted in Nigeria for total aflatoxins.

Alternariol exerts embryotoxic and immunotoxic effects on mouse blastocysts through ROS-mediated apoptotic processes

Alternariol (AOH), a mycotoxin belonging to the genus Alternaria, has been shown to induce cytotoxicity, including apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, in several mammalian cell types. However, its effects on early-stage embryonic development require further investigation. Here, we have shown that AOH exerts embryotoxic effects on mouse blastocyst-stage embryos and long-term adverse effects on immunity in one-day-old newborn mice of the next generation. Significant apoptosis and decrease in total cell number, predominantly through loss of inner cell mass (ICM), and to a minor extent, trophectoderm (TE) cells, were observed in AOH-treated blastocysts. Moreover, AOH exerted detrimental effects on pre- and post-implantation embryo development potential and induced a decrease in fetal weight in in vitro development and embryo transfer assays. Injection of pregnant mice with AOH (1, 3 and 5 mg/kg body weight/day) for 4 days resulted in apoptosis of blastocyst-stage embryos and injurious effects on embryonic development from the zygote to blastocyst stage or embryo degradation and a further decrease in fetal weight. Furthermore, AOH exerted a long-term impact on the next generation, triggering a significant increase in total oxidative stress content and expression of genes encoding antioxidant proteins. Lower expression of CXCL1, IL-1β and IL-8 related to innate immunity was detected in liver tissue extracts obtained from one-day-old newborns of AOH-injected pregnant mice (5 mg/kg body weight/day) relative to their non-treated counterparts. In addition, ROS served as an upstream regulator of AOH-triggered apoptotic processes and impairment of embryonic development. Our collective results highlight the potential of AOH as an embryotoxic and immunotoxic risk factor during embryo and infant development stages in mice.

Evaluation of Mycotoxins in Infant Breast Milk and Infant Food, Reviewing the Literature Data

In this review, an analysis focusing on mycotoxin determination in infant breast milk and infant food has been summarised for the last fifteen years of research focused on the intended population group of 1-9 months. The objective was to know the level of exposure of the child population to an estimated daily intake (EDI) of mycotoxins from the consumption of habitual foods. The EDI was compared with the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by EFSA to estimate risk. In breast milk, the high prevalence and levels were for samples from Africa (Egypt and Tanzania) with aflatoxin M1 (1.9 μg/L and 10%), and Asia (Iran) with ochratoxin-A (7.3 μg/L and 100%). In infant formulas, high incidences and values were for samples with aflatoxin M1 from Burkina Faso (167 samples, 84%, 87 μg/kg). In cereal products, the highest incidence was for DON from the United States (96 samples), and the highest value was an Italian sample (0.83 μg/kg of enniatin B). In fruit products, patulin was the most detected in Italian (78) and Spanish (24) samples. The highest risk was observed in breast milk during the first month of age, the highest EDI for aflatoxin M1 was reported for Egypt (344-595 ng/kg bw/day) and ochratoxin-A for Iran (97-167ng/kg bw/day), representing a public health problem.

Dietary Supplements Based on Red Yeast Rice-A Source of Citrinin?

Citrinin (CIT) is secondary metabolite of filamentous molds. This mycotoxin has nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, embryocidal, and fetotoxic properties. It is also produced by several species of the three genera Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Monascus spp., which are used to make red yeast rice (RYR). The material for this study consisted of 15 dietary supplements containing an extract of fermented red rice, available on the Polish market. Samples were extracted using a MeOH-H2O mixture, cleaned-up with an immunoaffinity CitriTest HPLC column, and quantified by HPLC-FLD. None of the analyzed samples contained CIT above the established limit of detection (LOD). Studies on the presence of toxic metabolites in red yeast rice show the importance of regulating this product and of clear information on the label regarding the standardized amounts of monacolin.

Mesostructured Silica-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles to Extract Six Opium Alkaloids in Poppy Seeds Prior to Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis

In recent years, health authorities have become increasingly concerned about preventing consumer exposure to opium alkaloids present in Papaver somniferum L. poppy seeds. In this study, a simple, rapid and efficient method has been optimised to determine all main opioids in poppy seeds (morphine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine, noscapine and oripavine) by UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS. For this purpose, solid-liquid extraction (SLE) of samples was optimised and six magnetic adsorbent materials with a core of Fe3O4 coated with amorphous and mesostructured silica, both functionalised with octadecyl-silane or octyl-silane were characterised and evaluated for magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE). The material with the best results was non-functionalised mesostructured silica and, with it, the MSPE procedure was optimised. This method was validated and used to quantify six opioids in 14 edible seed samples (eleven poppy seeds and three seed mixes). Considerable amounts were found (1.5-249.0 mg/kg morphine, <0.2 µg/kg-45.8 mg/kg codeine, <2.4 µg/kg-136.2 mg/kg thebaine, <0.2 µg/kg-27.1 mg/kg papaverine, <0.2 µg/kg-108.7 mg/kg noscapine and <240 µg/kg-33.4 mg/kg oripavine), exceeding maximum limits established in some EU countries and the reference level of morphine in the EU. Furthermore, in some commercial samples for human consumption, inadequate labelling was found because significant amounts of alkaloids were detected even though Papaver rhoeas L. seeds were declared on the product label.

Acute cardiotoxicity following 'poppy seed tea' consumption

Insect damage to, and sub-optimal harvesting practices of the Papaver somniferum poppy are associated with contamination of its seeds with opium alkaloids. Consumption of poppy seeds has been linked to opium-like overdose symptoms, such as reduced consciousness and respiratory depression. However, acute cardiotoxicity secondary to ingestion of contaminated poppy seeds has not been reported previously. We report a case of a 21-year-old man who presented with severe biventricular dysfunction and cardiogenic shock following consumption of homemade poppy seed tea. We highlight the importance of prompt recognition of the myocardial effects of opiates along with the more common respiratory and neurological effects. In this case, the acute cardiotoxicity was fully reversed with high-dose naloxone, milrinone and noradrenaline. In addition, we recommend offering high-level care due to the possibility that specialist cardiac services may be required. Ergo, early transfer to an appropriate centre is recommended.

Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens and Other Secondary Metabolites in Austrian Pastures: Occurrences, Contamination Levels and Implications of Geo-Climatic Factors

Pastures are key feed sources for dairy production and can be contaminated with several secondary metabolites from fungi and plants with toxic or endocrine-disrupting activities, which possess a risk for the health, reproduction and performance of cattle. This exploratory study aimed to determine the co-occurrences and concentrations of a wide range of mycotoxins, phytoestrogens and other secondary metabolites in grazing pastures. Representative samples of pastures were collected from 18 Austrian dairy farms (one sample per farm) between April to October 2019. After sample preparation (drying and milling) the pastures were subjected to multi-metabolite analysis using LC-MS/MS. In total, 68 metabolites were detected, including regulated zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (range: 2.16-138 and 107-505 μg/kg on a dry matter (DM) basis, respectively), modified (3-deoxynivalenol-glucoside, HT-2-glucoside) and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins (e.g., enniatins), ergot alkaloids and Alternaria metabolites along with phytoestrogens and other metabolites. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and ochratoxins were not detected. Of the geo-climatic factors and botanical diversity investigated, the environment temperature (average of 2 pre-sampling months and the sampling month) was the most influential factor. The number of fungal metabolites linearly increased with increasing temperatures and temperatures exceeding 15 °C triggered an exponential increment in the concentrations of Fusarium and Alternaria metabolites and ergot alkaloids. In conclusion, even though the levels of regulated mycotoxins detected were below the EU guidance levels, the long-term exposure along with co-occurrence with modified and emerging mycotoxins might be an underestimated risk for grazing and forage-fed livestock. The one-year preliminary data points out a dominant effect of environmental temperature in the diversity and contamination level of fungal metabolites in pastures.

Potential Health Risk Associated with Mycotoxins in Oat Grains Consumed in Spain

Spain is a relevant producer of oats (Avena sativa), but to date there has been no study on the occurrence/co-occurrence of mycotoxins in oats marketed in Spain. The present study is addressed to overcome this lack of knowledge. One hundred oat kernel samples were acquired across different Spanish geographic regions during the years 2015-2019 and analyzed for mycotoxin content using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method and matrix-matched calibration. The focus was on the regulated mycotoxins although other relevant mycotoxins were considered. The percentage of incidence (levels ≥ limit of detection), mean and range (ng/g) of mycotoxins were as follows: zearalenone (66%, mean 39.1, range 28.1-153), HT-2 toxin (47%, mean 37.1, range 4.98-439), deoxynivalenol, (34%, mean 81.4, range 19.1-736), fumonisin B1 (29%, mean 157.5, range 63.2-217.4), and T-2 toxin, (24%, mean 49.9, range 12.3-321). Fumonisin B2, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, aflatoxins B1, B2, and G2, and ochratoxin A were also detected at low levels, but aflatoxin G1 was not. The maximum limits established by the European Commission for unprocessed oats were not exceeded, except for zearalenone (in one sample), and the sum of aflatoxins (in two samples). Mycotoxin co-occurrence at quantifiable levels in the same sample (two to five combinations) was found in 31% of samples. The most common mixtures were those of HT-2 + T-2 toxins alone or together with deoxynivalenol and/or zearalenone.

In Vitro Evaluation of the Individual and Combined Cytotoxic and Estrogenic Effects of Zearalenone, Its Reduced Metabolites, Alternariol, and Genistein

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of filamentous fungi. Previous studies demonstrated the co-occurrence of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins, including zearalenone (ZEN), ZEN metabolites, and alternariol (AOH). These xenoestrogenic mycotoxins appear in soy-based meals and dietary supplements, resulting in the co-exposure to ZEN and AOH with the phytoestrogen genistein (GEN). In this study, the cytotoxic and estrogenic effects of ZEN, reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN are examined to evaluate their individual and combined impacts. Our results demonstrate that reduced ZEN metabolites, AOH, and GEN can aggravate ZEN-induced toxicity; in addition, the compounds tested exerted mostly synergism or additive combined effects regarding cytotoxicity and/or estrogenicity. Therefore, these observations underline the importance and the considerable risk of mycotoxin co-exposure and the combined effects of mycoestrogens with phytoestrogens.

A Quantitative 1H NMR Method for Screening Cannabinoids in CBD Oils

Toxicologically relevant levels of the psychoactive ∆9-tetrahydocannabinol (∆9-THC) as well as high levels of non-psychoactive cannabinoids potentially occur in CBD (cannabidiol) oils. For consumer protection in the fast-growing CBD oil market, facile and rapid quantitative methods to determine the cannabinoid content are crucial. However, the current standard method, i.e., liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), requires a time-consuming multistep sample preparation. In this study, a quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (qNMR) method for screening cannabinoids in CBD oils was developed. Contrary to the HPLC-MS/MS method, this qNMR features a simple sample preparation, i.e., only diluting the CBD oil in deuterochloroform. Pulse length-based concentration determination (PULCON) enables a direct quantification using an external standard. The signal intensities of the cannabinoids were enhanced during the NMR spectra acquisition by means of multiple suppression of the triglycerides which are a major component of the CBD oil matrix. The validation confirmed linearity for CBD, cannabinol (CBN), ∆9-THC and ∆8-THC in hemp seed oil with sufficient recoveries and precision for screening. Comparing the qNMR results to HPLC-MS/MS data for 46 commercial CBD oils verified the qNMR accuracy for ∆9-THC and CBD, but with higher limits of detection. The developed qNMR method paves the way for increasing the sample throughput as a complementary screening before HPLC-MS/MS.

The Presence of Mycotoxins in Human Amniotic Fluid

Mycotoxin exposure assessments through biomonitoring studies, based on the analysis of amniotic fluid, provides useful information about potential exposure of mothers and fetuses to ubiquitous toxic metabolites that are routinely found in food and the environment. In this study, amniotic fluid samples (n = 86) were collected via abdominal amniocentesis at 15-22 weeks of gestation from pregnant women with a high risk of chromosomal anomalies or genetic fetal defects detected during 1st trimester prenatal screening. These samples were analyzed for the presence of the most typical Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium mycotoxins, with a focus on aflatoxins, ochratoxins and trichothecenes, using the LC-FLD/DAD method. The results showed that the toxin was present in over 75% of all the tested samples and in 73% of amniotic fluid samples from fetuses with genetic defects. The most frequently identified toxins were nivalenol (33.7%) ranging from Collapse

Key Words

• Aspergillus
• Fusarium
• amniotic fluids
• fetal defects
• genetic abnormalities
• mycotoxins

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MESH Headings

• Amniotic Fluid/chemistry
• Biological Monitoring
• Congenital Abnormalities
• Female
• Fetus
• Humans
• Mycotoxins/analysis
• Pregnancy
• Pregnancy Trimester, Second

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Affiliation(s)

Karolina Gromadzka Department of Chemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznań, Poland
Jakub Pankiewicz Premedicare, NEW MED Medical Center, ul. Drużbickiego 13, 60-693 Poznań, Poland; (J.P.); (R.K.)
Monika Beszterda Department of Food Biochemistry and Analysis, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Mazowiecka 48, 60-623 Poznań, Poland;
Magdalena Paczkowska The Institute of Mother and Child, ul. Kasprzaka 17a, 01-211 Warszawa, Poland; (M.P.); (B.N.)
Beata Nowakowska The Institute of Mother and Child, ul. Kasprzaka 17a, 01-211 Warszawa, Poland; (M.P.); (B.N.)
Rafał Kocyłowski Premedicare, NEW MED Medical Center, ul. Drużbickiego 13, 60-693 Poznań, Poland; (J.P.); (R.K.)

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Mycotoxins Affecting Animals, Foods, Humans, and Plants: Types, Occurrence, Toxicities, Action Mechanisms, Prevention, and Detoxification Strategies-A Revisit

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and removal, were revisited in this work. Our synthesis revealed that mycotoxin decontamination, control, and detoxification strategies cut across pre-and post-harvest preventive measures. In particular, pre-harvest measures can include good agricultural practices, fertilization/irrigation, crop rotation, using resistant varieties of crops, avoiding insect damage, early harvesting, maintaining adequate humidity, and removing debris from the preceding harvests. On the other hand, post-harvest measures can include processing, chemical, biological, and physical measures. Additionally, chemical-based methods and other emerging strategies for mycotoxin detoxification can involve the usage of chitosan, ozone, nanoparticles, and plant extracts.

Impact of Fusarium-Derived Mycoestrogens on Female Reproduction: A Systematic Review

Contamination of the world's food supply and animal feed with mycotoxins is a growing concern as global temperatures rise and promote the growth of fungus. Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, is a common contaminant of cereal grains and has also been detected at lower levels in meat, milk, and spices. ZEN's synthetic derivative, zeranol, is used as a growth promoter in United States (US) and Canadian beef production. Experimental research suggests that ZEN and zeranol disrupt the endocrine and reproductive systems, leading to infertility, polycystic ovarian syndrome-like phenotypes, pregnancy loss, and low birth weight. With widespread human dietary exposure and growing experimental evidence of endocrine-disrupting properties, a comprehensive review of the impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites on the female reproductive system is warranted. The objective of this systematic review was to summarize the in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological literature and evaluate the potential impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites (commonly referred to as mycoestrogens) on female reproductive outcomes. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO registration CRD42020166469) of the literature (2000-2020) following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The data sources were primary literature published in English obtained from searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. The ToxR tool was applied to assess risk of bias. In vitro and in vivo studies (n = 104) were identified and, overall, evidence consistently supported adverse effects of mycoestrogens on physiological processes, organs, and tissues associated with female reproduction. In non-pregnant animals, mycoestrogens alter follicular profiles in the ovary, disrupt estrus cycling, and increase myometrium thickness. Furthermore, during pregnancy, mycoestrogen exposure contributes to placental hemorrhage, stillbirth, and impaired fetal growth. No epidemiological studies fitting the inclusion criteria were identified.

Trace and major elements in food supplements of different origin: Implications for daily intake levels and health risks

As the use of food supplements increases, voices are being raised questioning the safety of these products. As a contribution to understanding the trace and major elemental composition of food supplements and their potential health risks, this study presents concentrations of 71 elements in 138 supplements, categorised into synthetic products and three groups of products with natural ingredients. Concentrations were converted into average daily doses (ADDs) and compared to tolerable daily intakes (TDIs). For elements where we found significant ADDs relative to the TDI a comparison was also made to the normal dietary intake. Our main findings are that: 1) Most elements display highly variable concentrations in food supplements; more so than in normal foodstuff; 2) For ten of the analysed elements some products rendered ADDs > 50 % of the TDI. Half of the elements were essential (Fe, Mn, Se, Mo, Zn), and as such motivated in food supplements. The other half (As, Pb, Cd, Al, Ni) represent non-essential and highly toxic elements, where the occurrence in food supplements ought to be viewed as contamination. Although none of these toxic metals were declared on any product's table of content, several products gave high ADDs - in several cases even exceeding the TDIs; 3) The risk of reaching high ADDs for the toxic elements is strongly associated with products that contain marine ingredients (e.g. algae, mussels etc), and to some degree products of terrestrial plant-based origin. The health of consumers would benefit if food regulatory frameworks were updated to better address the risks of food supplements occasionally being contaminated with different toxic metals, for example by setting maximum permissible concentrations for a longer list of elements.

Analysis of 13 Alternaria mycotoxins including modified forms in beer

A multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method was developed to quantify 13 free and modified Alternaria toxins in different beer types by applying a combination of stable-isotope dilution assays (SIDAs) and matrix-matched calibration. With limits of detection (LODs) between 0.03 µg/L (alternariol monomethyl ether, AME) and 5.48 µg/L (altenuene, ALT), limits of quantitation (LOQs) between 0.09 µg/L (AME) and 16.24 µg/L (ALT), and recoveries between 72 and 113%, we obtained a sensitive and reliable method, which also covers the emerging toxins alternariol-3-glucoside (AOH-3-G), alternariol-9-glucoside (AOH-9-G), alternariol monomethyl ether-3-glucoside (AME-3-G) and alternariol-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and alternariol monomethylether-3-sulfate (AME-3-S). Furthermore, 50 different beer samples were analyzed, showing no contamination with Alternaria toxins apart from tenuazonic acid (TeA) in concentrations between 0.69 µg/L and 16.5 µg/L. According to this study, the exposure towards TeA through beer consumption can be considered as relatively low, as the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) value of 1500 ng/kg body weight per day might not be reached when consuming reasonable amounts of beer.

Mycotoxins Biocontrol Methods for Healthier Crops and Stored Products

Contamination of crops with phytopathogenic genera such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Penicillium usually results in mycotoxins in the stored crops or the final products (bread, beer, etc.). To reduce the damage and suppress the fungal growth, it is common to add antifungal substances during growth in the field or storage. Many of these antifungal substances are also harmful to human health and the reduction of their concentration would be of immense importance to food safety. Many eminent researchers are seeking a way to reduce the use of synthetic antifungal compounds and to implement more eco-friendly and healthier bioweapons against fungal proliferation and mycotoxin synthesis. This paper aims to address the recent advances in the effectiveness of biological antifungal compounds application against the aforementioned fungal genera and their species to enhance the protection of ecological and environmental systems involved in crop growing (water, soil, air) and to reduce fungicide contamination of food derived from these commodities.

Occurrence of Alternaria and Other Toxins in Cereal Grains Intended for Animal Feeding Collected in Slovenia: A Three-Year Study

In recent years, the less-studied Alternaria mycotoxins have attracted increasing interest due to the lack of survey data and their ability to cause toxic effects in animals and humans. To fill the gap, the aim of this three-year survey was to investigate the presence and co-occurrence of Alternaria and other mycotoxins in a total of 433 cereal grain samples from Slovenian farms and agricultural cooperatives from 2014 to 2016. Using the multi-mycotoxin method, 14 mycotoxins were determined. In 53% of 433 analysed samples, contamination with at least one mycotoxin was found. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were present in 32% and 26% of cereal grain samples, respectively, whereas alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TEN), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), 3- and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3- and 15-AcDON), and zearalenone (ZEN) were present in fewer than 15% of the samples. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in one rye sample, while diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), HT-2 and T-2 toxin, and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FB1 and FB2) were not detected. The highest maximum and median concentrations of Alternaria toxins were determined in spelt in 2016 (TeA, 2277 µg/kg and 203 µg/kg, respectively), and those of Fusarium toxins in wheat in 2015 (DON, 4082 µg/kg and 387 µg/kg, respectively). The co-occurrence of two or more mycotoxins was found in 43% of the positive samples. The correlations between Alternaria toxins were very weak but statistically significant (r: 0.15-0.17, p: 0.0042-0.0165). A well-known correlation between Fusarium toxins DON and ZEN was weak and highly significant (r = 0.28, p < 0.0001).